timbuktu

Dana Quante
INCH 512
Spring 2009

source: http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~thematic/umbach/slavetradespring03/mali.html

a n d t h e M e d i e v a l E m p i r e s o f t h e We s t e r n S u d a n
Where is Timbuktu?
Timbuktu is a city located in the modern
country of Mali, in West Africa.
Geographically, it is situated in the savannah
of sub-Saharan Africa - an area of grasslands
between the Niger River to the south and the
Sahara Desert to the north.
Why is it called “Timbuktu?”
One legend purports that the Tuareg
people, Berber nomads f who traversed the
Sahara, went to the area to graze their herds
in the dry season. Over time, as they
returned north for the season, they would
leave their belongings in the care of a local
woman, Buktu, who owned a well used by the
Tuareg. The place became known as
“Tin’Buktu,” which, in the language of the
Tuareg, means “the well of Buktu.”
Why do scholars call the
region “Western Sudan?”
The earliest writings by Arab traders
called this area “Bilad al-Sudan,” which
means “land of the black people.” Modern
scholars refer to Medieval West Africa as
“Western Sudan,” which is completely
different from the modern country of Sudan in
the eastern part of Africa.
How has geography shaped
the region politically?
Timbuktu was a place where caravans
from North Africa (offering Mediterranean
goods) met the salt traders from the
northwest, the gold traders from the forests
south of the Niger River, and the slave traders
from the Mideast and from other parts of
Africa.
The savannah is marked by scattered
trees and a wet and dry season. It is
perfectly suited for herding animals and
raising grain crops. Agrarian life creates
surplus, which supports craftspeople. Iron
forging became prominent. Horses were
purchased through trade with the Tuaregs.
The combined technology of iron and horses
enabled local control of the gold/salt/slave
trade.
Recent archaeological evidence shows
that urban centers appeared west of Timbuktu
somewhere between 400-900 C.E, especially
in a place called Koumbi Saleh, which
became the capital city of Western Sudan’s
first major empire: the Ghana Empire.

How do we know ‣ Archaeology: new discoveries are being made all the time
‣ Oral Tradition: the way history is transmitted by West African cultures
about the Medieval ‣ Linguistics: experts analyze linguistic similarities and anomalies to understand
Empires of the the historic relationships between cultures and groups
‣ Written Accounts: extensive writings of first and second hand observations by
Western Sudan? Arab traders and Muslim scholars
 Empires GHANA MALI SONGHAY
What is an empire?
An empire is a number of
individual kingdoms and
4th - 12th 13th - 15th 15th - 16th
peoples that are all controlled
by one ruler. centuries C.E. centuries C.E. centuries C.E.

Capital city Kumbi Saleh Niani Gao

Dominant Soninke Mandike Songhay

Mande culture

Famous rulers Diabe Cisse Sundiata Sunni Ali Ber

legendary founding manghan conquered Timbuktu and
(king) Keita started the Songhay Empire
legendary founding mansa
(emporer)

Askiya
Mansa Musa Muhammad
mansa who increased the area started the Askiya dynasty and
of the Mali Empire and increased size and stability of
attained the highest wealth Songhay Empire

Primary source al-Bakri Ibn Battuta Leo Africanus

documenting Muslim scholar from Cordoba,
Spain whose writings about
Muslim scholar from Tangiers,
Morocco, he traveled through
Muslim scholar from Granada,
Spain, he traveled to Timbuktu,
each empire Ghana are based on
interviews with traders.
the known world for 25 years,
wrote his memoirs.
was enslaved on his way to
Constantinople, and “given” to
Pope Leo X, who freed him.

G H AN A E MPIR E M A L I E MP I R E S O N G HA Y EM PI R E
300-500 C.E. 700-1000 1056 1100 1230-1255 1312-1337 1469 1493-1529 1591
Rise of Ghana Almoravid Timbuktu Sundiata Mansa Sunni Askiya Moroccan
Ghana Empire Movement founded Keita Musa Ali Ber Muhammad Invasion
trade becomes captures
dominant Timbuktu
power

