THE DU]gLII I JOURNAL

OF

MEDICAL SCIENCE.

A P R I L 1, 1905.

PART I.
:ORIGINAL CO~'V[]Y[UN I C A T I O N S.

ART. XII.--Pro]essor D. MendeldelFs Chemical Conce~-

tion o/ the Ether.a By WALTER G. SMITH, M.D.,
F.R.C.P.I.; Physician in Ordinary to His Excellency
the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.b
I . - - C I I E M I C A L CLASSIFICATION.
IN order to lead up clearly to Mendel6eff's conception as
lo the possible nature o2 the ether, it will be convenient,
in the first place, to briefly refer to the modern mode of
,classification el the elements, and then to present some
details of the discovery of the newly-found inert gases of
lhe atmosphere.
Certain groups of elements present an obvious similarity
in their properties, and it was long ago observed that
remarkable numerical relations exist among their atomic
weights, which are plainly not due to mere chance, and
which are manifestly correlated to the physical and
chemical properties of the elements.
One need only refer to such triads as chlorine (35.5),
bromine (80), and iodine (127); or lithium (7), sodium
" " A n Attempt towards a ChemicM Conception of the Ether." By Pro.
fessor Mendel6eff. Translated from the Russian by G. Kamensky. ~904.
A Communication made to the Dublin BiologieM Club on Tuesday,
,lanuary 17, 1905.
VOL. CXtX.--NO. 400, THIRD SERIES, Q
242 Chemical Conception ot the Ether.
(23), and potassium (39), &c. In each of these groups
the atomic weight of the middle term is the arithmetic-
mean of the other two.
Forty years ago Newlands went a step further and.
pointed out that if the elements, as known in his time,
were tabulated (omitting hydrogen) in the order of
increasing atomic weights, the properties belonging to~
each of the first seven elements reappeared in the second
seven.
Or, in other words, the eighth element, starting from a
given one, is a kind of repetition of the first, like the-
eighth note of an octave in music. Hence, this interest-
ing and notable relationship was named the " l a w of
octaves." Thus, consider the s e r i e s : - -
Li Be B C N O F
7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Na Mg A1 Si P S C1
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5
Each period begins with an alkali metal and ends with
a halogen. Closely allied elements fall into vertical rows.
This fruitful suggestion was elaborated and developed
by a German chemist--Lothar Meyer--and especially by
a Russian chemist--D. Mendel~eff.
Since the promulgation in 1869 of )iendel~eff's classi-
fication the discovery of the five new inert gases of the-
atmosphere, starting from helium (at. wt.-- 4) has intro-
duced a group which takes precedence of those already
recognised.
Accordingly, in order to avoid disturbing the numera-
tion of Group I. of Newland's octaves, which started, as
we have seen, lrom lithium (at. wt.-- 7) the new group is
termed the zero group, an appropriate designation in view
of its chemical inactivity. W e have now, therefore, to
recognise a recurrence oi similar properties in nones
instead of octaves.
So the series will run thus, starting from hydrogen :-
Hydrogen Helium Li Be B C N O
1 4 7 9 11 12 14 16
F]uorine ~eon Na Mg AI Si P S
19 20 23 24 27 28 31 32
 By D~. WAT.TEE G. S•ITtr. 243
Chlorine Argon K
35.5 40 39
Bromine Krypton
80 82
Iodine Xenon
127 128
The helium group of inert gases separates the active
halogen elements from the equally active elements of the
alkali group.
A "period" comprises the number of elements, taken
in order of increasing atomic weights, which are passed
over until an element is met with which corresponds in
properties with the initial element selected.
The minimum" number of elements in a "period" is 8,
but may be more--as many as 18. So we get " s h o r t
periods" and "long periods."
This periodic reappearance of similar properties which
is exhibited by the elements and their compounds as the
atomic weights gradually increase is expressed in Mende-
l~eff's law, viz. : -
The properties el the elements, as well as the properties
el their compounds, ]orm a periodic ]unction el the atorhic
weights el the elements.a
This periodic classification has, to a great extent,
replaced the system of classification founded upon
valency, which is a changeable and uncertain property,.
and does not even exist in the argon group of elements..
Indeed the periodic system practically absorbs and in-
cludes the older method of grouping, and is being adopted
into many recent text-books of chemistry as the most
rational way of classifying the elements. It must, how-
ever, be allowed that the periodic law, although eminently
suggestive, presents many difficulties, and is not yet fully
understood.

II.--THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE INERT GASES.

