Eastern philosophy

Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies of South and East Asia, including Chinese philosophy,
Indian philosophy, Buddhist philosophy (dominant in Tibet, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia), Korean philosophy, and
Japanese philosophy.[1][2]

According to Victoria S. Harrison, the category of "Eastern philosophy", and similarly "Asian philosophy" and "Oriental philosophy"
is a product of 19th-century Western scholarship and did not exist in East Asia or India. This is because in Asia there is no single
unified philosophical tradition with a single root.[3]

Contents
South Asian philosophies
Hindu philosophies
Jain philosophy
Buddhist philosophies
Cārvāka
Sikh philosophy
East Asian philosophies
Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Taoism
Legalism
Shinto
Modern developments
Neo-Hinduism and Hindu modernism
Buddhist modernism
New Confucianism
Maoism
Juche
Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy
Controversy
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links

South Asian philosophies

Hindu philosophies
Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life,[note 1] in South Asia. It includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism[6] among
numerous other traditions, and a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal
norms. Hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of
[7] [8]
beliefs.[7] Hinduism, with about one billion followers[8] is the world's third largest religion, after
Christianity and Islam.

Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world, and some practitioners refer to it as
Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way";[9][10][11] beyond human origins.[11]
Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 2] or synthesis[12][note 3][12] of various
Indian cultures and traditions,[13][14][15] with diverse roots[16][note 4] and no single founder.[20]
It prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa),
[web 1] [21]
patience, forbearance, self-restraint, compassion, among others.

In the early medieval times, after the rise of Muslim powers, Hindu philosophy was classified by
Hindu tradition into six āstika (Sanskrit: आ तक "orthodox") schools of thought,[22] or
Adi Shankara the main
darśanam (दशनम ्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as authoritative texts,[23] and four nāstika
exponent of Advaita
(ना तक "heterodox") schools which don't draw upon the Vedas as authoritative texts, and
developed independent traditions of thought. Nevertheless, the various schools are in many
ways related, and share various strands of though. Theāstika schools are:

1. Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition ofconsciousness and matter.
2. Yoga, a school emphasisingmeditation, contemplation and liberation.
3. Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge. Nyāya Sūtras.
4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
5. Mīmāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school oforthopraxy
6. Vedānta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section). V
edanta came to
be the dominant current ofHinduism in the post-medieval period.
The nāstika schools are (in chronological order):

1. Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted free will exists

2. Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied free will exists
3. Jainism, based on the belief inahimsa or non-violence towards all living beings
4. Buddhism, based on the teachings and enlightenment of Siddhartha Gautama
Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensiveepistemological literature called Pramana-sastras.[24][25]

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the
disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta
(Dvaita "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious
philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an
independent school, its tenets absorbed into Y
oga and Vedanta.

Jain philosophy
Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and divinity.
Jainism is essentially a transtheistic religion of ancient India.[26]:182 It continues the ancient Śramaṇa tradition, which co-existed
with the Vedic tradition since ancient times.[27][28] The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief on independent
existence of soul and matter, denial of creative and omnipotent God, potency of karma, eternal and uncreated universe, a strong
emphasis on non-violence, accent on relativity and multiple facets of truth, and morality and ethics based on liberation of soul. Jain
philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of
bondage and the means to achieve liberation.[29] It has often been described as an ascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-
control, austerities and renunciation.[30] It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is
relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.[31] Jainism
strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual
efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.[32]
Throughout its history, the Jain philosophy remained unified and single, although as a religion, Jainism
was divided into various sects and traditions. The contribution of Jain philosophy in developing the
Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksa,
Samsara and the like are common with other Indian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism in various
forms.[33] While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings of Mahavira and other Tirthankaras,
various Jain philosophers from Kundakunda and Umasvati in ancient times to Yaśovijaya Gaṇi in
recent times have contributed greatly in developing and refining the Jain and Indian philosophical
concepts.

Buddhist philosophies
Buddhism is a system of religious beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism is Umaswati codified
a non-theistic religion, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or non- Jain philosophical
existence of a God or gods. The Buddha himself expressly disavowed any special divine status or thought in the
Tattvartha Sutra,
inspiration, and said that anyone, anywhere could achieve all the insight that he had. The question of
which is accepted by
God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably Tibetan Buddhism) do venerate a
all Jains.
number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems yet this practice has taken on different
meanings and has become a skillful mean within the T
ibetan Buddhist practice.

