Global Positioning System

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
A SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted by
Ashwin C
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,

KOCHI-682022
NOVEMBER 2008
DIVISION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE &ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY,KOCHI-682022
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this seminar report on
“GLOBAL POSTIONING SYSTEM”
is the bonafide work of “ASHWIN C” who carried out
the seminar under my supervision.
Ms. Remya Mol Mr. David Peter

SEMINAR GUIDE HEAD OF THE DIVISION
Division of Computer Engineering Division of Computer Engineering
SOE,CUSAT. SOE,CUSAT.
Date:19/09/08
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank my seminar guide Ms Remya Mol , Lecturer, CUSAT, for her
proper guidance, and valuable suggestions. I am indebted to Mr. David
Peter, the HOD, Computer Science division & other faculty members for
giving me an opportunity to learn and do this project. If not for the above
mentioned people my seminar would never have been completed
successfully. I once again extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
ASHWIN C.
ABSTRACT
The Global Positioning System is a navigation system developed by United states

Department of Defense. Earlier time it was developed for military uses only. Nowadays
it is open for common people also. Navigation in Global Positioning System is done with
the help of satellites. A total of 32 satellites are now on service.
Besides the military uses GPS service can be used for lost and stolen things
recovery, root mapping etc. Other nations are also trying to build up their on satellite
navigation systems IRNSS of India is a proposed project on satellite navigation system.
i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT……………………… …………………………………….…..i
LIST OF FIGURES..…………………………………………………..…..iv
LIST OF TABLES..…………………………………………………………v
LIST OF SYMBOLS………………………………………………………vi
1.INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………...1
2.TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION…………………………………………..3
2.1 System segmentation……………………………………………………...……3
2.1.1 Space segment…………………………………………………….….3
2.1.2 Control segment……………………………………………...………4
2.1.3 User segment………………………………………………...……….5
2.2 Navigation signals……………………………………………………...………5
2.3 GPS Frequencies………………………………………………………….……7
2.4 Calculating positions………………………………………………………...…8
2.4.1 Using the C/A code……………………………………………….….8
2.4.2 Using the P(Y) code……………………………………………...…14
2.5 Accuracy and error sources…………………………………………………...15
2.5.1 Atmospheric effects…………………………………………….…..16
2.5.2 Multipath effects……………………………………………………17
ii

2.5.3 Ephemeris and clock errors………………………...……………….18
2.5.4 Selective availability…………………………………..……………18
2.5.5 Relativity………………………………………….………………..20
2.5.6 Sagnac distortion…………………………….……………………..21
2.6 GPS interference and jamming………………………………………………21
2.6.1 Natural sources……………………………………………………..21
2.6.2 Artificial sources……………………………………..……………..21
3. TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE ACCURACY…………………….………………..23
3.1 Augmentation…………………………………………………………………23
3.2 Precise monitoring……………………………………………………………23
3.3 GPS time and date…………………………………………...………………..24
3.4 GPS modernization………………………………………..…………………..25
4. APPLICATIONS…………………………………………..……………27
4.1 Military………………………………………..………………………………27
4.2 Civilian………………………………………..………………………………28
5. CONCLUSION…………………………….……………………………30
REFERENCES………………………………….…………………………31
iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1: Visual example of GPS constellation in motion with earth rotating.………..…....3
Fig 2.2: GPS receivers (User segments)……………………………………………………5
Fig 2.3: GPS broadcast signal……………………………………………………………...6
Fig 2.4: A 2-D example of the problem - determining a 2D position from three
pseudoranges…………………………………………………………………...…11
Fig 2.5: Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a
Circle……………………….……………………………………………………..12
Fig 2.6: Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle at Two points ………………………...13
Fig 2.7: Satellite clocks are slowed by its orbital speed but sped up by its distance out of
theearth's gravitational well………………………………………………………20
iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Error sources………………………………………………………………….15
v

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE
GPS
Global Positioning System
GNSS
Global Navigation Satellite System
SS
Space segment
CS
Control segment
US
User segment
SV
Space vehicles
C/A
Coarse / Acquisition code
(P) code
Precise Code
PRN
pseudo-random noise sequence
vi

