TRANSFORMER THERMAL

MODELLING

Tutorial of CIGRE WG A2.38

Convenor: John Lapworth, UK
 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

2 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

3 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Purpose of thermal modelling
 Transformer thermal design determines insulation
ageing and life
 Thermal performance is being checked by
measuring mean winding temperature rises at the
end of factory heat run tests
 Traditionally, hotspot temperature were estimated
using assumed hotspot factors
 Advanced thermal modelling tools are now being
developed and implemented to improve the detailed
thermal design and the hotspot temperature
estimation

4 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Scope of WG A2.38
 ‘State of the art’ in transformer thermal modelling
 Practical examples of thermal modelling and limitations
 Dynamic thermal models for calculation of transient
temperatures for transformers subject to conditions of
variable load and temperature of cooling medium
 Good practices for direct measurements of hotspot
temperatures and illustrate use for checking temperature
rises and deriving other thermal parameters required for
modelling
 Consideration of shell-type transformers, for which there
are fewer technical publications

5 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Basic transformer thermal modelling
concepts (from IEC)
 

6 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Reality is ‘a bit’ more complex…
(example of a disk winding with diverting washers)

IEC model (oil and winding)

Oil flow in 
70 Hot Spot
radial ducts
60
Disc number

50

40 Detailed calculation

30

20
Max T corresponds to a min 
10 flow rate in radial duct

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Temperature

7 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Hotspot factor definition in a winding
 H = max [Q x S]
 H: a dimensionless factor to estimate the
increase of the average winding gradient due to
• the local increase of losses (Q)
• variation in the liquid cooling flow stream (S)

h  o Hg r
H 
o  b gr
w 
2

8 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

9 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Eddy losses in windings
 FEM used to calculate the radial and axial magnetic field
 Losses estimated using analytical formula

 2 B y2 t 2
( PE ) axial  Core clamp
24 

 2 Bx2t 2
( PE ) radial 
24 

Core yoke

10 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Eddy losses calculation depends on the
selected cross section

11 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

12 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
 Oil flows in cooling ducts and heat is transferred from
conductors to oil described by two interdependent
network models:
1. The hydraulic network model:
•…to describe the pressure drop experienced by the oil in the ducts

•Due to frictional and

inertial losses

•2. The thermal network ‘model’:

•…to describe the heat transfer between the conductors and the oil

•Conduction between •Convection between the

parts of the solid at surface of the conductors
different temperatures and the adjacent oil

13 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)

14 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
•Possible geometry of a •Thermal Network Model (Solid)
disc winding with zig-zag
cooling ducts
•Heat Conduction (Interior nodes)
 K eq,axial 
  Tdisc j ,i  Tsurface ,north  
 axial 
L
 K eq,axial 
  Tdisc j ,i  Tsurface , south  
 axial 
L
 K eq,radial 
  Tdisc j ,i  Tdisc j ,i 1  
 radial 
L
 K eq,radial 
  Tdisc j ,i  Tdisc j ,i 1   HeatGenerated disc j ,i
 radial 
L

•Heat Convection (surface

nodes)
 K eq ,axial 
  Tdisc ,int ernal  Tsurface , south   hoil Tsurface , south  Toil 
 L 

15 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
•The implementation of both networks result in a non-linear set of analytical
equations.

16 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
•Most of the THN models comprise the same physical mechanisms (Pressure Drop,
Heat Conduction, Heat Convection). They differ on their interpretation and
implementation.
•1. The THN models depend on empirical data such as:
•… Physical properties of the materials
•… Correlations - Friction factors, Heat Transfer Convective Coefficients

•… Potential Measurements – Losses, Bottom Oil Temperature, Average Winding Temperatu

•2. The THN models also depend on architectural decisions such as:

•… Spatial Discretization
•… Numerical algorithms employed

•3. Most of the THN examples are appliable to the windings but they can also
model the radiators and the whole complete cooling cycle.

17 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 THN examples
1980 and 1984….. Early implementation
‘TEFLOW’ described by Oliver (CIGRE paper
12-09, 1984 and Proc. IEE, 1980)
•[2D-Ax, Rosenhow and Hartnett Correlations, Gaussian
Elimination, Jamison and Villemonte Junction Losses,
applicable to OD and OF Designs]

1999…Implementation described by J. Declercq (Transm.

and Distrib. Conference IEEE, Vol. 2, 11-16 April 1999)

•[2D-Ax, Chu correlations, SIMPLE Algorithm, Péclet number,

applicable to OD and ON designs]

2010…Implementation described by Radakovic

(IEEE Trans. Power Del., Vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 790-
802, April 2010)
•[2D-Ax, Literature Correlations, applicable to OD and ON designs,
model complex cooling loops including radiators]
18 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 THN examples
2010…Optimization of the transformers load
described by Picher (Cigré Paper A2-305-2010)

•[2D-Ax, Literature Correlations, Detailed Disc Model,

Coupled Losses Model, Temperature Correction of the
Losses, applicable to ON designs]

2012…Implementation described by
Campelo (Transformer Research and
Asset Management, Cigré HRO, 2012).
•[2D-Ax, Correlations Extracted from CFD,
applicable to ON and OD designs]

