Working Principle of a DC Motor

The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work. It works
on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic and electric field experience a force”. And that force is called the Lorentz force. The
Flemming left-hand rule gives the direction of the force.

Fleming Left Hand Rule

If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are displaced from each other by
an angle of 90°, the middle finger represents the direction of the magnetic field. The index finger
represents the direction of the current, and the thumb shows the direction of forces acting on the
conductor.

The formula calculates the magnitude of the force,

Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their construction.
The armature and stator are the two main parts of the DC motor. The armature is the rotating
part, and the stator is their stationary part. The armature coil is connected to the DC supply.
The armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The commutators convert the AC
induces in the armature into DC and brushes transfer the current from rotating part of the motor
to the stationary external load. The armature is placed between the north and south pole of the
permanent or electromagnet.

For simplicity, consider that the armature has only one coil which is placed between the
magnetic field shown below in the figure A. When the DC supply is given to the armature coil
the current starts flowing through it. This current develops their own field around the coil. Figure
B shows the field induces around the coil.

By the interaction of the fields (produces by the coil and the magnet), resultant field develops
across the conductor. The resultant field tends to regain its original position, i.e. in the axis of the
main field. The field exerts the force at the ends of the conductor, and thus the coil starts
rotating.
Let the field produces by the main field be F , and this field rotates in the clockwise direction.
m

When the current flows in the coil, they produce their own magnetic field says F . The field
r

F tries to come in the direction of the main field. Thereby, the torque act on the armature coil.
r
The actual DC motor consists a large number of armature coils. The speed of the motor is
directly proportional to the number of coils used in the motor. These coils are kept under the
impact of the magnetic field.

The one end of the conductors are kept under the influence of north pole, and the other end is
kept under the influence of the South pole. The current enters into the armature coil through the
north pole and move outwards through the south pole. When the coil moves from one brush to
another, at the same time the polarity of the coil also changes. Thus, the direction of the force or
torque acting on the coil remains same.

The torque induces in the coil become zero when the armature coil is perpendicular to the main
field. The zero torque means the motor stops rotating. For solving this problem, the number of
armature coil is used in the rotor. So if one of their coils is perpendicular to the field, then the
other coils induce the torque. And the rotor moves continuously.
Also, for obtaining the continuous torque, the arrangement is kept in such a way that whenever
the coils cut the magnetic neutral axis of the magnet the direction of current in the coils become
reversed. This can be done with the help of the commutator.

Working Principle of a Synchronous Motor

The stator and the rotor are the two main parts of the synchronous motor. The stator is the
stationary part of the motor and rotor is their rotating part. The stator is excited by the three-
phase supply, and the rotor is excited by the DC supply.

The term excitation means the magnetic field induces in the stator and rotor of the motor. The
main aim of the excitation is to convert the stator and rotor into an electromagnet.
The three-phase supply induces the north and south pole on the stator. The three-phase supply is
sinusoidal. The polarity (positive and negative) of their wave changes after every half cycle and
because of this reason the north and south pole also varies. Thus, we can say that the rotating
magnetic field develops on the stator.

The magnetic field develops on the rotor because of the DC supply. The polarity of the DC
supply becomes fixed, and thus the stationary magnetic field develops on the rotor. The
term stationary means their north and south pole remains fixed.

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field rotates is known as the synchronous speed. The
synchronous speed of the motor depends on the frequency of the supply and the number of poles
of the motor.

N = 120f/P
S

When the opposite pole of the stator and rotor face each other, the force of attraction occurs
between them. The attraction force develops the torque in the anti-clockwise direction. The
torque is the kind of force which moves the object in the rotation. Thus, the poles of rotor
dragged towards the poles of the stator.

After every half cycle, the pole on the stator is reversed. The position of the rotor remains same
because of the inertia. The inertia is the tendency of an object to remain fixed in one
position.

When the like pole of the stator and rotor face each other, the force of repulsion occurs between
them and the torque develops in the clockwise direction.
Let understand this with the help of the diagram. For simplicity, consider the motor has two
poles. In the below figure, the opposite pole of the stator and rotor face each other. So the
attraction force develops between them.

After the half cycle, the poles on the

stator reverse. The same pole of the stator and rotor face each other, and the force of repulsion
develops between them.
 The non-unidirectional torque
pulsates the rotor only in one place and because of this reason the synchronous motor is not
self-starting.
 For starting the motor, the rotor is
rotated by some external means. Thus, the polarity of the rotor also changed along with the
stator. The pole of the stator and rotor interlock each other and the unidirectional torque induces
in the motor. The rotor starts rotating at the speed of the rotating magnetic field, or we can say at
synchronous speed.

The speed of the motor is fixed, and the motor continuously rotates at the synchronous speed.

Working Principle of an Induction Motor

The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction
motor. The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the electromotive force
induces across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field.