TIMELINE

Ghana
Empire
Bambuk
Bure
Modern
Ghana
source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/ghana.html
Ghana Empire
4th - 12th centuries C.E.
“Ghana” is the name Arab traders
used for the main city and the king of the
region. The people of the region actually
called their state “Wagadu,” which
means “place of the warrior kings.”
“Ghana” is not to be confused with the
modern country of Ghana, which was
named in honor of the ancient kingdom.
The Soninke are the Mande people
who lived west of Timbuktu.
We know about the Soninke through
the writings of al-Bakri, an 11th century
Muslim scholar who lived in Cordoba,
Spain. He interviewed traders coming
back from the region and wrote about
their tales in The Book of Routes and
Kingdoms.
Modern scholars believe that Ghana
rose to power around the 4th century
C.E. Excavations of the ancient capital
city of Kumbi Saleh indicate a population
of 15,000 - 20,000 people, and a large,
walled palace compound.
The Soninke developed superior iron
tools for farming and weapons. Al-Bakri
had written that the king of Ghana had
an army of 200,000 men. By
consolidating political power and levying
tariffs, the Soninke were able to control
the flow of trade of the three major local
commodities: gold, salt, and slaves.
The Soninke had a unified political
system with a king, vassals, governors,
and ministers who administered the
running of the treasury, taxes, and law.
The king and the royal courtiers were
described as being covered in gold
adornments.
Tariffs were collected from goods
going in and out of the region. One
gold dinar was the tax for one donkey
load of salt coming in, and two gold
dinars for the same load going out.
First contact with Islam
Muslim merchants started trading in
the region between the 9th and 11th
centuries. Archaeologists have
determined that Kumbi Saleh had two
distinct areas, one of which was most
probably the “Muslim Quarter.” Local
attitudes were tolerant of other religions,
and Islam was assimilated into the
region.
The downfall of the Ghana Empire is
linked to the Almoravid Movement. A
local chief, Yasin, wanted the people to
strictly observe Islam, by choice or force.
In 1056, Yasin, captured major cities and
took control of the empire. There were
violent forced conversions. After Yasin,
there was a succession of rulers who
shared power, but the unity of the
empire was shattered. Kingdoms and
clans were vying for local power by the
12th century.
Traditional Religion
of Sub-Saharan West Africa
Sacred Groves
The place where spiritual leaders
would interface with the spirit
world was a sacred grove of trees
located somewhere outside the
village or city.
Sacred objects were kept in these
groves, and only the spiritual
leaders of the community were
allowed to enter. Like many other
polytheistic spiritual traditions,
access to the spirit world was
restricted and a “mystery.”
Bida, the snake, was a central
spirit for the Wagadu, and is part
of the founding mythology of the
region. Bida “lived” in the sacred
grove outside of Kumbi Saleh.
Blacksmiths
Blacksmiths were revered for their
privileged knowledge of forging
iron. The blacksmiths were the
priest class. They had access to
the sacred groves where they used
masks as a ritualistic conduit to
communicate with the divine.
Cultural Bias
Muslim and European accounts of
the indigenous religious practices
show a cultural bias through
judgmental language. This should
be kept in mind when reading
primary sources.
Fall of the Ghana Empire
‣ Economic insecurity due
to violence and warfare
‣ Central government
disintegrating as empire
broke into kingdoms
Trade GOLD
Control of the trade The location of the gold
of gold, salt, and mines were kept a secret.
The king or mansa owned
slaves enabled the the gold mines. Nuggets
three empires to were reported to range
maintain stability from 1 ounce to 1 pound.
Commoners were allowed
and prosperity. to pan for gold dust.
They were also the
reason Arab Archaeologists have found
mine shafts in Bambuk and
merchants and
Bure (see map below)
North African which they believe to be
traders would risk the source of the gold.
the long, dangerous
trek across the
This gold made its way via
Sahara. the Sahara to every gilt
surface in St. Mark’s
Cathedral in Venice. The
English Guinea got its
name because it was made
from West African gold.
SALT
Salt came from Taghaza in
the Sahara, a horrible
wasteland of a place,
where even the drinking
water is briny. The salt
was made into slabs, and
then transported by
donkey or camel in
caravans.
Salt was as valuable (and
sometimes more valuable)
than gold. Salt was used
as currency
interchangeably with gold.
Salt was used to preserve
food. People who live in
arid regions need to
replenish salt that their
bodies lose through
sweating in order to
survive.
SLAVES
Slaves mined the salt. The
work was so hard and
dangerous that many died
quickly. Salt slaves were,
therefore, in constant
demand.
Slaves were traded in West
Africa for hundreds of
years before the Europeans
arrived. Arab merchants
traded slaves they brought
with them for gold and salt.
The Bella people are still
slaves in the salt mines
today. They are “owned”
by Tuaregs who continue to
sell salt slabs up and down
the Niger River, including
Timbuktu.

