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MODULE-2

Turbines and IC Engines


Steam turbines–Classification, Principle of operation of Impulse and reaction
turbines, Delaval’s turbine, Parson’s turbine (No compounding of turbines)
Gas turbines: Classification, Working principles and Operations of Open
cycle and closed cycle gas turbines.
Water turbines- Classification, Principles and operations of Pelton wheel,
Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine
Internal Combustion Engines
Classification, I.C. Engines parts, 2 Stroke and 4 stroke Petrol engines, 4
stroke diesel engines. P-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel cycles. Problems on
indicated power, brake power, indicated thermal efficiency, brake thermal
efficiency, mechanical efficiency, and specific fuel consumption, [numerical
on IC Engines]. 12 hours
MODULE-2: Turbines and IC Engines

Table of Contents
1.Turbines ................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Steam Turbines .................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.1 Impulse turbine (De Laval Turbine) ........................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Parson’s Turbine (Reaction turbine)........................................................................................... 8
1.2 Water turbines ................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2.1 Pelton Turbine (Pelton Wheel or Free Jet Turbine) ................................................................. 12
1.2.2 Francis turbine .......................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Kaplan turbine .......................................................................................................................... 14
1.3 Gas turbine ...................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Open cycle gas turbine ............................................................................................................. 16
1.3.2 Closed cycle gas turbine ........................................................................................................... 16
IC ENGINES ............................................................................................................................................ 19
2. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.1 PARTS OF AN I.C ENGINE ..................................................................................................... 21
2.2 IC Engine Terminology.............................................................................................................. 23
2.3 FOUR-STROKE ENGINES ...................................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 FOUR-Stroke Petrol Engine ..................................................................................................... 25
2.3.2 FOUR-stroke diesel engine ...................................................................................................... 27
2.4. TWO STROKE ENGINES ............................................................................................................ 30
2.4.1 Stroke Petrol Engine: ................................................................................................................ 30
2.4.2-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE .................................................................................................... 32
2.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL ENGINE (SI ENGINE) AND DIESEL ENGINE (CI
ENGINE). .............................................................................................................................................. 34
2.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN 2-STROKE AND 4-STROKE I.C. ENGINES. .............................. 35

Figure 1: (a) expansion in nozzle, (b) propelling force in impulse turbine, (c) pressure-velocity changes
in impulse turbine ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: Pressure-velocity changes in impulse turbine ............................................................................. 7
Figure 3: Pressure-velocity changes in Reaction Turbine .......................................................................... 8
Figure 4: Pelton Wheel ............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 5: Front view of Francis Turbine ................................................................................................... 13
Figure 6: top view of Kaplan Turbine....................................................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Open cycle Gas Turbine ............................................................................................................ 16
Figure 8: Closed Cycle Gas Turbine ......................................................................................................... 17

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Figure 9: parts of an I.C. ENGINE ........................................................................................................... 21


Figure 10: I.C. Engine Terminology ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 11: Working of a 4-Stroke Petrol Engine ...................................................................................... 25
Figure 12: Theoretical Otto Cycle (P-V Diagram) ................................................................................... 26
Figure 13: Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine ........................................................................................ 28
Figure 14: Theoretical Diesel Cycle (P V diagram) ................................................................................. 29
Figure 15: Working of a 2-Stroke Petrol Engine ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 16: Working of a 2-Stroke diesel Engine ...................................................................................... 33

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1. Turbines
1.1 Introduction:

‘Turbo Machine’ is defined as a device that extracts energy from a continuously flowing fluid by the
dynamic action of one or more rotating elements .The prefix ‘turbo’ is a Latin word meaning ‘spin’ or
‘whirl’ implying that turbo machines rotate in some way.

A Turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into
useful work. A turbine is a turbo-machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is
a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart
rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.

Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the
working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer Sir Charles
Parsons (1854–1931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de
Laval (1845–1913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both
reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the
blade root to its periphery.

Types of Turbines

 Steam Turbines
 Gas Turbines (Combustion Turbines)
 Water (Hydraulic) Turbines

1.1 Steam Turbines


 A steam turbine is mainly used as an ideal prime mover in which heat energy is transformed into
mechanical energy in the form of rotary motion.

 A steam turbine is used in

1. Electric power generation in thermal power plants.

2. Steam power plants.

3. To propel the ships, submarines.

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In steam turbines, the heat energy of the steam is first converted into kinetic (velocity) energy
which in turn is transformed into mechanical energy of rotation and then drives the generator for the
power generation.