19 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

20 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
 Idea and concepts behind CFD
• Generating a CFD model
• Resouces / investments needed
 CFD in transformer thermal modeling
• Winding heat transfer analysis
• CFD and winding thermal networks
• CFD and cooling equipment (radiators)
• Other parts of the cooling circuit
 Use of CFD in the design process
 Summary / Conclusions
21 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Key aspects of CFD
 Accurate modeling
• All relevant mass flow and heat
transport processes can be included
• Fine spatial detail on complex
geometries
 powerful analysis approach
(hotspot)

 Area growing mature:

• Hardware & software support
• Experiences

 Resource & investment

intensive
22 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Key CFD modelling steps
 Generate geometry
 Generate numerical mesh
 Define the problem
 Generate solution
 Analyze

23 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Key CFD modelling steps
 Generate geometry
 Generate numerical mesh
 Define the problem
 Generate solution
 Analyze

24 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Key CFD modelling steps
 Generate geometry
 Generate numerical mesh
 Define the problem
 Generate solution
 Analyze

25 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Key CFD modelling steps
 Generate geometry
 Generate numerical mesh
 Define the problem
 Generate solution
 Analyze

26 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Resources / investments needed
 Competence: CFD is an ”art”, requiring
competence to be acquired and maintained
 Hardware infrastructure
 CFD Software
 Time:
• Developing the CFD model for a particular design
• Running the model
• Analysing the results

27 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 CFD and winding thermal analysis
 CFD allows detailed heat transfer analysis
 Improved understanding on which processes to
include in thermal design

Oil velocities

Internal buoyancy Internal buoyancy

Discs temperature
included excluded
28 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Comparison / validation / improvement of
winding THN models
 Improved correlations
• Local heat transfer coefficients
• Pressure drop correlations
  40 120
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4
35 110

Max. disc temperature (°C)

Mass flow rate fraction (%)

TNM TNM
CFD CFD
30 100
25
90
20
80
15
70
10

5 60
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4
0 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Channel number Disc number

Velocities Temperature
29 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Radiators CFD modelling / experiments

30 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 CFD use in the design process
 Validation and improvement of thermal design
models
• However, thermal design models cannot resolve all
details
 CFD as a tool to generate new or improve
existing design guidelines
• Minimizing effect of hot streaks in oil on hotspot
temperatures
• Improve thermal design reliability

31 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Summary – CFD modelling
 CFD can be applied in several ways
• Improve understanding of thermal behavior
• Validate/improve thermal design models (THN
models, etc.)
• Support design optimization of complex components
• Improve thermal design guidelines
 CFD cannot replace thermal models used in
design, because
• Requires relatively large computing resources
• Requires long simulation time for obtaining results

32 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

33 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Benchmark activities
 WG A2.38 experts calculated losses and
temperature on a transformer winding having
experienced overheating of the top discs
 The results were analyzed by WG members

34 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Electrical characteristics

 Power 40 / 53 / 66 MVA
 Cooling ONAN / ONAF1 / ONAF2
 Voltage HV 225 kV Y
LV 26.4 kV ∆
 Frequency 60 Hz
Z 22.7% at 66 MVA

35 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thermal characteristics

 Disc winding with

diverting washers
 78 discs
 4 ‘passes’ of 19 discs
each + 2 discs at the
bottom

36 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Heat-run test results
 LV winding temperature rise of 61.6 K
 Ambient temperature = 30.2°C
 Top oil temperature = 80.4°C
 Bottom oil temperature = 46.7°C
measurements
IEC model calculations
80.4°C
Top of the tank Hot Spot
Top of the winding

63.4°C 28.3°C
91.8°C

Bottom of the winding
Temperature
46.7°C
37 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Modelling specifications
 Eddy-loss calculated at 75°C
 Material properties (paper, oil, copper)
 Temperature calculation using
• uniform losses
• non-uniform losses (effect of eddy currents)
 Inlet boundary conditions:
• Pre-defined total oil flow rate (0.78 kg/s)
• Bottom oil temperature of 46.7°C

38 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Eddy-loss calculation
Max losses at the top disc Average of results
Q min = 1.79
Q max = 2.66
(DC and Eddy losses)
2000 1764 1400
(128%)
1800
1383 1200
1600 (100%)
1400 1070 1000
Total losses (W)

Eddy loss
1200 (77%)
DC loss

Losses (W)
800
1000

800 600
600
400
400

200 200
0
0
Q-C

Q-D

Q-H
Q-G
Q-F

Q-I
Q- A

Q- B

Q- E

Q- J

s en

e
r ag

39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78
der

Ave

Disc number
An

Team

Divergence can be due to: boundary conditions, level of details

used in the geometry - number of segments in the winding
modelling, analytical vs. proprietary losses formula
39 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Temperature calculation
Uniform losses
130
40
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4 120
35

Max. disc temperature (°C)

TNM
Mass flow rate fraction (%)

TNM

30
CFD 110 CFD

25 100

20 90

15 80

10 70
5
60
0
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel number
Disc number
Non uniform losses
40 150
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4 Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3 Pass 4
35 140
TNM
Mass flow rate fraction (%)