SALT SLABS

Bambuk Camels
Bure
The Romans first brought camels to
the Sahara in the first century C.E.
Without camels, trade across the
Sahara would have been
impossible. Salt caravans used
thousands of camels that traveled
for months across the desert.

map source: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-colonial/1982

Sundiata Keita
Legend of the Lion of Mali

How do we know of the legend ?

Griots, storytelling musicians, are the
area’s greatest treasure. They have
been the keeper of the collective
memory of West Africans since before
the Ghana Empire. The greatest story
for griots to learn and perform is the
legend of Sundiata Keita, the Lion of
Mali. Sundiata is compared to King
Arthur and George Washington for his
cultural importance and heroism.

What is the legend of his birth ?

A prophecy was told to a Mande king,
that if he married an ugly hunchback
woman, their son would become a
great hero. This king had many wives
already, but married the woman,
Sologon. Their sun, Sundiata, was
born unable to walk. The prophecy
appeared to have been false.
How did he become a hero ?
When his father, the king died, there
was royal intrigue among the wives
and half-brothers as to who would
succeed. Because of his disability,
Sundiata was exiled, not executed.
He was not perceived as enough of a
threat. However, he had iron braces
made, and taught himself how to walk
when he was a teenager.
When the small kingdoms were being
harassed by Sumaguru, they
remembered the prophecy and sought
Sundiata in exile. They found a young
man of extraordinary resilience and
determination. He led the battle of
Kirina, and that victory led to the
founding of the Mali Empire.
source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/empire-mali.html
Mali Empire
13th - 15th centuries C.E.
After the Almoravid Movement, there was a power vacuum in the region. Trade
was interrupted because of the political instability and insecurity. Small, independent
kingdoms were developing in the Upper Niger River area. The kingdom of Susu was
becoming a dominant state because of the tyrannical rule of its mansa (emporer)
Sumanguru. Sumanguru was expanding his empire through a reign of terror. The
divided Mande clans, who were mostly Muslim, needed a leader to unify them in
battle against Sumanguru.
How did Sundiata Keita establish the Mali Empire?
The disparate kings of the region allied themselves to Sundiata Keita as their
leader. At the battle of Kirina, when Sundiata’s forces conquered Sumaguru’s army,
Sundiata was made mansa. He inaugurated a period of piece from 1230 - 1255 C.E.
His reign was characterized by justice, peace, and political stability. Trade flourished
again, and the Mali Empire now controlled the gold and salt mines, and their taxation.
Sundiata was a true charismatic leader. He was described as being a modest
dresser who lived simply. He was known for his kindness and humor. He set up a
system of cultural exchange by having his children raised by his allied kings. He
believed that childhood friendships would prevent warfare in the future. His justice,
however, was of the Medieval kind: a thief would have his hand cut off.
Unfortunately, after Sundiata’s death, his successors were weak leaders who
could not unify the region politically or economically, until the emergence of Mansa
Musa in 1312, when the Golden Age of Mali truly began.

Mande is the name for the large

group of clans that share the same
culture in West Africa. The Mandike
were the dominant Mande people
during the Mali Empire. Other Mande
people prevalent during medieval
empires: Soninke, Bambura, & Dyula.