The stator and rotor are two essential parts of the motor. The stator is the stationary part, and
it carries the overlapping windings while the rotor carries the main or field winding. The
windings of the stator are equally displaced from each other by an angle of 120°.

The induction motor is the single excited motor, i.e., the supply is applied only to the one part,
i.e., stator. The term excitation means the process of inducing the magnetic field on the parts of
the motor.
When the three phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic field produced on it.
The figure below shows the rotating magnetic field set up in the stator.

Consider that the rotating magnetic field induces in the anticlockwise direction. The rotating
magnetic field has the moving polarities. The polarities of the magnetic field vary by concerning
the positive and negative half cycle of the supply. The change in polarities makes the magnetic
field rotates.

The conductors of the rotor are stationary. This stationary conductor cut the rotating magnetic
field of the stator, and because of the electromagnetic induction, the EMF induces in the rotor.
This EMF is known as the rotor induced EMF, and it is because of the electromagnetic induction
phenomenon.

The conductors of the rotor are short-circuited either by the end rings or by the help of the
external resistance. The relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductor induces the current in the rotor conductors. As the current flows through the
conductor, the flux induces on it. The direction of rotor flux is same as that of the rotor current.

Now we have two fluxes one because of the rotor and another because of the stator. These fluxes
interact each other. On one end of the conductor the fluxes cancel each other, and on the other
end, the density of the flux is very high. Thus, the high-density flux tries to push the conductor of
rotor towards the low-density flux region. This phenomenon induces the torque on the conductor,
and this torque is known as the electromagnetic torque.

The direction of electromagnetic torque and rotating magnetic field is same. Thus, the rotor starts
rotating in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the rotor is always less than the rotating magnetic field or synchronous speed. The
rotor tries to the run at the speed of the rotor, but it always slips away. Thus, the motor never
runs at the speed of the rotating magnetic field, and this is the reason because of which the
induction motor is also known as the asynchronous motor.

Why Rotor never runs at Synchronous Speed?

If the speed of the rotor is equal to the synchronous speed, no relative motion occurs between the
rotating magnetic field of the stator and the conductors of the rotor. Thus the EMF is not induced
on the conductor, and zero current develops on it. Without current, the torque is also not
produced.

Because of the above mention reasons the rotor never rotates at the synchronous speed. The
speed of the rotor is always less than the speed of the rotating magnetic field.

Alternatively, the method of the working principle of Induction Motor can also be explained as
follows.

Let’s understand this by considering the single conductor on the stationary rotor. This conductor
cuts the rotating magnetic field of the stator. Consider that the rotating magnetic field rotates in
the clockwise direction. According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF
induces in the conductor.
 As the rotor circuit is
completed by the external resistance or by end ring, the rotor induces an EMF which causes the
current in the circuit. The direction of the rotor induces current is opposite to that of the rotating
magnetic field. The rotor current induces the flux in the rotor. The direction of the rotor flux is
same as that of the current.

The interaction of rotor and stator fluxes

develops a force which acts on the conductors of the rotor. The force acts tangentially on the
rotor and hence induces a torque. The torque pushes the conductors of the rotor, and thus the
rotor starts moving in the direction of the rotating magnetic field. The rotor starts moving
without any additional excitation system and because of this reason the motor is called the self-
starting motor.
 The operation of
the motor depends on the voltage induced on the rotor, and hence it is called the induction motor.

Working Principle of a Single Phase Induction

Motor
A Single Phase Induction Motor consists of a single phase winding which is mounted on the
stator of the motor and a cage winding placed on the rotor. A pulsating magnetic field is
produced, when the stator winding of the single-phase induction motor shown below is energised
by a single phase supply.

The word Pulsating means that the field builds up in one direction falls to zero and then builds up
in the opposite direction. Under these conditions, the rotor of an induction motor does not rotate.
Hence, a single phase induction motor is not self-starting. It requires some special starting
means.

If the 1 phase stator winding is excited and the rotor of the motor is rotated by an auxiliary
means and the starting device is then removed, the motor continues to rotate in the direction in
which it is started.
The performance of the single phase induction motor is analysed by the two theories. One is
known as the Double Revolving Field Theory, and the other is Cross Field Theory. Both the
theories are similar and explain the reason for the production of torque when the rotor is rotating.

Double Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motor

The double revolving field theory of a single phase induction motor states that a pulsating
magnetic field is resolved into two rotating magnetic fields. They are equal in magnitude but
opposite in directions. The induction motor responds to each of the magnetic fields separately.
The net torque in the motor is equal to the sum of the torque due to each of the two magnetic
fields.

The equation for an alternating magnetic field is given as

Where βmax is the maximum value of the sinusoidally distributed air gap flux density produced
by a properly distributed stator winding carrying an alternating current of the frequency ω, and α
is the space displacement angle measured from the axis of the stator winding.

As we know,

So, the equation (1) can be written as

The first term of the right-hand side of the equation (2) represents the revolving field moving in
the positive α direction. It is known as a Forward Rotating field. Similarly, the second term
shows the revolving field moving in the negative α direction and is known as the Backward
Rotating field.