Buddhist philosophy has its foundations in the doctrines of:

Anatta, which specifies that all is without substantialmetaphysical identity

Pratitya-samutpada, which delineates the Buddhist concept ofcausality
Buddhist phenomenological analysis of dharmas, or phenomenological
constituents
Most Buddhist sects believe inkarma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been
done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous
events. One effect of karma is rebirth. At death, the karma from a given life determines the
nature of the next life's existence. The ultimate goal of a Buddhist practitioner is to eliminate
karma (both good and bad), end the cycle of rebirth and suffering, and attain Nirvana, usually
translated as awakening or enlightenment.
Vasubandhu (4-5th century
CE) was a central figure of
See also: Buddhism — Outline of Buddhism — Schools of Buddhism
Yogacara as well as writing
an influential work on
Abhidharma, the
Cārvāka Abhidharmakosa.
Cārvāka, also frequently transliterated as Charvaka or Cārvāka, and also known as Lokayata or
Lokyāta, was a materialist and atheist school of thought with ancient roots in India. It proposed
a system of ethics based on rational thought. However
, this school has been dead for more than a thousand years.

Sikh philosophy
Simran and Sewa - These are the Foundation ofSikhism. It is the duty of everySikh to practise Naam Simran
(meditation on the Lord's name) daily and engage inSewa (Selfless Service) whenever there is a possibility
, in
Gurdwara (Sikh place of worship), in community centres, old people's homes, care centres, major world disasters,
etc. "Ek ong kar Satanam" and "Waheguru" are some mantras used for this purpose. "Ek ong kar Satanam" roughly
translates to "there is one God un-separate from nature and truth is its name". "W
aheguru" is used as a meditative
practice on the Lord's name.
The Three Pillars of Sikhism - Guru Nanak formalised these three important pillars of Sikhism.

Naam Japna – A Sikh is to engage in a daily practise of meditation andNitnem (a daily prayer routine) by reciting
and chanting of God’s Name.
Kirat Karni - To live honestly and earn by ones physicaland mental effort while accepting Gods gifts and
blessings. A Sikh has to live as a householders carrying out his or her duties and responsibilities to the full.
 Vand Chakna - Sikhs are asked to share their wealth within the community
and outside by giving Dasvand and practising charity (Daan). To "Share and
consume together".
Kill the Five Thieves - The Sikh Gurus tell us that our mind and spirit are
constantly being attacked by the Five Evils –Kam (Lust), Krodh (Rage), Lobh
(Greed), Moh (Attachment) and Ahankar (Ego). A Sikh needs to constantly attack
and overcome these five vices; be always vigilant and on guard to tackle these
five thieves all the time.
Positive Human Qualities - The Sikh Gurus taught the Sikhs to develop and
harness positive human qualities that lead the soul closer to God and away from
evil. These are Sat (Truth), Daya (Compassion), Santokh (Contentment), Nimrata
(Humility) and Pyare (Love).
See also Sikhism - Sikh Beliefs - Basic Tenets of the Sikhism - Sikhism Primary Beliefs and
Principles
Diagram showing some of
East Asian philosophies the important Sikh beliefs

Confucianism
Confucianism(儒學), developed around the teachings of Confucius(孔子) and is based on a set
of Chinese classic texts.

Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is a later further development of Confucianism but also went much more
differently from the origin of Confucianism. It started developing from the Song Dynasty and
was nearly completed in late Ming Dynasty. Its root can be found as early as Tang Dynasty,
often attributed to scholar Tang Xie Tian. It has a great influence on the countries of East Asia
including China, Japan and Korea as well as Vietnam. Zhu Xi is considered as the biggest
master of Song where Neo-Confucianism and Wang Yangming is the one of Ming's. But there
are conflicts between Zhu's school and Wang's.
Confucius

Taoism
Taoism (or Daoism) is traditionally contrasted with Confucianism in China. Taoism's central books are the Dao De Jing (Tao-Te-
Ching), traditionally attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu), and theNan Hua Jing (Zhuang Zi/Chuang Tzu).