Working principle

The working principle of steam turbine as follows:


 Steam enters into the turbine through a nozzle. In the nozzle, heat energy from steam is
converted into kinetic energy and the steam is expanding. Steam pressure at the exit of nozzle is smaller
when compared with at the time of enter into nozzle, but otherwise the velocity of steam out from nozzle
is greater than at the time of enter into the nozzle.
 The steam gushing out of the nozzle is directed to the turbine blades with arches shaped and
fitted around the wheel turbines. Steam flowing through gaps between the turbine blades is deflected
towards following the curve of the turbine blades. The changes in steam velocity raise the force that
encourages and then rotate the turbine wheel and shaft.
 If the steam still has velocity when it leaves the turbine blades means that only some of the
kinetic energy of steam is taken by the turbine blades which are running. More than one line of blade
motion is installed to utilize the remaining kinetic energy when steam leaves the turbine blades.
 Before entering the second line of blade motion, so between the first row and second row blades
motion is mounted one line fixed blade (blade guide) that allows you to change the direction of the
steam velocity, so steam can enter the second line of blade motion in the right direction.
 The velocity of steam when it leaves the last blade motion should be made as small as possible,
so that the available kinetic energy can be utilized as much as possible. Thus the steam turbine
efficiency is higher because of energy loss is relatively small.

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Figure 1: (a) expansion in nozzle, (b) propelling force in impulse turbine, (c) pressure-velocity changes in impulse turbine

Classification of steam turbines


Depending on the drop in pressure due to the expansion of the steam that take place either before it is
passed on to the turbine wheel or on the turbine wheel itself and the nature of the resulting propelling
force
The steam turbines are classified into
 De Laval Turbine (Impulse turbine)
 Parson’s Turbine (Reaction turbine)

1.1.1 Impulse turbine (De Laval Turbine)


The impulse turbine consists of a set of stationary blades followed by a set of rotor blades which
rotate to produce the rotary power. The high pressure steam flows through the fixed blades, which are
nothing but nozzles, and undergo a decrease in pressure energy, which is converted to kinetic energy to
give the steam high velocity levels. This high velocity steam strikes the moving blades or rotor and
causes them to rotate. The fixed blades do not completely convert all the pressure energy of the steam to
kinetic energy, hence there is some residual pressure energy associated with the steam on exit. Therefore

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the efficiency of this turbine is very limited as compared to the next turbine we are going to review- the
reaction turbine or impulse reaction turbine.

Working principle

Figure 2: Pressure-velocity changes in impulse turbine

The impulse turbine was one of the basic steam turbines. It involved striking of the blades by a
stream or a jet of high pressure steam, which caused the blades of the turbine to rotate. The direction of
the jet was perpendicular to the axis of the blade. It was realized that the impulse turbine was not very
efficient and required high pressures, which is also quite difficult to maintain. The impulse turbine has
nozzles that are fixed to convert the steam to high pressure steam before letting it strike the blades.

Impulse turbine Mechanism deals with the Impulse force action-reaction. As we all know the
Newton 3rd law of motion," Every action has equal and opposite reaction", the same is work on this. As
the water fall on the blade of the rotor it generate the impact force on the blade surface, The blade tends
to give the same reaction to the fluid, but the rotor is attached to the rotating assembly, it absorb the
force impact and give the reaction in the direction of the fluid flow. Thus the whole turbine rotates.

The rotation speed of the turbine depends on the fluid velocity, more the fluid velocity, greater the
rotation speed, and greater the speed means more power generation.

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1.1.2 Parson’s Turbine (Reaction turbine)


The reaction turbine is a turbine that makes use of both the impulse and the reaction of the steam
to produce the rotary effect on the rotors. The moving blades or the rotors here are also nozzle shaped
(They are aerodynamically designed for this) and hence there is a drop in pressure while moving through
the rotor as well. Therefore in this turbine the pressure drops occur not only in the fixed blades, but a
further pressure drop occurs in the rotor stage as well. This is the reason why this turbine is more
efficient as the exit pressure of the steam is lesser, and the conversion is more. The velocity drop
between the fixed blades and moving blades is almost zero, and the main velocity drop occurs only in
the rotor stage.

Figure 3: Pressure-velocity changes in Reaction Turbine

WORKING OF REACTION TURBINE:

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In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzle
Reaction Turbines.

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This
type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles
formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator
as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its
speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor,
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in
steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work
performed in the driving of the rotor.

This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through
the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It
leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction
and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator
and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net
change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

The steam completely expands from high The high pressure steam continuously expands
pressure to low pressure in the nozzle successively in both the fixed and moving
before it enters the moving blades blades
Because of the large pressure drop in the Due to smaller pressure drop over both fixed
nozzle, the steam speed and as well as the and moving blades, both the steam speed and
rotor speeds are high rotor speed are low
Occupies less space per unit power Occupies more space for the unit power
Suitable for small power generation prime Suitable for medium and high power generation
movers prime movers

Due to high rotor speeds compounding is The speeds are relatively less and hence no
required to reduce the speed compounding is required
Advantages of the Steam Turbine over other prime movers (Reciprocating Engine)

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01) Thermal Efficiency of a Steam Turbine is higher than that of a Reciprocating Engine.

02) The Steam Turbine develops power at a uniform rate and hence does not required Flywheel.