RAIM
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
vii
1. INTRODUCTION
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The GPS uses a constellation of at least 24 (32 by
March 2008) Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, that
enable GPS receivers to determine their location, speed, direction, and time. GPS was
developed by the United States Department of Defense. Its official name is NAVSTAR-
GPS. Although NAVSTAR-GPS is not an acronym, a few backronyms have been created
for it. The GPS satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th
Space Wing.
Similar satellite navigation systems include the Russian GLONASS (incomplete
as of 2008), the upcoming European Galileo positioning system, the proposed
COMPASS navigation system of China, and IRNSS of India.
Following the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in 1983, President
Ronald Reagan issued a directive making the system available free for civilian use as a
common good. Since then, GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide,
and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, and hobbies
such as geocaching. GPS also provides a precise time reference used in many
applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of
telecommunications network
A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the
constellation of GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits
messages containing the time the message was sent, a precise orbit for the satellite
sending the message (the ephemeris), and the general system health and rough orbits of
all GPS satellites (the almanac). These signals travel at the speed of light through outer
space, and slightly slower through the atmosphere. The receiver uses the arrival time of
each message to measure the distance to each satellite, from which it determines the
position of the receiver using geometry and trigonometry.The resulting coordinates are
converted to more user-friendly forms such as latitude and longitude, or location on a
map, then displayed to the user.
Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 1

It might seem that three satellites would be enough to solve for a position, since
space has three dimensions. However, a three satellite solution requires the time be
known to a nanosecond or so, far better than any non-laboratory clock can provide. Using
four or more satellites allows the receiver to solve for time as well as geographical
position, eliminating the need for a super accurate clock. In other words, the receiver uses
four measurements to solve for four variables: x, y, z, and t. While many GPS
applications have no particular use for the computed time, it is used in some GPS
applications such as time transfer.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer may be needed
in some special cases. If one variable is already known (for example, a sea-going ship
knows its altitude is 0), a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites.
Also, in practice, receivers use additional clues (doppler shift of satellite signals, last
known position, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, and so on) to give degraded answers
when fewer than four satellites are visible

2.Technical description
2.1 System segmentation
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment
(SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).
2.1.1 Space segment
The space segment (SS) comprises the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles
(SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three
circular orbital planes but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each. The
orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars. The
six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are
separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a
reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbits are arranged so that at least six
satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.
Fig 2.1: Visual example of GPS constellation in motion with

earth rotating.

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles or

10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of 26,600 km (16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)), each SV
makes two complete orbits each sidereal day.The ground track of each satellite therefore
repeats each (sidereal) day. This was very helpful during development, since even with
just four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few
hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure
good coverage in combat zones.
As of September 2007, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS

constellation. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations
by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the
constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was
shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system,
when multiple satellites fail.
2.1.2 Control segment
The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring stations
in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado Springs, Colorado,
along with monitor stations operated by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
(NGA). The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Commands master
control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, which is operated by the
2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2
SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update (using the ground
antennas at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs). These
updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few
nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital
model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from the ground
monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a
satellite, the satellite must be marked 'unhealthy', so receivers will not use it in their

calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from
the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.
2.1.3 User segment
The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS. In general, GPS
receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They
may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A
receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it
can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively
increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have between 12 and 20
channels.
Fig 2.2: GPS receivers (User segments).
2.2 Navigation signals
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a Navigation Message at 50 bit/s

giving the time-of-week, GPS week number and satellite health information (all

transmitted in the first part of the message), an ephemeris (transmitted in the second part
of the message) and an almanac (later part of the message). The messages are sent in
frames, each taking 30 seconds to transmit 1500 bits.
The first 6 seconds of every frame contains data describing the satellite clock and its
relationship to GPS time. The next 12 seconds contain the ephemeris data, giving the
satellite's own precise orbit. The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally
valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal
conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element
of the delay to first position fix, because, as the hardware becomes more capable, the time
to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds
(worst case) before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate.
Fig 2.3: GPS broadcast

signal
The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the
constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). A new part of the almanac is received for the last 12
seconds in each 30 second frame. Each frame contains 1/25th of the almanac, so 12.5
minutes are required to receive the entire almanac from a single satellite. The almanac
serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by
allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and
time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using
that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long
delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow

process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not
having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived
from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the
almanac allows a single frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric error by using a
global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems
like WAAS or dual frequency receivers. However it is often better than no correction
since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single frequency GPS receiver. An
important thing to note about navigation data is that each satellite transmits only its own
ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for all satellites.
Each satellite transmits its navigation message with at least two distinct spread spectrum
codes: the Coarse / Acquisition (C/A) code, which is freely available to the public, and
the Precise (P) code, which is usually encrypted and reserved for military applications.
The C/A code is a 1,023 chip pseudo-random (PRN) code at 1.023 million chips per
second so that it repeats every millisecond. Each satellite has its own C/A code so that it
can be uniquely identified and received separately from the other satellites transmitting
on the same frequency. The P-code is a 10.23 megachip per second PRN code that
repeats only every week. When the "anti-spoofing" mode is on, as it is in normal
operation, the P code is encrypted by the Y-code to produce the P(Y) code, which can
only be decrypted by units with a valid decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes
impart the precise time-of-day to the user.
2.3 GPS Frequencies
• L1 (1575.42 MHz): Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code

and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new L1C on future Block III
satellites.
• L2 (1227.60 MHz): P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and
newer satellites.
• L3 (1381.05 MHz): Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System
Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear detonations and other high-energy
infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties.