Atmospheric air has been for many centuries a fruitful
field for speculation and conjecture. To tell the full
I A " f u n c t i o n " is a q u a n t i t y whose value depends upon t h a t of the
variable to which it is related. The variable in this case is atomic weighk
244 Chemical Conception o] the Ether.
story of its nature is in great part to write a history of
chemistry and physics (Ramsay).
Up to ten years ago it was universally believed that the
composition of the air was thoroughly Understood and that
all its constituents were known.
:Roughly, its average composition would have been
stated as---oxygen 20 per cent., nitrogen 79 per cent.,
aqueous vapour> COs, and traces of NHs, HN03, etc.
Contrast this with the modern analysis of air which starts
from the brilliant discovery of argon in 1894 by :Rayleigh
and :Ramsay, one which opened up an entirely new field
ot investigation.
ANALYSIS O F AIR.
i

Vols. p e r [ B.P. M.P.

1,000
t
Nitrogen .. 769.5000 - - 195.5 - - 2 1 3 Colourless liquid

.Oxygen .. 206.5940 - - 182.5 - - 2 2 3 Pale blue liquid

Aqueous Vapour .. 14.0000 --

Argon .. 9.3700 - - 186.1 -- 187. Colourless liquid

Helium : Neon Colourless liquids

Krypton : Xenon I
- 0.012 -- Argon and Neon form
w h i t e solids

White solid
Carbon dioxida .. 0.3360 -- 80

Hydrogen .. O. 1900 -- 253 -- 257 When liquid air evapo-

r a t e s , t h e first a n d
m o s t v o l a t i l e p a r t is
rich in H
T h e p r e s e n c e of H in
sensible quantities as
a c o n s t i t u e n t of n o r -
mal air has been only
recently recogniscd
Ammonla .. 0.0080 38.5 -- 75.5

Nitric Acid .. 0.0005 --

Ozone .. 0.0015 119" '~ = H 2 0 ~

Tests for Ozone are
crude
Liquefied O z o n e is d e . p
blue
Gaseous Ozone has blue
tint
 By DR. WALTER G. S~ITH. 245
There is reason to believe that formaldehyde occurs in the
atmosphere.
ARGON G R O U P - - P R O P O R T I O N I N AIR.
P a r t s per 1,000
Argon .. 9.37 = 1 per cent.
Neon .. 0.01 = 1 in 100,000
Helium .. 0.001
= 1 in 1,000,000
Krypton .. 0.001
Xenon .. 0.00005 = 1 in 20,000,000
Argon and helium have been extracted by heat from
the mineral--Malacone (a variety of Zircon)--and Argon
has been found in one sample of meteoric iron.
There is a far larger proportion of Neon in the gas
from the Bath waters than in the atmosphere (Dewar).
In addition to these novel elements we have further to
recognise that the atmosphere includes radio-active
gaseous emanations (Elster and Geitel), probably derived
from radium "emanation," diffusing out from the soil,
Every falling rain-drop and snow-flake carries some of
this radio-active matter to the earth, while every leaf and
blade of grass is covered with an invisible film of radio-
active material. The gaseous emanation is gradually
transformed into a non-volatile kind of matter.
The amount of radio-active matter in the earth is pro-
bably sufficient to heat it to an appreciable extent, and so
tends to maintain the present internal heat of the earth.
The older methods of determining the composition of
the atmosphere were necessarily of a chemical nature,
because the difference in the physical properties of its
familiar constituents is not sufficiently marked to allow
of these properties being utilised for purposes of separa-
tion.
But the new group of gases found in the air form no
chemical compounds--i.e., there is at present no chemistry
of these strange substances.
How, then, are they isolated ?
We must, it is plain, have recourse to physical methods.
The procedure essentially depends upon utilising the
difference in their boiling points when they are liquefied
by cold and pressure.
246 Chemical Conception o] the Ether.
Now as these boiling points are extremely low down in
the scale, we have to call in the aid of powerful refriger-
ating apparatus, and liquid air, fortunately, comes to our
help.
These new inert gases are all colour]ess, odourless, and
tasteless, and are only sparingly soluble in water.
Their preparation involves two s t a g e s : - -
(a) Separation of other constituents of the air from
them by chemical methods.
(b) Separation of the members of the group from each
other by physical means.
In the first stage the air is passed successively
through (I.) solution o2 caustic soda and quicklime
(absorbs CO~ and other acids) ; (II.) through H~SO 4 (absorbs
I-IiO); (III.) over red-hot Cu (combines with the oxygen);
(IV.) over red-hot Mg; and finally over red-hot pure Ca.
These metals fix all the nitrogen as nitrides of Mg and Ca.
4 Mg + 3 N 2 : 2 Mg~ N3.
Nothing is left now but the inert gases. To separate
these from each other compress the mixed gases into a
bulb. Cool to -- 185 ~ by liquid air.
The product is a liquid, which c o n t a i n s : - -
(a) Liquefied gases, - A. Kr. X.
(b) Gases dissolved in the liquid, - Ne. He.
W e next call in the aid of fractional evaporation.
Remove .the bulb from the liquid air. Its temperature
begins to rise. Then the H e and N o escape first, mixed
with a large amount of A. The rest of the A distils next
and K r and X remain till the last. Repeat the fractionat-
ing process so long as necessary.
In order to separate a mixture of H e and N e we have
to invoke the intense cold obtainable by liquid hydrogen.
By its aid, if a mixture of N o and H e is cooled to
- 2 4 0 ~ N o freezes, and H e remains gaseous and can be
pumped of[. Then warm the N o and pump it of[. Helium
enjoys the distinction of being the only gas which has yet
resisted liquefaction. If its liquefaction should ever be
achieved it is anticipated that by means of the liquid we
could probably reach a temperature only 5 ~ above absolute
zero.
 By DR. WALTER G. SMITH. 247