03) No internal lubrication is required for Steam Turbine as there are no rubbing parts inside.

04) No heavy foundation is required for Turbine because of the perfect balancing of the different parts.

05) If the Steam Turbine is properly designed and constructed then it is the most durable Prime Mover.

06) Much higher speed may be developed and a far greater range of speed is possible than in the case of
Reciprocating Engine.

07) There are some frictional losses in Reciprocating Engine as some arrangements are required for
conversion of Reciprocating Motion into circular motion. But in Steam Turbine no friction losses are
there.

08) Steam Turbine are quite suitable for large Thermal Power Plant as they can be built in size from few
Horse Power to over 200000 HP in single unit.

1.2 Water turbines


A water turbine is a rotary engine that takes energy from moving water.

Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to
electrical grids. Now they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water turbines are mostly
found in Embankment dams to generate electric power from water kinetic energy.

Water turbines are the machines that convert the kinetic and potential energies possessed by water into
mechanical rotary motion. Water turbines are the prime movers which when coupled to an electric
generator produces electric power. Hydroelectric power can be developed whenever continuously
flowing high pressure water is available. Water is carried out from water reservoirs to turbine stations
through large pipes called penstocks and in the turbines its hydraulic energy is converted into
mechanical energy

Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating a force on the blades. Since the
runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of
work). In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine

Water turbines are classified based on the following factors

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1) Type of energy available at the inlet of the turbine


a) Impulse water turbine

In an impulse water turbine the whole of the pressure energy of the water is converted into the kinetic
energy in nozzles before it is passed on to the turbine wheel. An impulse turbine requires high head and
low discharge at the inlet of the turbine.

Ex: Pelton wheel

b) Reaction water turbine

The water supplied to the reaction turbine possess both pressure as well as kinetic energies. First the
water passes to the guided blades which guide or deflect the water to enter moving blades. When water
flows over moving blades, part of the pressure energy is converted into the kinetic energy which will be
absorbed by the turbine wheel. The water leaving the moving blades will be at a low pressure. The
difference in pressure between entrance and exit of moving blades is called the reaction pressure. A
reaction turbine requires low head with high rate of flow.

Ex: Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine

2) Head at the inlet of the turbine


a) High head turbine: head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges fro several hundred
meters to a few thousand meters.
Ex: Pelton Wheel
b) Medium head turbine: Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges from 50m to 400m.
Ex: Francis turbine
c) Low head turbine: Head of water at the inlet will be less than 50m.
Ex: Kaplan Turbine
3) Based on the direction of flow of water through the runner
a) Tangential flow turbine: water flows along the tangent to the runner.
Ex: Pelton wheel
b) Axial flow turbine: Water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner.
Ex: Kaplan turbine

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c) Radial flow turbine: water flows ina radial direction through the runner. They are futher
classified into inward radial flow and outward radial flow turbines.
Ex: Thomson turbine, Girad turbine, Francis turbine.
d) Mixed flow turbine: Water flows radially into the runner and leaves axially.
Ex: Francis turbine

1.2.1 Pelton Turbine (Pelton Wheel or Free Jet Turbine)


 High head, tangential flow, horizontal shaft, impulse turbine

The Pelton wheel is a water impulse turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s. The
Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as opposed to its weight like traditional
overshot water wheel.

Figure 4: Pelton Wheel

The water flows along the tangent to the path of the runner. Nozzles direct forceful streams of water
against a series of spoon-shaped buckets mounted around the edge of a wheel. As water flows into the
bucket, the direction of the water velocity changes to follow the contour of the bucket. When the water-
jet contacts the bucket, the water exerts pressure on the bucket and the water is decelerated as it does a
"U-turn" and flows out the other side of the bucket at low velocity. In the process, the water's
momentum is transferred to the turbine. This "impulse" does work on the turbine.

1.2.2 Francis turbine


Is the medium head reaction turbine in which water flows radially in-ward.

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The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis in Lowell,
Massachusetts. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow concepts.

Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They operate in a water head from 10
to 650 meters (33 to 2,133 feet) and are primarily used for electrical power production. The turbine
powered generator power output generally ranges from 10 to 750 megawatts, though mini-hydro
installations may be lower. Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 1 and 10 meters (3 and 33
feet). The speed range of the turbine is from 83 to 1000 rpm. Wicket gates around the outside of the
turbine's rotating runner adjust the water flow rate through the turbine for different water flow rates and
power production rates. Francis turbines are almost always mounted with the shaft vertical to keep water
away from the attached generator and to facilitate installation and maintenance access to it and the
turbine.

Figure 5: Front view of Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine, a category of turbine in which the working fluid comes
to the turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine blades from the
working fluid. A part of the energy is given up by the fluid because of pressure changes occurring in the
blades of the turbine, quantified by the expression of Degree of reaction, while the remaining part of the
energy is extracted by the volute casing of the turbine. At the exit, water acts on the spinning cup-shaped
runner features, leaving at low velocity and low swirl with very little kinetic or potential energy left. The
turbine's exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure.