• L4 (1379.913 MHz): Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.

• L5 (1176.45 MHz): Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal (see
GPS modernization). This frequency falls into an internationally protected range
for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all
circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to
be launched in 2009.
2.4 Calculating positions

2.4.1 Using the C/A code
To start off, the receiver picks which C/A codes to listen for by PRN number, based on
the almanac information it has previously acquired. As it detects each satellite's signal, it
identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern, then measures the received time for each
satellite. To do this, the receiver produces an identical C/A sequence using the same seed
number, referenced to its local clock, starting at the same time the satellite sent it. It then
computes the offset to the local clock that generates the maximum correlation. This offset
is the time delay from the satellite to the receiver, as told by the receiver's clock. Since
the PRN repeats every millisecond, this offset is precise but ambiguous, and the
ambiguity is resolved by looking at the data bits, which are sent at 50 Hz (20 ms/bit) and
aligned with the PRN code.
Next, the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the Navigation Message is then
downloaded to calculate precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message.
A more-sensitive receiver will potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a
less-sensitive receiver, especially in a noisy environment.
Now the receiver has four measurements (the received time of the four messages) and
four unknowns - the x, y and z coordinates of position and time t. Since the receiver
already has a clock, what is solved for is not the actual time the messages arrived, but the
clock bias b, which is the amount by which the receiver's clock is off. Let the coordinates
of each satellite, and the time the message was sent, be for i = 1, . . ., 4, let

the GPS clock's indicated received time be for i = 1, . . ., 4, and c be the speed of
light. Then the distance to each satellite should correspond to the signal travel time:
Another useful form of these equations is in terms of the pseudoranges, which are simply
the ranges apptoximated based on GPS receiver clock's indicated (i.e. uncorrected) time
so that . Then the equations becomes:
While simultaneous non-linear equations can be hard to solve in genera, in the context of
GPS these particular equations have some properties that make them easy to solve.
• The equations are a variant of trilateration, a well known procedure. The solution
can be visualized as the intersection of spheres that simultaneously expand or
contract with the parameter b.
• The intersection of three spheres can be solved analytically using trilateration.
The conditions under which there are 0,1, or 2 legal solutions are well understood.
(There are at most two solutions, as can be seen by interpreting the equations as
intersection of spheres.)
• Even when there are two solutions, they are widely separated, with only one
solution near the Earth's surface. Not only is this solution most likely what the
user wants, but it is actually illegal (in the USA) for a civilian GPS receiver to
report the other solution. (ITAR requires that civilian GPS receivers cannot report
solutions greater than 60,000 feet in altitude.) This is one of the few cases where
picking a particular solutions from a set of equations is determined by law and not
mathematics or physics.
• The equations are smooth, continuous, and locally very "flat" due to the large
radii of the spheres.

The last two conditions, in particular, mean that the most common iterative methods are
guaranteed to converge, and converge to the correct answer, when started from a previous
correct position or the center of the Earth.
Many mathematical techniques have been proposed in the literature for solving for x, y, z,
and b. though some are purely academic and not used in practice. Some of the methods
mentioned in the literature are:
• Simply solve the equations numerically, using any number of standard techniques
for solving non-linear equations, such as those in . This is described in the
literature as unwieldy, and simpler approaches are used in practice.
• Solve the equations analytically.
• Use algebraic manipulation to eliminate the variable time from the equations
above, leaving hree equations in three unknowns. These define hyperboloids,
surfaces of constant time differences among the received signals. The position is
(one of) the intersections of the three hyperboloids.. This procedure, called
multilateration, is mathematically identical to solving the equations above.
• The expanding signals form light cones in 4-space. Solve for the intersection of
these cones. This is also mathematically identical to the equations above.
• Linearize around an approximate solution, then iteratively solve four linear
equations derived from the quadratic equations above. This will converge very
quickly since the radii are large and so the sphere surfaces are close to flat.
• Use more than four satellites, if available. This results in an over-determined
system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved by least-
squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the results are
always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also the errors in
results can be estimated through the residuals.
Several references state that the linearized iterative method is the "typical" method used
by GPS receivers.