Legalism
Legalism advocated a strict interpretation of the law in every respect. No judgment calls. Morality was not important; adherence to
the letter of the law was paramount.

Shinto
Shinto is the indigenous religion of Japan. It is a sophisticated form of animism that holds that spirits called kami inhabit all things.
Worship is at public shrines or in small shrines constructed in one's home. According to Shinto practice, relationship with the kami
that inhabit this world is foremost in a person's duties; the kami are to be respected so that they may return our respect. Shinto further
holds that the "spirit" and "mundane" worlds are one and the same. Of all of the tenets of this philosophy, purity is the most highly
stressed. Pure acts are those that promote or contribute to the harmony of the universe, and impure acts are those that are deleterious
in this regard. As a faith, Shinto is heavily influenced by Chinese religions, notablyaoism
T and Buddhism.
Modern developments

Neo-Hinduism and Hindu modernism

In response to colonialism and their contact with Western philosophy, 19th century
Indians developed new ways of thinking now termed Neo-Vedanta and Hindu
modernism. Their ideas focused on the universality of Indian philosophy
. The first of
these movements was that of the Brahmo Samaj of Ram Mohan Roy (1772-
1833).[34] Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) was very influential in developing the
Hindu reform movements and in bringing the worldview to the West.[35] The work
of Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan have also
had a large impact on modern Hindu thought.

Buddhist modernism Gandhi with famous poet

Buddhist modernism refers to "forms of Buddhism that have emerged out of an Rabindranath Tagore, 1940

engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of modernity."[36]

Forces which influenced modern Buddhists like Anagarika Dhammapala, Chögyam
Trungpa and DT Suzuki included Enlightenment values, Western Science and
Romanticism. Buddhist modernism includes various movements like Humanistic
Buddhism, Secular Buddhism, the Vipassana movement, and Engaged Buddhism.

New Confucianism
New Confucianism (Chinese: 新儒家; pinyin: xīn rú jiā) is a traditionalist revival of
Confucian thought in China, beginning in 20th century Republican China and is Hu Shi and DT Suzuki during his visit
associated with New Conservatism. Key New Confucians of the first generation are to China in 1934

Xiong Shili and Feng Youlan. The second generation (1950–1979) include
individuals like Tang Junyi, Mou Zongsan, and Xu Fuguan, all three students of
Xiong Shili. Together with Zhang Junmai, the second generation published theNew Confucian Manifestoin 1958.

Maoism
Maoism is a Chinese Marxist philosophybased on the teachings of 20th-centuryCommunist Party of Chinarevolutionary leader Mao
Zedong. It is based partially on earlier theories by Marx and Lenin, but rejects the urban proletariat and Leninist emphasis on heavy
industrialization in favor of a revolution supported by the peasantry, and a decentralized agrarian economy based on many
collectively worked farms.

Juche
Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official political ideology of North Korea, described by the regime as Kim Il-Sung's
"original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought".[37] The idea states that an individual is "the
master of his destiny"[38] and that the North Korean masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction".
[38]

Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy

There have been many modern attempts to integrate W
estern and Eastern philosophical traditions.
Arthur Schopenhauer developed a philosophy that was essentially a synthesis of Hinduism with Western thought. He anticipated that
the Upanishads (primary Hindu scriptures) would have a much greater influence in the West than they have had. However,
Schopenhauer was working with heavily flawed early translations (and sometimes second-degree translations), and many feel that he
may not necessarily have accurately grasped the Eastern philosophies which interested him.

Recent attempts to incorporate Western philosophy into Eastern thought include theKyoto School of philosophers, who combined the
phenomenology of Husserl with the insights of Zen Buddhism. Watsuji Tetsurô, a 20th-century Japanese philosopher attempted to
combine the works of Søren Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger with Eastern philosophies. Some have claimed that there is also
a definite eastern element within Heidegger's philosophy. For the most part this is not made explicit within Heidegger's philosophy,
apart from in the dialogue between a Japanese and inquirer. Heidegger did spend time attempting to translate the Tao Te Ching into
German, working with his Chinese student Paul Hsaio. It has also been claimed that much of Heidegger's later philosophy,
particularly the sacredness of Being, bears a distinct similarity to Taoist ideas. There are clear parallels between Heidegger and the
work of Kyoto School, and ultimately, it may be read that Heidegger's philosophy is an attempt to 'turn eastwards' in response to the
crisis in Western civilization. However, this is only an interpretation.