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1.2.3 Kaplan turbine


The Kaplan turbine is a low head reaction turbine in which water flows axially. The Kaplan turbine is a
propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed in 1913 by the Czech
professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically adjusted propeller blades with automatically
adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow and water level. The Kaplan
turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power production in low-
head applications that was not possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges from 10–70 meters and
the output from 5 to 200 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 11 meters.

The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered from both the
hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design combines features of
radial and axial turbines. The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's wicket gate.
Water is directed tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner,
causing it to spin. The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover
kinetic energy. The turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow as long as the draft tube
remains full of water. A higher turbine location, however, increases the suction that is imparted on the
turbine blades by the draft tube. The resulting pressure drop may lead to cavitation.

Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allows efficient operation for a range of flow
conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be lower in very low head
applications.

Figure 6: top view of Kaplan Turbine

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Impulse water turbine Reaction water turbine


The whole of the pressure energy is converted The water flows with both pressure and kinetic
into kinetic energy before it is passed on to the energies over the moving blades
turbine wheel
The impulse force of the jet sets up the rotation The reaction pressure sets up the rotation of the
of the turbine wheel turbine wheel
The water may be admitted over a portion of the The water must be admitted over the whole of
circumference of the wheel the circumference of the wheel
The water discharges from the turbine wheel to Water discharges from the turbine into a draft
the tail race tube from which it discharges finally into tail
race.

1.3 Gas turbine


Hot gases of combustion --> to turbine

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.

The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that air is used
instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure.
Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-
temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to
the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to
drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft.
The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high
temperature or a high velocity.

Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, or even tanks.

Gas turbines are classified into two types:

 Open cycle gas turbine and


 Closed cycle gas turbine

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1.3.1 Open cycle gas turbine


Open gas turbine cycle is the most basic gas turbine unit. The working fluid does not circulate through
the system; therefore it is not a true cycle. It consists of a compressor, a combustion chamber and a gas
turbine. The compressor and the gas turbine are mounted on the same shaft.

The compressor unit is either centrifugal or axial flow type.

Figure 7: Open cycle Gas Turbine

Working Principal

 Fresh air enters the compressor at ambient temperature where its pressure and temperature are
increased.
 The high pressure air enters the combustion chamber where the fuel is burned at constant Pressure.
 The high temperature (and pressure) gas enters the turbine where it expands to ambient pressure and
produces work.
 The gases coming out from the turbine are discharged to the atmosphere as they cannot be used any
more. Since the working substance is discharged to the atmosphere, this type of turbine is called as
open cycle gas turbine.
 The working substance must be replaced continuously for every cycle of operation.

1.3.2 Closed cycle gas turbine


 The Closed cycle gas turbine is a modification of the open cycle gas turbine.
 It consists of a rotary compressor, heater, a turbine (reaction type) and a cooler.

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 The compressor and the turbine are mounted on a common shaft.

Figure 8: Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

Working:

 In a closed cycle gas turbine, the atmospheric air or some other stable gases like argon, helium,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. may be used as the working fluid.
 In operation, the working fluid is compressed to a high pressure in a compressor and then passed
to a heater where it is heated with the help of some external source.
 The working fluid will not come in contact with the products of combustion as in the case of
open cycle gas turbine; instead heat is transferred using a heat exchanger.
 The high pressure and high temperature fluid is then made to flow through the turbine blades,
wherein the heat energy is converted into mechanical work in much the same way as in the case
of steam turbines.
 From the turbine the fluid is passed to a cooler, where it is cooled to its original temperature
from external cooling source.
 The low temperature and low-pressure fluid from the cooler is then passed to the compressor for
the next cycle to take place. Since the working fluid is circulated again and again, this type of
turbine is called closed cycle gas turbine.

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Closed cycle Open cycle


Working substance is continuously re- Working substance is continuously replaced in
circulated every cycle
Any fluid may be used as the working substance The working substance comprises of the mixture of
air and the products of combustion of fuel

There is only heat and work transfer takes place There is mass transfer taking place in addition to
between the system and surrounding heat and work transfer between system and
surrounding
There is no loss of working substance In every cycle fresh air is drawn

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IC ENGINES

2. INTRODUCTION
Any machine, which converts heat energy in to useful mechanical energy, is known as an engine.
The machines may be a gas turbine, a steam turbine or an I.C engine.
Heat engines are otherwise called Thermal Engines. It is a machine which converts heat energy in to
useful mechanical work. Heat engines develop more than 80% the energy generated in the world.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories

 External combustion engine: An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder is called external combustion engine. These engines are generally called EC engines.
Ex: Steam engines, steam turbines, closed cycle gas turbine etc.