Helium is obtainable from certain minerals--e.g.,

pitchblende and cl~veite, and Mr. R. Moss considers he
has shown that the H e is occluded in minute cavities in
pitchblende.
But Dr. Morris Travers, an authority of weight, does
not agree with this view. He thinks that we are now
justified in assuming that H e is a decomposition product
of radio-active change, and is present in the mineral in
a state of supersaturated solid solution. Upon heating
the mineral the H e is dissociated, and is liberated with
a velocity which increases with the temperature.
Grinding the mineral even to an impalpable powder,
~as in Mr. Moss's experiments, if unaccompanied by local
heating, should result in the evolution of minute quan-
tities of He only. (Nature, Jan. 12, 1905.)
Helium cannot be induced to recombine with the
original mineral when it has once been driven'off by heat.

III--THE ETHER.
Let me, by way of premise, quote Johnstone Stoney's
neat definition of a theory and of a h y p o t h e s i s : - -
(a) A theory is a supposition which we hope to be true.
(b) A hypothesis is a supposition which we expect to
be useful.
The wave-theory of light postulates the hypothesis of
a medium in which these waves are propagated through
,space.
Very various views have been held as to the nature of
this medium. W h a t is its ultimate constitution? Is it
molecular or continuous ?
Yet, "whatever difficulties we may have in forming a
consistent idea of the constitution of the ether, there can
be no doubt (says Clerk Maxwell) that the interplanetary
and interstellar spaces are not empty, but are occupied by
a material substance or body which is certainly the
largest and probably the most uniform body ~f which we
have any knowledge."
Were the ether an absolutely per]ect fluid the velocity
of light should be infinite. But its known velocity of about
186,000 miles per second seems to be limited by the con-
248 Chemical Conception el the Ether.
stitution of the ether in the same way that sound is:
limited in velocity by the constitution of the earth's
atmosphere, o1' of other conducting subst~lnce through
which it has to pass (Gore).
Professor de V. Wood calculates that a quantity of the'
ether whose volume equals that of the earth would weigh'
about 1-20th of a pound--i.e., about 4-5ths of an ounce.
The pressure would be about 1 lb. on a square mile.
He regards the ether as a very attenuated gas whi(.h
would offer only an insensible resistance to the motion of
planets and comets.
Maxwell's theory that light is due to electrical vibra-
tions to and fro in the ether, and Hertz's magnificent
experimental demonstration of it may j , s t l y be called the
greatest discovery of the nineteenth century. The length
of the light-waves is about J- of an inch; the length
of the electrical waves of wireless telegraphy is many
yards. The problem of light will only be solved when
we have discovered the mechanical properties of the ether.
W e are still in ignorance on fundamental matters con-
cerning the origin of electric and magnetic strains and
stresses (Schuster, Theory of Optics, 1904).
It follows from Maxwell's theory that the combined
effect of the electric stresses in the ether is a momentum
or pressure in the direction of propagation of the wave.
This pressure would tend to push a body which absorbed
the light in the directiori the light is travelling.
This almost infinitesimal ethereal pressure has been
detected and measured by Lebedew, and his beautiful
experiments have been confirmed and extended l)v
Nichols and Hull.
Lebedew's experiments were made with a modified :[orm
of Crookes' radiometer. He has shown that the pressure
is directly proportional to the energy of the incident light,
and is independent of the colour.
The exquisite delicacy and difi%ulty of the experiments
may be gauged by the statement that when bright sun-
light ~alls on a reflecting surface the pressure to be
detected amounts to less than 'a miHigramme per square
metre.
 By DR. WALTER G. SMITH. 24~
A highly interesting application of this discovery is the"
explanation it affords of a long-standing puzzle, viz. : -
W h y do the tails of comets point away from the sun in
the perihelion passage? Comets are not altogether bodies
incandescent through heat, but rather glowing by elec-
tr.icity. This is compatible, under certain circumstances,
with a relatively low temperature. Now, the energy of
the push or pull ~)roduced by electricity depends (other
things being equal) upon the su'r]acc O~ the body acted
upon--that of gravity upon its mass. The efficacy of
solar electrical repulsion relatively to solar gravitational
attraction grows, consequently, as the size of the particles
diminishes. Make this small enough---e.g., the tenuous
matter of the comet's t a i l - - a n d the particles will virtually
cease to gravitate, and will unconditionally obey the
impulse to recession, tIence, the direction of the tails
of comets, admitting that the sun and they are similarly
electrified. (Astrol~hysics, A. M. Clerke.)