The direction in which the single phase motor is started initially is known as the positive
direction. Both the revolving field rotates at the synchronous speed. ω = 2πf in the opposite
s

direction. Thus, the pulsating magnetic field is resolved into two rotating magnetic fields. Both
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction but at the same frequency.
 At the standstill condition, the induced voltages are equal and opposite as a result; the two
torques are also equal and opposite. Thus, the net torque is zero and, therefore, a single phase
induction motor has no starting torque.

Equivalent Circuit of a Single Phase Induction

Motor
The Equivalent circuit of a Single Phase Induction Motor can be obtained by two methods
named as the Double Revolving Field Theory and Cross Field Theory. Firstly the equivalent
circuit is developed on the basis of double revolving field theory when only its main winding is
energized.

Considering the case when the rotor is stationary and only the main winding is excited. The
motor behaves as a single phase transformer with its secondary short circuited. The equivalent
circuit diagram of the single phase motor with only its main winding energized the is shown
below.

Here,

 R is the resistance of the main stator winding.

1m

 X is the leakage reactance of the main stator winding.

1m

 X is the magnetizing reactance.

M

 R’ is the standstill rotor resistance referred to the main stator winding.

2

 X’ is the standstill rotor leakage reactance referred to the main stator winding.
2

 V is the applied voltage.

m

 I is the main winding current.

m
The core loss will be assumed to be lumped with the mechanical and stray losses as a part of the
rotational losses of the rotor. The pulsating air gap flux in the motor at the standstill is resolved
into two equal and opposite fluxes with the motor. The standstill impedance of each of the rotor
referred to the main stator winding is given as

The equivalent circuit of a single phase single winding induction motor with the standstill rotor
is shown below. The forward and the backward flux induces a voltage E and E respectively in
mf mb

the main stator winding. E is the resultant induced voltage in the main winding.
m

At the standstill condition E = E

mf mb

Now, with the help of an auxiliary winding the motor is started. As the motor attains its normal
speed, the auxiliary winding is removed. The effective rotor resistance of an induction motor
depends on the slip of the rotor.
In the above circuit diagram, the air gap portion is split into two parts. The first part shows the
effect of forward rotating flux and the second parts shows the effect of the backward rotating
flux. The effective rotor resistance with respect to the forward rotating flux is R /2 and with
’2 S

respect to the backward rotating flux is R’ /2 (2-s).

2

When both forward and backward slips are taken into account, the equivalent circuit shown
below is formed. In this condition, the motor is running on the main winding alone.

The rotor impedance representing the effect of the forward field referred to the stator winding m
is given by an impedance shown below.

The rotor impedance of a single phase induction motor representing the effect of the backward
field referred to the stator winding m is given by an impedance shown below.
The simplified equivalent circuit of a single phase induction motor with only its main winding
energized is shown in the figure below.
Here,

The above equation (3) is the equation of the current in the stator windin

Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase

Induction Motor
The Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motor is differentiated on the various factors in
this article such as the Supply on which they operate, their starting torque, maintenance, features,
the efficiency of the motor, their power factors and the example where the two motors are used.

Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motor are given below in tabulated
form.

SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE

BASIS
INDUCTION MOTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

Supply Single Phase induction Three Phase

motor uses single phase induction motor uses
supply, for its operation. three phase supply,
for its operation.

Starting The starting torque is low. The starting torque is

torque high.

Maintenance They are easy to repair Difficult to repair and

and maintain. maintain.

Features Simple in construction, Complex in

reliable and economical construction and
as compared to three costly.
 SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE
BASIS
INDUCTION MOTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

phase induction motors.

Efficiency Efficiency is less Efficiency is high

Power factor Power factor is low Power factor is high

Examples They are mostly used in Three phase

domestic appliances such induction motors are
as mixer grinder, fans, mostly used in
compressors etc industries.

The Induction Motor is an asynchronous motor as they do not run at the synchronous speed. The
Single Phase Induction motor work on the 1 phase supply power and is not self-starting.

The three phase induction motor works on the 3 phase power supply mains and is self-starting
motor.

Difference Between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motor are as follows:-

 As the name itself shows, the Single Phase induction motor uses single phase supply, for its operation
and 3 Phase induction motor uses three phase supply.
 The Starting Torque of Single Phase induction motor is low, whereas the starting torque of Three Phase
Induction motor is high.
 Single Phase motors are easy to repair and maintain, but the maintenance of three phase motors
difficult.
 Single Phase motors are simple in construction, reliable and economical as compared to three phase
induction motors.
 The efficiency of single phase motor is low, whereas the efficiency of three phase induction motors is
high.
 The power factor of Single Phase Induction motor is low as compared to that of three-phase induction
motor.
 Single Phase motors are mostly used in domestic appliances such as mixer grinder, fans, compressors,
etc. Three phase induction motors are mostly used in the industries.