 Internal combustion engine: An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder is called internal combustion engine. These engines are generally called IC engines.
Ex: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine etc.
The following are the most important ways of classification of I.C. engines:
 According to the type of fuel used
o Petrol engines: In this type of engines, the fuel used is petrol.
o Diesel engines: In this type of engines, the fuel used is diesel.
o Gas engines: In this type of engines, the gaseous fuels like natural gas, biogas, are used.
o Bi-fuel engines: These engines use a mixture of two fuels.
 According to the number of strokes per cycle

o 4-stroke engine: In this type of engines, the working cycle is completed in four different
strokes.

o 2-stroke engine: In this type of engines, the working cycle is completed in two different
strokes.

 According to the method of ignition

o Spark ignition engine (S.I. Engine): In this type of engines, fuel is ignited by an electric spark
generated by a spark plug.

o Compression ignition engine (C.I. Engine): In this type of engines, the fuel gets ignited as

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it comes in contact with the hot compressed air.


 According to the cycle of combustion

o Otto cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume

o Diesel cycle engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel takes place at constant
pressure

o Duel combustion engine: In this type of engines, combustion of fuel first takes place at
constant volume and then at constant pressure.
 According to the number of cylinders
o Single cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of only one cylinder.
o Multi cylinder engine: This type of engines consists of 2, 3, 4, 6 or 8 cylinders
 According to the arrangement of cylinders

o Vertical engine: In this type of engines, the cylinder is arranged in a vertical position

o Horizontal engine: In this type of engines, cylinder is arranged in horizontal position.


o Inline engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged in line

o Radial engine: In this type of engines, cylinders are arranged along the circumference of a
circle.
 V-engine: In this type of engines, combination of two inline engines equally set an angle. (vii)
According to the method of cooling
o Air cooled engine: In this type of engines, the heated cylinder walls are cooled by
continuous flow of air.
o Water cooled engine: In this type of engines, water is used for cooling the heated
cylinder walls.

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2.1 PARTS OF AN I.C ENGINE

Figure 9: parts of an I.C. ENGINE

Cylinder
o The cylinder is designed to withstand high gas pressure. The temperature in the combustion
chamber (cylinder block) reaches up to 28000 C.
o The cylinder has to be cooled properly either by air cooling or water cooling.
o In case of air-cooled engines, fins are provided around the cylinder block (Scooter and bikes)
o In water cooled engines water jackets are provided for the circulation of water to carry away the
heat around the cylinder block.
Head
o The head is fitted on the top of the cylinder block.
o The head is built with two ports, one port, which allows the charge in to the cylinder block, is
known as inlet port and the second port that allows the exhaust gases to leave the cylinder block
is known as exhaust port.
o In case of a petrol engine spark plug is fitted in the head, in diesel engines fuel injector is fitted
to inject the diesel into the cylinder block.
Piston:
The piston is a cylindrical plug, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

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Piston rings
o To maintain sufficient lubricating oil on cylinder walls.
o It is used to maintain a pressure tight seal between the moving piston and the cylinder wall.
o It conducts heat away from the piston head and prevent oil from entering the combustion
chamber.
Functions of piston are
i) The piston will act as a seal
ii) To provide the passage for heat flow from piston to cylinder block through rings.
iii) It transmits the force of explosion to the crankshaft through connecting rod
Connecting rod:
o The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston and the big end of the connecting
rod is connecting to the crankshaft.
o The connecting rod converts the reciprocating motion of piston in to rotary motion of crankshaft.
o The connecting rod is made of I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum
weight.
Crankshaft
o The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft.
o The power transmission starts from the crankshaft.
o The crankshaft is rigidly fixed in the crankcase.
o The other end of the crankshaft is connected to a clutch.
Crankcase:
o Crankcase is fitted at the bottom of the cylinder block.
o Two-stroke engine crankcase is properly sealed and made airtight.
o Four-stroke engine crankcase will serve as a reservoir, filled with sufficient quantity of
lubricating oil.
o This oil lubricates the main bearings of crankshaft, bearings of big end of connecting rod,
lubricates the cylinder liner, piston and piston rings.

Valves:

o The valves are control devices that allow the air/fuel to enter into the cylinder and also to discharge
the burnt gases to atmosphere. There are two valves. (1) Inlet valve and (2) Exhaust valve.
'Inlet valve' is the one through which fresh charge (air and fuel or air) enters into the cylinder.

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'Exhaust valve' through which the burnt gases are discharged out of the cylinder.
o These valves are actuated by means of cams.

Cams: It is an element designed to control the movement of both the inlet and exhaust valves.
Flywheel: It is a heavy mass of rotating wheel mounted on the crankshaft and is used as an energy
storing device. The flywheel stores energy received during the power stroke and supplies the same
during other strokes

2.2 IC Engine Terminology


Bore: The inside diameter of the engine cylinder is termed as Bore.
Stroke: It is the linear distance, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder, between extreme upper
and lower positions of the piston.
Top Dead Centre (TDC):
o TDC in vertical engine is the extreme position of the piston on the top of the cylinder (head side).
o The cylinder volume is at a minimum.
o In case of horizontal engine this position is known as inner dead center (IDC).