The 20th century Hindu guru Sri Aurobindo was influenced by German Idealism and his integral yoga is regarded as a synthesis of
Eastern and Western thought. The German phenomenologist Jean Gebser's writings on the history of consciousness referred to a new
planetary consciousness that would bridge this gap. Followers of these two authors are often grouped together under the term Integral
thought.

Swiss psychologist Carl Jung was deeply influenced by the I Ching. The I Ching (Book of Changes) is an ancient Chinese text from
the Shang Dynasty (Bronze Age 1700BC-1050BC), and uses a system of Yin and Yang, which it places into hexagrams for the
purposes of divination. Carl Jung's idea of synchronicity moves towards an Oriental view of causality, as he states in the foreword to
Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching (Book of Changes). He explains that this Chinese view of the world is based not on
science as the West knows it, but on chance.

Controversy
Some Western thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures. Martin Heidegger is even reported to
[39] It is still commonplace in Western universities to
have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for philosophizing.
teach only Western philosophy and to ignore Asian philosophy altogether, or consider only newer Western-influenced Asian thought
proper "philosophy". Carine Defoort, herself a specialist in Chinese thought, has offered support for such a "family" view of
philosophy,[40] while Rein Raud has presented an argument[41] against it and offered a more flexible definition of philosophy that
would include both Western and Asian thought on equal terms. In response, OuYang Min argues that philosophy proper is a Western
cultural practice and essentially different from zhexue, which is what the Chinese have,[42] even though zhexue (originally tetsugaku)
is actually a neologism coined in 1873 by Nishi Amane for describing Western philosophy as opposed to traditional Asian
thought.[43]

See also
Indian philosophy
Chinese philosophy
Japanese philosophy
Korean philosophy
Middle Eastern philosophy
Indonesian philosophy

Notes
1. Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of
life" ([4]) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in
[5]
 2. Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different
peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion ofAryan and Dravidian occurred, a
complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be
seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over
many centuries."
3. Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic
synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late edic
V Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the
period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."
4. Among its roots are theVedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of
Brahmans (Samuel 2010, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of theIndus Valley Civilisation (;[16] Lockard 2007,
p. 52; ;[17] [18] ) the Sramana or renouncer traditions ofnorth-east India (;[14] [19] ) and "popular or local traditions"
([14] ).

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4. Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13.
5. Flood 2008, pp. 1–17.
6. Nath 2001, p. 31.
7. Georgis 2010, p. 62.
8. "The Global Religious Landscape - Hinduism"(http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx). A
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10. Harvey 2001, p. xiii.
11. Knott 1998, p. 5.
12. Samuel 2010, p. 193.
13. Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.
14. Flood 1996, p. 16.
15. Lockard 2007, p. 50.
16. Narayanan 2009, p. 11.
17. Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3.
18. Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xviii.
19. Gomez 2013, p. 42.
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ut/Juche_Idea.html?id=yC42jwEACAAJ). Foreign Languages Publishing House, Democratic People's Republic of
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p://www.ditext.com/heidegger/interview.html) by William J. Richardson in Sheehan, Thomas, ed. (2010) [1981].
Heidegger: the Man and the Thinker(https://books.google.com/books?id=qIrWZajVZuwC&printsec=frontcover) .
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Publishers. pp. 45–67 (https://books.google.com/books?id=qIrWZajVZuwC&pg=P A45&dq=%22Only+a+God+Can+S
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Philosophy East and West 51 (3) 393–413.
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Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006),Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing
Lockard, Craig A. (2007),Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500, Cengage Learning
Narayanan, Vasudha (2009), Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group
Nath, Vijay (March–April 2001), "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great rTadition",
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Osborne, E (2005), Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhismeacher's
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1. "The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica",sanatana dharma, Encyclopædia Britannica(http://www.britannica.com/E

Bchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma)

External links
Jim Fieser: Classical Eastern Philosophy
atmajyoti.org Articles and commentaries on a wide range of topics related to practical Eastern Philosophy
Kheper Website: Eastern Philosophy

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