Mansa Musa
1312 - 1337 C.E.
Mansa Musa ruled for 25 years
which are now referred to as the Golden
Age of Mali. He enlarged the Mali
Empire, which became the 2nd largest
empire at the time (the Mongol Empire
was the largest). He managed 24 kings,
and was known as a hard-working
administrator. During his reign, trade
activity tripled.
Musa, which is Arabic for “Moses,”
was a Mande Muslim. He ensured
religious freedom throughout the empire,
and he encouraged the highest forms of
scholarship by establishing libraries and
universities. In fact, during this time
Muslim scholars from the known world
would go to Timbuktu because it was the
place for highest learning.
The Great Hajj
In 1324, Mansa Musa set out on a
hajj (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca.
60,000 people accompanied him,
including slaves, soldiers, wives,
servants, minsters, and merchants. It
was reported that 500 slaves each
carried 6 pounds of gold. They trekked
across the Sahara for 3 months to Cairo.
There, Mansa Musa and his entourage
Ibn Battuta
Intrepid scholar
Much of what we know about
Mansa Musa and his Great
Hajj comes from the writings of
Ibn Battuta, a 14th century
Moroccan scholar and
traveler. He wrote 20 years
after Mansa Musa’s death.
Ibn Battuta traveled to China,
India, and Africa by land and
sea for 25 years. He wrote
down his observations,
including his first hand
spent gold generously. In fact, so much accounts of visiting the capital
gold was put into circulation from their
lavish spending and gift-giving, that the
of the Mali Empire:
price of gold was devalued for 12 years
“My stay at [Niani] lasted
throughout the Mideast.
about 50 days; and I was
He completed his pilgrimage to
shown honor and entertained
Mecca, and returned home to Timbuktu.
However, his hajj put Timbuktu “on the by its inhabitants...They are
map,” literally, for both Arabs and seldom unjust, and have a
Europeans. Everyone wanted to find greater abhorrence of injustice
Timbuktu to get a share of the obvious
than any other people...There
abundance of gold. Mansa Musa is even
is complete security in their
depicted on a 14th century Spanish map
country. Neither traveler nor
of Western Sudan (see above) holding a
nugget of gold. inhabitant in it has anything to
fear from robbers or men of
violence.”
al-Saheli
- McKissack, 1994, p.57-58.
Mansa Musa brought back to
Timbuktu a Spanish-born Muslim
architect he met during his hajj, Abu
Ishaq al-Saheli. Al-Saheli created a new,
distinctive design to Western Sudan mud
Sankore Mosque
buildings that remains today. He
introduced flat roofs to their mud houses, Timbuktu
and incorporated wooden timbers into
the buildings to reinforce them during
the wet season, when the mud would
start to crumble.
Al-Saheli is credited for designing
the Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, which
still stands today. At the beginning of
each dry season, laborers climb the
wooden beams to replaster the surface.
 Islam
Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by Mohammed in the
early 7th century C.E. in the city of Mecca in Arabia.
Mohammed wrote the Qu’ran, the holy book of Islam, which are
divine revelations that he recorded. Mohammed identified
himself as the last prophet of Islam. Islam quickly spread from
Arabia to the Mideast, Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Djingareyber Mosque, Timbuktu