Figure 10: I.C. Engine Terminology

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Bottom Dead Centre (BDC):


o BDC in vertical engine is the extreme position of the piston on the bottom of the cylinder.
o The cylinder volume will be maximum
o In case of horizontal engine, this position is known as outer dead center (ODC).
Compression ratio:
o It is the ratio of the volume when the piston is at BDC to the volume when the piston at TDC.
o Compression ratio = Maximum cylinder volume / minimum cylinder volume. R = V/Vc Cylinder
volume.
Piston Area (A) It is the cross sectional area of the cylinder.
Displacement Volume/Swept volume (Vs): Volume covered by the piston between TDC & BDC. It is
also called as stroke volume. Vs = A  L
Clearance volume (Vc): It is the volume of cylinder above the top of the piston, when the piston is at
the TDC.
Cylinder volume (V): V = Vs+Vc
Piston Speed: The average speed of the piston is called ‘piston speed’.
Piston speed = 2.L.N where L = Stroke length in m
N = Speed of engine in RPM.

2.3 FOUR-STROKE ENGINES


In 4-stroke engines, piston performs four different strokes to complete all the operations of the working
cycle. The four different strokes performed are,
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke (Expansion stroke or Working stroke)
4. Exhaust stroke

Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. Hence in a 4-stroke engines, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the crankshaft
based on the type of fuel used.

Note: In 4 Stroke engines, opening and closing of valves during different strokes with respect to piston
position and the rotation of crank is given in the table below.

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Position of the
Stroke Piston Inlet valve Exhaust valve Crank rotation
Initial Final
Suction TOC BOC Open Close 00 - 1800
Compression BDC TDC Close Close 1800 - 3600
Power TOC BDC Close Close 3600 - 5400
Exhaust BDC TDC Close Open 5400 -7200

4 -stroke engines are classified as.


 4 - Stroke Petrol Engine and
 4 - Stroke Diesel Engine

2.3.1 FOUR-Stroke Petrol Engine


The working principle of a 4-Stroke Petrol engine is based on theoretical Otto cycle. Hence it is also
known as Otto cycle engine.

A 4 - Stroke petrol engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle. The working of
each stroke is shown in the figure.3 and its details are discussed below.

Figure 11: Working of a 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

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(a) Suction stroke:

At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, the piston moves from TDC to
BDC. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. As the piston moves downwards,
suction is created in the cylinder as a result, fresh air-petrol mixture (charge) is drawn into the cylinder
through the inlet valve. As the piston reaches BDC, the suction stroke completes and inlet valve closes.
The suction stroke is represented by the line AB on P- V diagram as shown in the figure.4.

Figure 12: Theoretical Otto Cycle (P-V Diagram)

(b) Compression stroke:


At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston moves from BDC to
TDC. Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air -petrol mixture in
the cylinder is compressed adiabatically. The pressure and temperature of the charge increases and this
is shown by the curve BC on the P- V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites
the charge. The combustion of the fuel takes place at the constant volume and is shown by a line CD on
the P- V diagram. The compression ratio in petrol engines ranges from 7:1 to 11:1.
(c) Power stroke/Expansion stroke/working stroke
At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC.
Both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The combustion of fuel liberates gases and these gases
starts expanding. Due to expansion, the hot gases exert a large force on the piston and as a result the
piston is pushed from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the
crank shaft through the connecting rod. This causes crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is
obtained in this stroke. Hence, this stroke is also called working stroke. Also gas expands and does work

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on the piston so this stroke is also called an expansion stroke. The expansion of gases is adiabatic in
nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P- V diagram. As the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust
valve opens. A part of the burnt gases escape through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to their
own expansion.
(d) Exhaust stroke:
At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke the piston moves from BDC to
TDC. The inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is opened. As the piston moves upward, it forces the
remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. This is shown
by the line EB and SA on P- V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes
and this completes the cycle.
In the next cycle the piston which is at TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh charge to enter the
cylinder and the process continues. The working principle of a 4-stroke diesel engine is based on
theoretical diesel cycle. Hence it is also called diesel cycle engine.

2.3.2 FOUR-stroke diesel engine


A 4-stroke diesel engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle of operation. The
4 different strokes are
1. Suction Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power Stroke (Expansion Stroke or Working Stroke)
4. Exhaust Stroke ~
The details regarding the working of each stroke is shown in the figure.5. The theoretical diesel cycle is
shown on P- V diagram in the figure 6. The details regarding the working of each stroke are discussed
below.

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Figure 13: Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine

(a) Suction stroke:

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in TOC and during the stroke, piston moves from TDC. to BDC.
The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. The downward movement of the piston
creates suction in the cylinder and as a result, fresh air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke completes and this is represented by the line AS on
P-V diagram as shown in the figure.6.