The following description shows a straightforward iterative way. Many

approaches start an approximate distance to each satellite, called the pseudorange. This is
equal to the estimated transit time (time the signal received - time it was sent), times the
speed of light. It is called a pseudorange rather than a range since at this point it's just an
educated guess - the receiver's clock might be wrong and the angles through the
atmosphere are not yet known.
Fig 2.4: A 2-D example of the problem - determining a 2D position from three
pseudoranges
The dark curves are the pseudoranges, which should overlap at a single point if
the receiver clock is correct. Since they do not meet at a point, the clock must be off. The
algorithm modifies all radii equally until they are as close as possible to meeting in a
single point (light curves). This is the estimated position. The change in the radii needed,
divided by the speed of light, is the clock correction required.
Knowing the position and the distance of a satellite indicates that the receiver is located
somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere centered on that satellite and whose
radius is the distance to it. Receivers can substitute altitude for one satellite, which the
GPS receiver translates to a pseudorange measured from the center of the Earth.
When pseudoranges are determined for four or more satellites, an estimate of the GPS
receiver position can be made. An overview of this process is described in this paragraph.

If the receiver's time is correct, all spheres defined by the pseudo-ranges will meet (or
nearly so) at a single point. If they do not, the receiver expands or contracts the spheres
(all by the same amount) until they are as close as possible to meeting at a point. The
change in radius needed, divided by the speed of light, is the clock correction required.
The receiver then adjusts its local clock and tries again, iterating until the correction is
sufficiently small. (Some tutorials contain worked examples of the math] if the details are
of interest). Note that this process requires that all satellite signals used in the
computation be measured simultaneously, or nearly so - otherwise the clock correction
for each one would be different, due to local clock drift.Then each sphere would require a
different correction, and there would be no unique solution.
The above paragraph has provided an overview of the process for computing position and
clock correction. For the interested reader this paragraph provides a little more detail on
how the spheres intersect, where trilateration is used, the computation of receiver
position, clock correction and the iteration process. Utilizing the pseudoranges
determined for four satellites, an estimate of the GPS receiver position is made. For the
ideal case when the pseudoranges are correct the GPS Receiver must be on the surface of
each of the corresponding spheres and therefore must be at one of the intersections of
these sphere surfaces.
Fig 2.5: Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a

Circle.

Fig 2.6: Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle at Two points.
Trilateration is used to determine the two points of intersection of three sphere surfaces
corresponding to three satellites. The surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite or the surface of the earth is used to determine which of the two intersections
provides a valid estimate of GPS receiver position. The valid estimate is the point closest
to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite or the surface of the
earth. It is likely the surfaces of the three spheres intersect since the circle of intersection
of the first two spheres is normally quite large and thus the third sphere surface is likely
to intersect this large circle. It is very unlikely that the surface of the sphere
corresponding to the fourth satellite will intersect either of the two points of intersection
of the first three since any clock error could cause it to miss intersecting a point. However
the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere
corresponding to the fourth satellite can be used to compute a clock correction. Let r4
denote the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the fourth satellite
and let p4 denote the pseudorange of the fourth satellite. Let da = r4 - p4. Then the
quotient, Δt = da / c, provides an estimate of UTC - (time indicated by the receiver's on-
board clock) and the GPS receiver clock can be moved forward if Δt is positive or
backwards if Δt is negative. The above procedure has not taken into account the change
in pseudoranges resulting from the correction to the GPS receiver clock. When the
magnitude of Δt is small this may be adequate. However when Δt is large an iterative
procedure should be used. The pseudoranges should be recomputed using the updated
GPS receiver clock and a new valid estimate of GPS receiver position should be
computed as described above. A new value of Δt should then be computed. These
iterations should be continued until the magnitude of Δt is sufficiently small.

Setting Δt = da / c is a straightforward method which can be used to compute an estimate

of position and time. There are more sophisticated methods which can be used. However,
in order to keep this article readable for a general audience, these methods will not be
discussed here. The reader interested in more sophisticated algorithms, should consult
books on numerical analysis. keeping in mind that the problem is to determine the value
of tr which causes Δt to equal zero, where tr is GPS receiver clock time. The chapter
titled, "Root Finding and Nonlinear Sets of Equations" in this reference covers this type
of problem. With each combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of
precision (GDOP) vector can be calculated, based on the relative sky positions of the
satellites used. As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations
of four satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset.
The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the
estimated position by determining the weighted average of these positions and clock
offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is expressed in a
specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using the WGS 84 geodetic
datum or a local system specific to a country.
Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the upcoming
Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By design, these
systems use the same bands, so much of the receiver circuitry can be shared, though the
decoding is different.)
2.4.2 Using the P(Y) code
Calculating a position with the P(Y) signal is generally similar in concept, assuming one
can decrypt it. The encryption is essentially a safety mechanism: if a signal can be
successfully decrypted, it is reasonable to assume it is a real signal being sent by a GPS
satellite. In comparison, civil receivers are highly vulnerable to spoofing since correctly
formatted C/A signals can be generated using readily available signal generators. RAIM
features do not protect against spoofing, since RAIM only checks the signals from a
navigational perspective.