How did Islam affect Western Sudan culture?
Assimilation
The 9th and 10th centuries C.E. saw
the beginnings of the assimilation of
Islam into the West African culture.
Merchants and traders, who were
Muslims from North Africa and the
Mideast, were settling permanently in
Koumbi Saleh, Timbuktu, Djenne, and
Gao because of the gold trade, and
later, for scholarship.
The existing Mande society was
very tolerant of other religious practices.
People converted voluntarily over time.
Sometimes people were forced to
convert, as we have seen in the
Almoravid Movement during the Ghana
Empire.
The enlightened rulers of Western
Sudan (Sundiata Keita, Mansa Musa,
and Askiya Muhammad) were Muslims
of the Mande culture. Today, the
majority of modern Mali’s population is
Muslim.
Written Tradition
Because Islam is a religion based on
a written document, the Qu’ran, learning
to read and write Arabic is culturally
important. Schools for local youth are
usually part of a mosque in all cultures
that practice Islam.
Today, young boys are taught to
read and write passages from the
Qu’ran in the Great Mosque in Djenne.
They use clay tablets to write on, and
wash away the ink with water to reuse
the tablet. People drink the ink-water for
healing purposes.
Timbuktu: Medieval Center
of Learning
Mansa Musa put Timbuktu on the
map as a center of learning by
promoting scholarship and universities.
At one point, the copying and selling of
books was just as lucrative as the trading
of gold. Timbuktu became a “Mecca” of
learning, with numerous universities and 5 Pillars of Islam
extensive private libraries owned by
individual scholars. Not only was Islam
studied, but also medicine, science,
Faith
A person must voluntarily state his
musice, astronomy, and literature.
or her faith to become a Muslim.
The Askiya rulers during the Songhai
Empire supported Muslim scholars and
Prayer
established public libraries. During this
time, Leo Africanus remarked on the Muslims must pray 5 times a day
"numerous judges, scholars and priests, facing Mecca.
all well paid by the king, who show
great respect to men of learning” (The Charity
Timbuktu Manuscripts Project, 2003, p.
Every year Muslims must give
8).
charity (money, food, or other
Today, thousands of these
means) to the poor.
manuscripts still exist in the cupboards of
private homes. Various UNESCO and
non-profit agencies are trying to Fasting
preserve these treasures.
Muslims cannot eat or drink
between dawn and sunset during
Ramadan (the ninth month of the
Islamic calendar).
Hajj
Every Muslim must make a trip to
Mecca, if he or she is able to, at
least once during their lifetime.
Leo Africanus
Freed slave and scholar
Leo Africanus was from
Granada, Spain. In 1492,
Queen Isabella and King
Ferdinand expelled all Muslims
and Jews from Spain if they
did not convert to Catholicism.
Leo Africanus migrated to
Morocco, and then traveled
across the Sahara to Timbuktu
and Gao.
He then traveled to
Constantinople by sea, where
he was captured by slavers
and given as a “gift” to Pope
Leo X. Realizing this man was
a highly educated scholar, the
Pope freed him and paid him
to learn Italian so that he could
write about his travels to
Western Sudan.
The History and Description of
Africa and the Notable Things
Contained Therein was
published in 1526, and in
English in 1600.
source: http://www.accessgambia.com/information/songhai.html
Songhay Empire
15th - 16th centuries C.E.
The extensiveness of the Mali Empire and a string of ineffectual rulers was making
Niani and Timbuktu weaker and harder to govern. The city of Gao to the east was
getting stronger. Its military leader, Sunni Ali Ber, conquered Timbuktu in 1469, and
later the salt mines of Taghaza. Now the gold and salt trade was in Songhay control.
When Sunni Ali Ber attacked Timbuktu, he sacked the city and ousted the Muslim
leaders, which interrupted trade. A military general, Askiya Muhammad, wrested
control of the empire from Ali Ber’s son. Askiya Muhammad was a devout Muslim
who reinstated the Muslim leaders and trade once again flourished. He was a
political and spiritual leader, who inaugurated the Askiya dynasty during the Songhay
reign. He not only secured control of the gold and salt trade, but expanded the
empire by going to war with non-Muslim populations in surrounding areas, converting
the survivors. He was a skilled empire manager. Muhammad created a centralized
government that used provincial governors to manage the large area he controlled.
He also employed the most intelligent men of the region to advise him.
The Songhay Empire was the largest of the three Western Sudan empires, and the
most wealthy. Its centralized government ensured stability. The fall of the Songhay
Empire lay not so much in poor government, although there were no strong leaders
like Muhammad in the late 16th century. The fall lies in technology. The Moroccan
pasha wanted control of the gold and salt trade. He sent an army across the Sahara
in 1591 to take Timbuktu and the Songhay lands. His army had muskets and cannons.
The Songhay had spears. The Moroccan army easily invaded Western Sudan, and
the great medieval empires became history.
Sankore University
Askia Muhammad funded many universities
in his empire, including Sankore University in
Timbuktu, which was connected to the Sankore
Mosque. Students from all over Africa came to
study astronomy, mathematics, ethnography,
medicine, logic, music, and literature. Scholars
wrote books, copied books, and collected books
in huge private libraries. The book trade was as
lucrative as the gold and salt trade.
 Lesson economics politics culture

How is value determined? Why do empires rise and fall? Universities and Libraries: An

Ideas
Students set up their own
Timbuktu marketplace in the
classroom to trade gold, salt,
leather, and silk. They graph
relative values determined
through their extemporaneous
bartering. In small groups they
analyze why they placed
more value on some things.
Students compare and
contrast Western Sudan
empires to other Medieval
empires in Europe and Asia by
charting political and
economic patterns (see
below).
African Tradition
Students research the rich
history of scholarly tradition in
Western Sudan and email
modern conservators in
Timbuktu for current
information and photos for a
class online library.

language geography culture

arts
How do we know what
happened in the past?
Students learn about the griot
tradition of oral storytelling
and history-keeping. Students
watch video of modern griots,
read Sundiata Keita’s legend,
and then create their own
griot-style praise song for
someone they know and
admire.
How does geography affect
culture? In small groups,
students research the
typography, climate, and
natural resources of Western
Sudan during medieval times,
and draw their own
conclusions as to why the area
became a trading center.
Groups will create models (3D
or 2D) of West Africa.
How does culture change over
time? Students research issues
facing Mali today. They
assume the identity of a person
from Medieval Western Sudan
and write letters “back home”
about what has changed and
why. Students compare and
contrast the past with the
present.