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Figure 14: Theoretical Diesel Cycle (P V diagram)

(b) Compression stroke

At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during the stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC.
Both inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, air in the cylinder is
compressed to a high pressure and temperature. The compression process is adiabatic in nature and is
shown by the curve BC in P-V diagram. At the end of the stroke, the fuel (diesel) is sprayed into the
cylinder by fuel injector. As the fuel comes in contact with the hot compressed air, it gets ignited and
undergoes combustion at constant pressure. This process is shown by the line CD on PV diagram. At the
point D fuel supply is cutoff. The compression ratio ranges from 16:1 to 20:1.
(c) Power stroke / Expansion stroke/ Working stroke
At the beginning of this stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from TDC to
BDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valve remain closed. As combustion of fuel takes place, the burnt
gases expand and exert a large force on the piston. Due to this, piston is pushed from TDC the BDC.
The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through the connecting
rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is obtained in this stroke.
The expansion of gases is adiabatic in nature and this is shown by the curve DE on P- V diagram. When
the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of burnt gases escapes through the exhaust
valve out of the cylinder due to self-expansion. The drop in pressure at constant volume is shown by the
line EB on P- V diagram.

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(d) Exhaust stroke


At the beginning of the stroke piston is in BDC and during this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC.
The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is opened. As the piston moves upward, it forces the
remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line SA on P-
V diagram. When the piston reaches the TDC the exhaust valve closes. This completes the cycle.

In the next cycle the piston which is at the TDC moves to BDC thereby allowing fresh air to enter into
the cylinder and the process continues.

2.4. TWO STROKE ENGINES

In a 2-stroke engine, ports are present in the cylinder in place of valves. The ports are the openings in the
cylinder opened and closed by the movement of piston within the cylinder. There are three ports, namely
a. Inlet port: Through which admitting of charge into the crankcase takes place.
b. Transfer port: Through which the charge is transferred from the crankcase to the cylinder. c. Exhaust
port: Through which the burnt gases are discharged out of the cylinder.
In a 2 - stroke engine, piston performs two different strokes or crankshaft completes one revolution to
complete all the operations of the working cycle. In these engines there are no suction and exhaust
strokes, instead they are performed while the compression and power strokes are in progress. Based on
the type of fuel used, 2-stroke engines are classified as

2.4.1 Stroke Petrol Engine:


2-Stroke petrol engine works on the principle of theoretical Otto cycle. The two different strokes
performed are first stroke (downward stroke) and second stroke (upward stroke).
The details regarding the working of each stroke is shown in the figure.7 are discussed as below.

Note: The table below shows an opening and closing of the different ports with respect to the
position of the piston within the cylinder.
Position of the piston Inlet port Exhaust port Transfer port
In TDC Opens Closes Closes
In BDC Closes Opens Opens

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1. FIRST STROKE (DOWNWARD STROKE)

At the beginning of this stroke, the piston is in the TDC as shown in the figure (a). At this position, inlet
port is opened and hence fresh air petrol mixture enters into the crank case. At this position, compressed
air-petrol mixture present in the cylinder in the previous cycle is ignited by the spark generated by the
spark plug. The combustion of fuel releases hot gases which increases the pressure in the cylinder. The
high pressure gases exert a pressure on the piston and hence the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Thus
piston performs power stroke. The power impulse is transmitted from the piston to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is obtained in
this stroke.

As the piston moves downwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and hence burnt gases escape out of
the cylinder as shown in the figure (b). As piston moves downwards further, opens the transfer port and
the charge in the crank case is compressed by the underside of the piston as shown in figure. (b). the
compressed charge from the crankcase rushes into the cylinder through the transfer port as shown in fig.
(c). the charge entering the cylinder drives away the remaining exhaust gases through the exhaust port.
The process of removing the exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known as scavenging.
The piston is provided with a projection at its top known as 'deflector'. The purpose of providing a
deflector is to deflect the fresh charge coming through the transfer port to move towards the top end of
the cylinder. By doing this, the fresh charge will be able to drive the entire burnt gases out of the
cylinder.
2. SECOND STROKE (UPWARD STROKE)

At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in BDC and it covers the inlet port as shown in the figure (c)
and stops the flow of fresh charge into the crankcase. During the stroke, piston ascends and move
towards TDC. As the piston moves upwards, it closes the transfer port, there by stopping the flow of
fresh charge into the cylinder as shown in figure (d).

Further upward movement of the piston closes the exhaust port and actual compression of the charge
begins. In the mean-time, the inlet port is opened and the upward movement of piston creates suction in
the crankcase. Fresh charge enters into the crankcase through the inlet port as shown in figure (a). The
compression of the charge in the cylinder continues till the piston reaches the TDC. This completes the
cycle.