2.5 Accuracy and error sources
Sources of User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE)
Source Effect
Ionospheric effects ±5m
Ephemeris errors ± 2.5 m
Satellite clock errors ±2m
Multipath distortion ±1m
Tropospheric effects ± 0.5 m
Numerical errors ±1m
Table 2.1: Error sources
The position calculated by a GPS receiver requires the current time, the position
of the satellite and the measured delay of the received signal. The position accuracy is
primarily dependent on the satellite position and signal delay.
To measure the delay, the receiver compares the bit sequence received from the satellite
with an internally generated version. By comparing the rising and trailing edges of the bit
transitions, modern electronics can measure signal offset to within about 1% of a bit time,
or approximately 10 nanoseconds for the C/A code. Since GPS signals propagate at the
speed of light this represents an error of about 3 meters.
Position accuracy can be improved by using the higher-chiprate P(Y) signal. Assuming
the same 1% bit time accuracy, the high frequency P(Y) signal results in an accuracy of
about 30 centimeters.

Electronics errors are one of several accuracy-degrading effects outlined in the table
below. When taken together, autonomous civilian GPS horizontal position fixes are
typically accurate to about 15 meters (50 ft). These effects also reduce the more precise
P(Y) code's accuracy.
2.5.1 Atmospheric effects
Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as

they pass through the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these
errors is a significant challenge to improving GPS position accuracy. These effects are
smallest when the satellite is directly overhead and become greater for satellites nearer
the horizon since the path through the atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the
receiver's approximate location is known, a mathematical model can be used to estimate
and compensate for these errors.
Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of microwave signals differently

depending on their frequency — a characteristic known as dispersion - delays measured
on two more frequency bands can be used to measure dispersion, and this measurement
can then be used to estimate the delay at each frequency. Some military and expensive
survey-grade civilian receivers measure the different delays in the L1 and L2 frequencies
to measure atmospheric dispersion, and apply a more precise correction. This can be done
in civilian receivers without decrypting the P(Y) signal carried on L2, by tracking the
carrier wave instead of the modulated code. To facilitate this on lower cost receivers, a
new civilian code signal on L2, called L2C, was added to the Block IIR-M satellites,
which was first launched in 2005. It allows a direct comparison of the L1 and L2 signals
using the coded signal instead of the carrier wave.
The effects of the ionosphere generally change slowly, and can be averaged over
time. The effects for any particular geographical area can be easily calculated by
comparing the GPS-measured position to a known surveyed location. This correction is
also valid for other receivers in the same general location. Several systems send this
information over radio or other links to allow L1-only receivers to make ionospheric

corrections. The ionospheric data are transmitted via satellite in Satellite Based
Augmentation Systems such as WAAS, which transmits it on the GPS frequency using a
special pseudo-random noise sequence (PRN), so only one receiver and antenna are
required.
Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric

delay, but occurring in the troposphere. This effect both is more localized and changes
more quickly than ionospheric effects, and is not frequency dependent. These traits make
precise measurement and compensation of humidity errors more difficult than
ionospheric effects.
Changes in receiver altitude also change the amount of delay, due to the signal
passing through less of the atmosphere at higher elevations. Since the GPS receiver
computes its approximate altitude, this error is relatively simple to correct, either by
applying a function regression or correlating margin of atmospheric error to ambient
pressure using a barometric altimeter
2.5.2 Multipath effects
GPS signals can also be affected by multi path issues, where the radio signals
reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed
signals can cause inaccuracy. A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator
spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath errors. For long delay multipath, the
receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To address shorter delay
multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g. a choke
ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short
delay reflections are harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal,
causing effects almost indistinguishable from routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay.
Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS
antenna is moving, the false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and
only the direct signals result in stable solutions.

2.5.3 Ephemeris and clock errors
While the ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself
may be up to two hours old. Data up to four hours old is considered valid for calculating
positions, but may not indicate the satellites actual position. If a fast TTFF is needed, it is
possible to upload valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in addition to setting the time, a
position fix can be obtained in under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such ephemeris data
on the web so it can be loaded into mobile GPS devices. See also Assisted GPS.
The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The
navigation message contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of
the atomic clock. However, they are based on observations and may not indicate the
clock's current state.
These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (10s of
feet) of inaccuracy.
2.5.4 Selective availability
GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA)

that can introduce intentional, slowly changing random errors of up to a hundred meters
(328 ft) into the publicly available navigation signals to confound, for example, the
guidance of long range missiles to precise targets. When enabled, the accuracy is still
available in the signal, but in an encrypted form that is only available to the United States
military, its allies and a few others, mostly government users. Even those who have
managed to acquire military GPS receivers would still need to obtain the daily key,
whose dissemination is tightly controlled.
Prior to being turned off, SA typically added signal errors of up to about 10

meters (32 ft) horizontally and 30 meters (98 ft) vertically. The inaccuracy of the civilian
signal was deliberately encoded so as not to change very quickly. For instance, the entire
eastern U.S. area might read 30 m off, but 30 m off everywhere and in the same direction.