] I 4 E N | ) E L E E F F ' S CIIEB~IICAL CONCEPTION OF T I t E ETHER.

I shall now attempt to give some account of the specu-
lations of the veteran Russian chemist, Biendel~eff, as to
the nature oi the ether.
The capacity of the ether to penetrate all substances
may be regarded as the ideal of the diffusion of gases
through metals or other diaphragms.
Hydrogen, which has a small atomic weight, and is the
lightest of all known gases, not only diffuses more rapidly
than any other gas, but also has the faculty of penetrating
through walls of such met'tls as Pt and Pd, which are
impervious to other gases. If, as we assume, the ether
has the faculty of permeating all substances, it must be
even lighter and more elastic (greater vis viva) than It,
and, what is more important, must have a less capacity to
form chemical compounds with the bodies which it per-
meates.
Now, the recent discoveries of the five inert gases have
~amiliarised us with the notion of elements which as yet
have furnished no definite compounds, although they
250 Chemical Conception o] the Ether.
Clearly evince the faculty of solution in water--i.e., of
forming indefinite easily dissociated compounds.
Mendelfieff puts forward the conception that the ether
may possibly be an elementary gas, like H e or A, incap-
able of chemical combination.
Guided by his periodic system Mendelfieff, as is well
known, was led thirty-five years ago to predict the exist-
ence of several then unknown elements, and to enumerate
their physical and chemical properties in a free and com-
bined state.
These elements--gallium, scandium, and g e r m a n i u m - -
were subsequently discovered, and this happy verification
~)f Mendel6eff's prediction clinched the speedy recognition
of the value of his system of classification.
Mendeldeff made these sagacious predictions by follow-
ing the mathematical method of interpolation--i.e.,
finding intermediate points by means of extreme points
whose relative position is known.
He now ventures in a similar fashion, but with less
confidence, to extrapolate--i.e., to determine points
beyond the limits of the known, or, to use a ttibernicism,
to predict backwards.
Arguing from recognised relationships among the
known elements in the periodic system, he looks for the
discovery of two unknown elements having atomic
weights less than that of H, and belonging to the argon
group.
He designates these hypothetical elements as y and x,
and their position in his system is indicated in this table.

Zero Group Group I. Group II., &c., &o.

x y Hydrogen = 1
Helium = 4 Lithium = 7
Neon = 20 Sodium = 23
-Argon = 39 Potassium = 39
Krypton = 82 Rubidium = 85
Xenon = 128 C~esium = 132