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Figure 15: Working of a 2-Stroke Petrol Engine

2.4.2-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

o These are designed to drive the power stroke during every revolution of the crankshaft. Hence, here the
suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here, the valves are replaced by the ports and the burnt
exhaust gases are forced out either by Scavenging pump system or closed crankcase system.
o A specific shape is given to the piston which helps to prevent the loss of incoming charge and helps to
exhaust the hot gases effectively.
o 2-stroke engines are widely employed for small powers required for mopeds, scooters and motor
cycles. These have single cylinders and three ports such as inlet port, transfer port and exhaust port.
Working of 2-stroke diesel engine
It works on theoretical diesel cycle.
First stroke:
o It starts when the position of the piston at the end of compression.
o The diesel fuel is injected just before completing the compression and it starts burning at the end of
compression. It is represented by the point 1 on the p-v diagrams.
o The pressure and temperature inside the cylinder are sufficient to burn the fuel. The supply of fuel
continues.
o The high pressure gases try to push the piston downwards at a constant pressure as shown by the line
1-2. At the point 2 the fuel supply is cut-off. The hot gases exert pressure on the piston and push it
downward. Hence, the work or power is derived.

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o As a result, the burning gases expand adiabatically with increase in volume and decrease in pressure as
shown by curve 2-3.
o When the piston uncovers the exhaust port during the downward motion as shown in the diagram B,
the burnt gases rush out of the cylinder through the exhaust port as shown by line 3-4. The pressure
drops.
o A little later, the topside of the piston uncovers the transfer port. It is indicated by the point 5. At the
same time, the air in the crankcase is compressed by the underside of the piston.
o As a result the air rushes through the transfer port to the upper part of the cylinder and pushes the
exhaust gases out through the exhaust port as shown in the diagram B and in the p-v diagram by the
line 5-6. This continues until the piston reaches BDC.
o Hence the crank completes half a revolution.
Second stroke:
o As the piston starts moving upward, the exhaust gases are partly pushed through the exhaust port (6-5).
o Later the piston covers the transfer port at point 5 and stops the flow of air into the cylinder as shown
in the diagram C.
o Later the piston covers the exhaust port and uncovers the inlet port, through which the fresh air is
drawn into the cylinder as shown in diagram D and the line 5-4.
o The actual compressing of the air starts now and follows adiabatic compression (4-1), until the piston
reaches TDC (original position) and the cycle completes. Hence the crank completes one complete
revolution.

Figure 16: Working of a 2-Stroke diesel Engine

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2.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN PETROL ENGINE (SI ENGINE) AND DIESEL ENGINE (CI
ENGINE).

SI.
Petrol Engine (SI Engine) Diesel Engine (CI Engine)
No
Draws a mixture of petrol and air during
1 Draws only air during suction stroke.
suction stroke.
The carburetor is employed to mix air and
The injector is employed to inject thefuel at the end of
2 petrol in the required proportion and to
compression stroke.
supply it to the engine during suction stroke.
3 Compression ratio ranges from 7: 1 to 12: I Compression ratio ranges from 18:1 to 22:01
The ignition of the diesel is accomplished by the
The charge (Le petrol and air mixture) is compressed air which will have been heated due to high
4 ignited with the help of spark plug. This type compression ratio, to the temperature higher than the
of ignition is called spark ignition. ignition Temperature of the diesel. This type of Ignition
is called compression ignition.
The combustion of fuel takes place The combustion of fuel takes place Approximately at
5
Approximately at constant volume. constant pressure.
6 Works on theoretical Otto Cycle. Works on theoretical Diesel Cycle.
7 Power developed is less. Power developed is more.
Thermal efficiency is low. It is up to about
8 Thermal efficiency is high. It is up to about 40%.
26%
9 These are high speed engines These are low speed engines.
10 The maintenance cost is less. The maintenance cost is more.
The running cost is high because of the
11 The running cost is low because of lower cost of diesel
higher cost of petrol.
Lighter and cheaper because of low
12 Heavier and costlier because of high Compression ratio.
compression ratio

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2.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN 2-STROKE AND 4-STROKE I.C. ENGINES.

SI.No 2-Stroke Engine 4-Stroke Engine


Requires two separate strokes to Requires four separate strokes to complete
1 complete one cycle of operation. one cycle of operation.
Power is developed in every revolution of Power is developed for every revolutions of
2 the crankshaft the crankshaft.
The inlet, transfer and exhaust ports are
opened and closed by the movement of The inlet and exhaust are opened and closed
3 piston itself. by the valves.
Turing moment is not uniform and hence Turing moment is uniform and hence
4 requires a heavier flywheel. Requires lighter flywheel.
The charge is first admitted into the
crankcase and then transferred to the The charge is directly admitted in to the
5 engine cylinder. engine cylinder during the suction stroke.
For the same power developed the engine F or the same power developed the Engine is
6 is heavy and bulky. light and compact.

7 Thermal efficiency is low. Thermal efficiency is high.

8 Requires greater lubricant and coolant. Requires lesser lubricant and coolant.

9 Fuel consumption is more. Fuel consumption is less.

10 Initial cost is less. Initial cost is more.

35 | P a g e

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