Max. disc temperature (°C)

TNM
CFD CFD
30 130

25 120

20 110

15 100

10 90

5 80

0 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel number Disc number
40 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Conclusion - Benchmark
 Very high Eddy losses at the top of the winding (calculated Q
factors from 1.79 to 2.66) – this is the main contributor to the
high H factor
 Hotspot temperature-rise from 97.7 K to 107.2 K
 Even if the mean winding rise is below 65 K (61.6 K), the
hotspot temperature-rise is much higher than the IEC
standard limit of 78 K
 This explains the overheating of the top disc and the
thermal fault
 This example demonstrates clearly the importance of a
detailed thermal modelling to calculate the hotspot
temperature
 Variation in results is an indication of the complexity of such
modelling and the importance of experimental validation
41 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic Thermal Modelling (DTM)
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

42 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Overview
 DTMs provide a simplified solution of a complex three-dimensional physical
phenomenon of heat transfer inside transformer in the form of critical
transformer temperatures (i.e. top-oil and hotspot temperatures) that can be
applied for real-time monitoring, diagnostics and transformer protection
applications.
 Review of the state-of-the-art
• A comprehensive and well‐referenced introduction to state‐of‐the‐art of dynamic
thermal modelling is given

 Loading Guide Dynamic Thermal Models (DTMs)

• In-service accuracy of dynamic thermal models (DTMs), presented in the
international standard Loading guides are discussed and compared:
• IEC 60354 model (1991)

• IEC 60076-7 model (2005)

• IEEE C57.91 Clause 7 (2011)

• IEEE C57.91 Annex G (2011)

• Models sensitivity to changes in ambient temperature and related phenomena are

considered.
43 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Dynamic Thermal Model Characteristic
Temperatures

44 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Hotspot temperature - Summer

45 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Hotspot temperature - Winter

46 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Standard exponents and constants of
loading guide dynamic models
 Each of given loading guide models require a set of specific
exponents and constants which are empirical values
 Corresponding parameters are obtained from extended heat run
tests the load profile

47 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Summary - DTM
 Loading Guide type algorithms for calculating
transient temperatures have been reviewed, in
particular the new formulation proposed in the latest
edition of IEC 60076 7, which includes a new
‘over shoot’ gradient function and a change to the
recommended winding exponent.
 It is concluded that further research and
development is needed to improve the existing
loading guide models, in particular, to increase the
modelling accuracy during sub zero ambient
condition where the oil viscosity effect is dominant.

48 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

49 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Number of sensors
 For large and strategically important transformers,
e.g. for transformers the number of sensors should
be 8 / main winding.

 For mid-size units units

the number of sensors should be 6 / main winding.
 For small units
the number of sensors should be 4 / main winding.
 It is normally not of interest to install sensors in regulating
windings, tertiary windings or in circulating oil.

ˆ
max  1.8  Z  S

50 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Location of sensors – axial oil circulation
Sensors concentrated to the corner with max. losses

51 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Location of sensors
Zig-zag oil circulation
Location depends on the direction of the oil flow

In the case of 8 sensors:

• The same setup at two locations around the
circumference
In the case of 6 sensors:
• Double the sensors below disc nr 2 and 3
52 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 Content
 Scope & Introduction
 Thermal modelling in steady state
• Input to thermal models = losses
• Thermal-Hydraulic Network Model (THN)
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Benchmark of numerical tools
 Dynamic thermal modelling
 Direct measurements
 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling

53 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling
•Shell-type transformers are widely spread in the US, all the nuclear fleet in Belgium,
half of the nuclear fleet in France, more than 85% of the 400 kV network
transformers in Spain.

•Cooling ducts opened by pressboard spacers

adjacent to the coil.
•Effective heat transfer area between 60-75%.

54 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Shell-type transformer thermal modelling
•No THN models known to date. CFD results are showing Hot-Spots under the
moulded pieces.

•Experimental flow field – Measured Optically

•CFD predicted flow field

•Not conclusive about possible H factors. Still needs to be better understood.

55 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38
 For more information
Brochure (to be published)

56 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38

 Thanks to CIGRE A2.38 members
J. Lapworth, Convenor (UK), P. Picher, Secretary (CA)

Task Force leaders: Jérôme Channet (FR), Jurjen Kranenborg (SE),

Hasse Nordman (FI), Zoran Radakovic (RS), Oleg Roizman (AU), Kees
Spoorenberg (NL), Dejan Susa (NO)

F. Berthereau (FR), H. Campelo (PT), S. Chen (FR), M. Cuesto (ES), V.

Davydov (AU), G. Fleck (AT), T. Gradnik (SI), N. Gunter (ZA), W. Guo
(AU), J.-K. Kim (KR), J. Lee (KR), A. Portillo (UY), N. Schmidt (DE), E.
Simonson (UK), S. Tenbohlen (DE), F. Torriano (CA), F. Trautmann
(DE), W. Van der Veken (BE), Z. Wang (UK), J. Wijaya (AU), G. Wilson
(UK), W. Wu (UK), S. Yamamura (JP)

57 Transformer Thermal Modelling – CIGRE A2.38