To improve the usefulness of GPS for civilian navigation, Differential GPS was
used by many civilian GPS receivers to greatly improve accuracy.
During the Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units and the ready availability
of civilian ones caused many troops to buy their own civilian GPS units: their wide use
among personnel resulted in a decision to disable Selective Availability. This was ironic,
as SA had been introduced specifically for these situations, allowing friendly troops to
use the signal for accurate navigation, while at the same time denying it to the enemy—
but the assumption underlying this policy was that all U.S. troops and enemy troops
would have military-specification GPS receivers and that civilian receivers would not
exist in war zones. But since many American soldiers were using civilian devices, SA
was also denying the same accuracy to thousands of friendly troops; turning it off (by
removing the added-in error) presented a clear benefit to friendly troops.
In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently.
This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radi
navigation systems. The amount of error added was "set to zero at midnight on May 1,
2000 following an announcement by U.S. President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to
the error-free L1 signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no
error to the public signals (C/A code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to
zero by 2006; it happened in 2000 once the US military developed a new system that
provides the ability to deny GPS (and other navigation services) to hostile forces in a
specific area of crisis without affecting the rest of the world or its own military systems.
Selective Availability is still a system capability of GPS, and error could, in

theory, be reintroduced at any time. In practice, in view of the hazards and costs this
would induce for US and foreign shipping, it is unlikely to be reintroduced, and various
government agencies, including the FAA, have stated that it is not intended to be
reintroduced.
One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability
to correct the frequency of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy of

approximately 2 × 10-13 (one in five trillion). This represented a significant improvement

over the raw accuracy of the clocks.
On 19 September 2007, the United States Department of Defense announced that

future GPS III satellites will not be capable of implementing SA, eventually making the
policy permanent.
2.5.5 Relativity
Fig 2.7: Satellite clocks are slowed by its orbital speed but sped up by its distance
out of theearth's gravitational well.
According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height
relative to the Earth-centered inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are
affected by their speed (special relativity) as well as their gravitational potential (general
relativity). For the GPS satellites, general relativity predicts that the atomic clocks at GPS
orbital altitudes will tick more rapidly, by about 45.9 microseconds (μs) per day, because
they are in a weaker gravitational field than atomic clocks on Earth's surface. Special
relativity predicts that atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly
than stationary ground clocks by about 7.2 μs per day. When combined, the discrepancy
is about 38 microseconds per day; a difference of 4.465 parts in 1010. To account for this,
the frequency standard onboard each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch,
making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at
10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS
satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of
the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment.

2.5.6 Sagnac distortion
GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS
time scale is defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-
centered, Earth-fixed (co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely
defined. A Lorentz transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to
the ECEF system. The resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs
for satellites in the Eastern and Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will
produce an east-west error on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in
position.
2.6 GPS interference and jamming

2.6.1 Natural sources
Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, it is easy for
other sources of electromagnetic radiation to desensitize the receiver, making acquiring
and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible.
Solar flares are one such naturally occurring emission with the potential to
degrade GPS reception, and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth
facing the sun. GPS signals can also be interfered with by naturally occurring
geomagnetic storms, predominantly found near the poles of the Earth's magnetic field.
GPS signals are also subjected to interference from Van Allen Belt radiation when the
satellites pass through the South Atlantic Anomaly.
2.6.2 Artificial sources
In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields such as defrosters,

or car window tinting films can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception just inside the
car.
Man-made EMI (electro-magnetic interference) can also disrupt, or jam, GPS

signals. In one well documented case, an entire harbor was unable to receive GPS signals

due to unintentional jamming caused by a malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifier.

Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS
receivers when they are within radio range, or line of sight. In 2002, a detailed
description of how to build a short range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the
online magazine Phrack
The U.S. government believes that such jammers were used occasionally during
the 2001 war in Afghanistanand the U.S. military claimed to destroy six GPS jammers
during the Iraq War including one that was destroyed ironically with a GPS-guided
bomb. Such a jammer is relatively easy to detect and locate, making it an attractive target
for anti-radiation missiles. The UK Ministry of Defence tested a jamming system in the
UK's West Country on 7 and 8 June 2007.
Some countries allow the use of GPS repeaters to allow for the reception of GPS
signals indoors and in obscured locations, however, under EU and UK laws, the use of
these is prohibited as the signals can cause interference to other GPS receivers that may
receive data from both GPS satellites and the repeater.
Due to the potential for both natural and man-made noise, numerous techniques
continue to be developed to deal with the interference. The first is to not rely on GPS as a
sole source. According to John Ruley, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a
GPS malfunction". Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a feature now
included in some receivers, which is designed to provide a warning to the user if jamming
or another problem is detected. The U.S. military has also deployed their Selective
Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver
(DAGR). In demonstration videos, the DAGR is able to detect jamming and maintain its
lock on the encrypted GPS signals during interference which causes civilian receivers to
lose lock.

3 Techniques to improve accuracy

3.1 Augmentation
Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external information being

integrated into the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are
generally named or described based on how the GPS sensor receives the information.
Some systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift,
ephemeris, or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the
signal was off in the past, while a third group provide additional navigational or vehicle
information to be integrated in the calculation process.
Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System,

Differential GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems and Assisted GPS.
3.2 Precise monitoring
The accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring

and measuring of the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways.
After SA, which has been turned off, the largest error in GPS is usually the
unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model
parameters, but errors remain. This is one reason the GPS spacecraft transmit on at least
two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency
and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time
difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric
delay at each frequency.
Receivers with decryption keys can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1
and L2. However, these keys are reserved for the military and "authorized" agencies and
are not available to the public. Without keys, it is still possible to use a codeless
technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error
information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently limited to specialized
surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to be

transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization, below). Then all users
will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric
delay errors.
A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement

(CPGPS). The error, which this corrects, arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is
not instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching)
operation is imperfect. The CPGPS approach utilizes the L1 carrier wave, which has a
period 1000 times smaller than that of the C/A bit period, to act as an additional clock
signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts
to between 2 and 3 meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of
perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity. By eliminating
this source of error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 and 30
centimeters (8 to 12 inches) of absolute accuracy.
Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-

based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved
to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of
cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be
accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data,
transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via
statistical tests—possibly with processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning,
RTK).
3.3 GPS time and date
While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the
atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not
corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other
corrections which are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means
that GPS time remains at a constant offset (19 seconds) with International Atomic Time

(TAI). Periodic corrections are performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic
effects and keep them synchronized with ground clocks.
The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC,
which as of 2006 is 14 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31st of
2005. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific
timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving
the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds
(eight bits) which, at the current rate of change of the Earth's rotation, is sufficient to last
until the year 2330.
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the
GPS date is expressed as a week number and a day-of-week number. The week number is
transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes
zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC
(00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980 and the week number became zero again for the first
time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To
determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the
approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To
address this concern the modernized GPS navigation messages use a 13-bit field, which
only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), and will not return to zero until near the year
2137.
3.4 GPS modernization
Having reached the program's requirements for Full Operational Capability

(FOC) on July 17, 1995, the GPS completed its original design goals. However,
additional advances in technology and new demands on the existing system led to the
effort to modernize the GPS. Announcements from the U.S. Vice President and the White
House in 1998 initiated these changes, and in 2000 the U.S. Congress authorized the
effort, referring to it GPS III

The project aims to improve the accuracy and availability for all users and
involves new ground stations, new satellites, and four additional navigation signals. New
civilian signals are called L2C L5 and L1C the new military code is called M-CODE
Initial Operational Capability (IOC) of the L2C code is expected in 2008. A goal of 2013
has been established for the entire program, with incentives offered to the contractors if
they can complete it by 2011.

4. Applications
The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-
use technology, meaning it has significant applications for both the military and the
civilian industry.
4.1 Military
The military applications of GPS span many purposes:
• Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives in the dark or in unfamiliar

territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and supplies. The GPS-
receivers commanders and soldiers use are respectively called the Commanders
Digital Assistant and the Soldier Digital Assistant.
• Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential
ground and air targets before they are flagged as hostile. These weapon systems
pass GPS co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided munitions to allow them to
engage the targets accurately.
• Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military
weapons including cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery
projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of
12,000G have been developed for use in 155 mm howitzers.
• Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if they have a GPS
receiver.
• Reconnaissance and Map Creation: The military use GPS extensively to aid
mapping and reconnaissance.
• The GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an
optical sensor (Y-sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an Electro-Magnetic
Pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor).