He suggests that his hypothetical element y may per-

haps be found in coronium, the name allotted to an
 By DR. WALTER ~r. SMITH. 251
unknown element, whose spectrum is clearly visible in
the solar corona above (i.e., further from the sun than)
that of H.
Several observers think they have discovered traces of
9coronium in their observations on the spectra of volcanic
,gases.
Mendeldeff prophecies that the density of coronium
referred to that of H should be less than 0.2.
Such an attenuated gas could not, in accordance with
the views first promulgated by Johnstone Stoney, be
retained in the earth's atmosphere, but might be found
in the higher regions of that of the sun with its far
greater mass.
But this density of 0.2 is far too high to fit in with the
requirements of the ether. For the atoms of ether must
be of another kind. They must be capable of overcoming
even the sun's attraction, of freely permeating all space,
and of penetrating everything and everywhere.
Hence, Mendel~eff assumes the possible existence of yet
another element, x, which he proposes to identify with
the ether.
In order to be able to penetrate throughout all space its
density must be so small compared with that of It that its
molecular motion would allow it to overcome the attrac-
tion not only of the earth and sun, but also of all the
stars, as otherwise it would accumulate about the largest
mass and not fill all space.
W e need not speak of the imponderability of ether,
but only of the impossibility of weighing it.
As to the size of stars, it is calculated that the mass of
Sirius (inclusive of his satellites) is 3.24 times that of the
sun, and, for aught we know, there may be stars whose
mass is 50 times that of the sun.
]~Iendel~eff considers it not improbable that the par-
ticles and atoms of this excessively light element, x, which
are capable of moving freely everywhere throughout the
universe, have an atomic weight one millionth that of It,
and he computes that they travel with a velocity of about
2,250 kilometres per second--i.e., nearly the velocity of
light.
252 Chemical Conception o] the Ether.
I n fine, Mendel~eff's conception of the ether is that it
consists of a peculiar all-penetrating elementary gas.
He does not pretend to offer more than a tentative
answer to the fascinating problem of the nature of the
ether, and he pathetically refers to his age (70 years) as a
reason why he is not content to pass away without pub-
lishing these thoughts, which, eveu if somewhat crude,
may lead some one to a surer path t~an that vouchsafed
to his vision, enfeebled by the weight of years.
To my thinking the most attractive feature of
Mendeldeff's essay is not his ingenious attempt to reduce
our conception of the ether to a tangible something, but
rather the bold way in which, by logically following out
the periodic law, he seeks to lift the veil that may per-
chance conceal unseen elements hidden behind and
beyond the atom of t[ which has hitherto served as the
starting point for atomic weights.
Against this hypothesis of Mendel6eff may be raised
Clerk Maxwell's classical objection float the ether cannot
be molecular, for, if it were, all the energy of the universe
would be gradually transferred to it, and frittered away
into the irregular agitations which we call heat.
I t must also be noted that Mendel~eff is strictly con-
servative in his views, and rejects all the modern ideas
as to the nature of radiation and electric action, and he
cannot accept the notion of "electrons."
lie is a firm believer in the imm~ftability of the.
chemical atom, and refuses to admit the possibility of the
transformation of one element into another.
Yet are we not coerced by recent investigations t(,
believe in such transmutation ?--and I will, in conclusion,
refer to some beautiful experiments recently made by
Ramsay, which seem to prove ~ that helium gradually
makes its appearance in radium bromide, which has stood
for some time.
An aqueous solution of radium bromide placed in an
exhausted bulb gives off a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen gases (derived from the water), together with a
gaseous "emanation," which, when isolated, gave a spee-
trum resembling that of argon. In two days or so the
 Puerperal Co~ vul,,'wJ~o'. 253

~astonishing observ-ttion was made that this spectrum

faded away, and the spectrum of helium began to assert
itself, and within a week the entire helium spectrum
(nine lines) was observed. In short, the " e m a n a t i o n "
had turned, partially at least, into helium. Similar
results have been obtained by Dewar and Curie. From
50 mmgm. of radium bromide the volume of emanation
procurable at any one time probably would not exceed
that of a large pin's head.
Have we not here the first recorded instance of a trans-
mutation of the elements, and can we doubt that we are
on the threshold of fresh revelations ?
The helium penetrates into the glass, and by heat it
can be liberated from the glass. The beaker gradually
becomes radio-active by bombardment with /~-rays from
the radium bromide.
Perhaps actinium is also produced. Certainly more
than one substance is fonnd. Ramsay considers it is fair
to infer th'~t i,/atoms of ordinary elements could be made
to absorb energy they would undergo change of a con-
structive, and not of a disruptive, nature.
Radium is possibly the child of uranium, and helium,
as we have seen, springs, Minerva-like, from radium.
The presence, therefore, of helium in the sun is an in-
direct indication of the existence of radio-active matter
in that luminary.
It seems probable that the substances which produced
the inert gases, other than helium; no longer survive on
the earth.

ART. X l I I . - l'~,'rl+eral Co+~v~d.~'ioJt.s'.a By R. J. KINKEAD,

M.D. Dubl.; Professor, Queen's College, Galway;
Physician and Gynmcologist to the Galway Hospital.
I1~ the communication I have the honour to ]ay before the
Obstetric Section I do not propose to discuss at length the
,etiology of eclampsia: the subject is obscure and our
knowledge of it defective.
9 Read beforethe Obstetrical Section of the I~oyalAcademyof Medieino
in Ireland on Friday, February 3, 1905.