Patterns of Rise and Fall of Medieval Empires of Western Sudan

Strong leadership Strong, enlightened leadership Strong, enlightened leadership
Control of gold and salt Control of gold and salt Control of gold and salt
Centralized government Centralized government Centralized government

GHANA MALI SONGHAY Superior

technology
Political instability Political instability
conquers
interrupts trade interrupts trade
TIME

astronomy Why was astronomy studied at Sankore University?

In small groups, students research how astronomy was used as a navigation tool for caravans and ships, both
vehicles for trade. Students will learn at least 5 major constellations and visit the planetarium. Each group
will have to paint 5 constellations on one wall (N,S, E, W) of the classroom with glow paint. Teacher darkens
room and puts on black light. Constellation naming games and orienteering challenges are made by each
group for other groups to collect treasures and exotic items from far off lands (Oriental Trading stuff!).
Picture Books Resources
Books
Mansa Musa Conrad, D.C. (2005). Empires of medieval West Africa, Ghana, Mali, and
by Kephra
Songhay. New York: Facts on File, Inc.
Burns (2001)
Gulliver Books
Harcourt, Inc. de Villiers, M. & Hirtle, S. (2007). Timbuktu, the Sahara’s fabled city of gold.
New York: Walker & Co.

Ananse and Masoff, J. (2007). Mali, land of gold and glory. Waccabuc, NY: Five Ponds
the Lizard Press.
by Pat Cummings
(2002) McKissack, P. & F. (1994). The royal kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and
Henry Holt & Co. Songhay, life in medieval Africa. New York: Henry Holt.

The Hunterman
Magazines
and the Carpentiere, E.C. [Ed.] (2008, February). Islam in Africa. Faces: People,
Crocodile Places, and Cultures. Carus Publishing Company.
by Bab Wague
Diakite (1997) Sloneker, L.L. [Ed.] (1997, February). Mali. Faces: The Magazine About
Scholastic, Inc. People. Cobblestone Publishing Company.

Publication
The Singing
Boye, A.J., Abid, A., Diakite, S., Dicko, M.G., Hunwick, J.O., Iam, M.D.,
Man O’Fahey, R.S., et al. (2003). The Timbuktu manuscripts project. Retrieved
by Angela Shelf
April 17, 2009 from http://www.sum.uio.no/timbuktu
Medearis (1994)
Holiday House
Video
Davidson, B. [Writer]. (1984). Caravans of gold. Program 3 of Africa: the
story of a continent [Documentary]. Great Britain: Channel Four.
Traveling
Man, The Gates, H.L. [Writer], Godwin, N. & Appio, H. [Directors]. (2000). Wonders
Journey of of the African world [Documentary]. Alexandria, VA: Public
Ibn Broadcasting Service.
Battuta,
1325-1354 Sissako, A. [Director]. (2006). Bamako [Motion Picture]. Mali: Archipel 33
by James Rumford (2001)
Houghton Mifflin
Websites - General Information
BBC: Country Profile
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1021454.stm
Sundiata, Lion
King of Mali
CIA: Mali (Country Profile)
by David
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ml.html
Wisniewski
(1992)
Clarion Books History Channel: About Timbuktu
http://www.history.com/classroom/unesco/timbuktu.html
Chapter Book Resources (continued)
Mali: Ancient Crossroads of Africa
http://mali.pwnet.org/index.htm

The Cow-Tail
Switch and
Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Empires of the Western Sudan
Other West http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wsem/hd_wsem.htm
African
Stories NPR: On the Edge, Timbuktu
by Harold http://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2003/may/mali/
Courlander and
George
Herzog (1947)
MacMillian Websites - Libraries and Manuscript Conservation

New York Times: Project Digitizes Work from the Golden Age of Timbuktu
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/science/20timb.html

New York Times: Timbuktu Hopes Ancient Texts Spark a Revival

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/07/world/africa/07mali.html

Timbuktu Libraries Project

http://www.sum.uio.no/research/mali/timbuktu/project/

source: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/photogalleries/dogon/photo7.html