4.2 Civilian
Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of three
basic components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.
The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers to
perform as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to determine relative
movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation, useful in vessels
or observations of the Earth. Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards
enables time transfer, which is critical in large communication and observation systems.
An example is CDMA digital cellular. Each base station has a GPS timing receiver to
synchronize its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off
and support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for emergency calls and other
applications. Finally, GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth environment including
the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey equipment has revolutionized
tectonics by directly measuring the motion of faults in earthquakes.
To help prevent civilian GPS guidance from being used in an enemy's military or
improvised weaponry, the US Government controls the export of civilian receivers. A
US-based manufacturer cannot generally export a GPS receiver unless the receiver
contains limits restricting it from functioning when it is simultaneously (1) at an altitude
above 18 kilometers (60,000 ft) and (2) traveling at over 515 m/s (1,000 knots). These
parameters are well above the operating characteristics of the typical cruise missile, but
would be characteristic of the reentry vehicle from a ballistic missile.
GPS tours are also an example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine
which content to display. For instance, when approaching a monument it would tell you
about the monument.
GPS functionality has now started to move into mobile phones en masse. The first
handsets with integrated GPS were launched already in the late 1990’s, and were
available for broader consumer availability on networks such as those run by Nextel,
Sprint and Verizon in 2002 in response to US FCC mandates for handset positioning in

emergency calls. Capabilities for access by third party software developers to these
features were slower in coming, with Nextel opening those APIs up upon launch to any
developer, Sprint following in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.

5. CONCLUSION
GPS continues to perform as the world's premier space-based positioning,

navigation, and timing service. Endeavors such as mapping, aerial refueling, rendezvous
operations, geodetic surveying, and search and rescue operations have all benefited
greatly from GPS's accuracy. GPS capabilities are integrated into nearly all facets of US
military operations. GPS receivers are incorporated into nearly every type of system used
by aircraft, spacecraft, ground vehicles and ships. In addition, GPS-guided munitions
have showcased their increased accuracy in recent conflicts with unprecedented
precision, thus improving military capability while decreasing the number of weapons
required to achieve military objectives.

REFERENCES
[1]. Steven R. Strom. "Charting a Course Toward Global Navigation". The Aerospace
Corporation.2002
[2]. Noe, P.S.; Myers, K.A. . "A Position Fixing Algorithm for the Low-Cost GPS
Receiver". IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,2006

Global Positioning System

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GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,

Certified that this seminar report on

“GLOBAL POSTIONING SYSTEM”

is the bonafide work of “ASHWIN C” who carried out

the seminar under my supervision.

Ms. Remya Mol Mr. David Peter

I thank my seminar guide Ms Remya Mol , Lecturer, CUSAT, for her

proper guidance, and valuable suggestions. I am indebted to Mr. David

mentioned people my seminar would never have been completed

successfully. I once again extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

The Global Positioning System is a navigation system developed by United states

2.1 System segmentation……………………………………………………...……3

2.1.1 Space segment…………………………………………………….….3

2.1.2 Control segment……………………………………………...………4

2.1.3 User segment………………………………………………...……….5

2.2 Navigation signals……………………………………………………...………5

2.3 GPS Frequencies………………………………………………………….……7

2.4 Calculating positions………………………………………………………...…8

2.4.1 Using the C/A code……………………………………………….….8

2.4.2 Using the P(Y) code……………………………………………...…14

2.5 Accuracy and error sources…………………………………………………...15

2.5.1 Atmospheric effects…………………………………………….…..16

2.5.2 Multipath effects……………………………………………………17

2.5.3 Ephemeris and clock errors………………………...……………….18

2.5.4 Selective availability…………………………………..……………18

2.5.6 Sagnac distortion…………………………….……………………..21

2.6 GPS interference and jamming………………………………………………21

2.6.1 Natural sources……………………………………………………..21

2.6.2 Artificial sources……………………………………..……………..21

3. TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE ACCURACY…………………….………………..23

3.2 Precise monitoring……………………………………………………………23

3.3 GPS time and date…………………………………………...………………..24

3.4 GPS modernization………………………………………..…………………..25

Fig 2.2: GPS receivers (User segments)……………………………………………………5

Fig 2.3: GPS broadcast signal……………………………………………………………...6

Fig 2.6: Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle at Two points ………………………...13

Table 2.1: Error sources………………………………………………………………….15

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE

Global Positioning System

Global Navigation Satellite System

Coarse / Acquisition code

pseudo-random noise sequence

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 1

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 2

2.1 System segmentation

2.1.1 Space segment

Fig 2.1: Visual example of GPS constellation in motion with

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 3

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles or

As of September 2007, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS

2.1.2 Control segment

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 4

2.1.3 User segment

Fig 2.2: GPS receivers (User segments).

2.2 Navigation signals

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a Navigation Message at 50 bit/s

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 5

Fig 2.3: GPS broadcast

Division of Computer Engineering, SOE, CUSAT 6