Sociology of Indian Society

SOCIOLOGY OF INDIAN SOCIETY
MA [Sociology]
First Year
1.4
MANON MANIAM SU NDARANAR UNIVERSITY

Directorate of Distance and Continuing Education
Abishekapatti, Tirunelv eli-627 012
Tamilnadu, lndia
Author
Ellina samantroy, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of sociology, Jamia Milia lslamia University, New Delhi
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SYLI,ABI-BOOK MAPPING T,ABLE
Sociology of Indian Society
Syllabi Mapping in Book
1. Multifacets of Indian Society Unit 1: Facets of lndian Society

Demographic profile, Religious composition, Linguistic groups, ' (Pages 3-15)
Cultural diversity.
2. Caste System Unit 2: Caste System

Varna and Jati, Characteristics of caste system, (Pages 17€3)
Untouchability, Features ofPCRAct, Changing trends in caste
system.
3. Rural Economy and Religion Unit 3: Rural Economy

Econorny: Agriculture and allied activities, Cottage and small and Religion
scale industries, Changes in village economy. (Pages 35€9)
Religion: Belief and practices, Village temples and festivals,
Changes in religious life.
4. Marriage and Family Unit 4: Marriage and Family

Marriage: Marriage among the Hindus, Muslim's and (Pages 71-95)
Christians, Changing trends in contemporary times.
Family: Significance, Types, Characteristic features of Joint
Family, Changing trends in contemporary times.
5. Patterns of Social Change in India Unit 5: Patterns of Social

Modernization of Indian Tradition, Sanskritisation, Change in lndia
Westernization. (Pages 97-1111
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
UNIT 1 FACETS OF INDIAII SOCMTY 3-15

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Nature of Indian Society
1.3 A Brief History
1.4 Demographic Composition of Indian Society
1.5 Various Diversities
1.5.1 Religious Composition and Diversity
1.5.2 LinguisticDiversity
1.5.3 CulturalDiversity
1.6 UnityinDiversity
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.9 Answers to 'Check Your Progress'
1.10 Questions and Exercises
l.l1 Further Reading/References
UNIT 2 cASTE SYSTEM 17.33
2.0 lntroduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Meanng of Caste System
2.3 Characteristics of the Caste System
2.4 Concept of Varna
2.5 Difference between Varna and Jati
2.6 Recent Changes in the Caste System
2.7 Untouchability
2.8 Features of the Protection of Civil Rights Act -
2.9 Summary
2.10 Key Terms
2.13 Further Reading/References
UNIT 3 RURAL ECONOMY AI\D RELIGION 35.69

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 The Nature of lillage Economy
3.3 Features of Pre-Industrial and Industrial Economic Systems
3.4 The Jajmani System and its Bearing on Traditional Society
3.4.1 Nature of JajmaniRelations
3.4.2 Jajmanl Payrnents and Obligations
3.4.3 Change and Continuity inJajmani Relations
3.4.4 Jajmani System: An Exploitative System
3.4.5 Declin e of Jajmani System and Changes
3.5 The Indian Agrarian Context
3.6 Cottage and Small-Scale Industries
3.6.1 Objectives of Small-Scale Industries
3.6.2 Changing Small-Scale Industries
3.7 Changes in Vllage Economy
3. 8 Industri alization and Social Change
3.8.1 EconomicSfucture
3.8.2 Demographic Structure
3.8.3 Social Structure
3.8.4 Political Structure
3.8.5 Education and Religion
3.8.5 Structural Changes Associated with Development
' 3.8.7 Structural Differences in Periods ofDevelopment
3.9 Meaning of Religion
3.10 The Origin andEvolution of Religion
3.10.1 Evolutionism; 3.10.2 CriticismofEvolutionism
3.11 Sacred and Profane
3. 12 Social Functions ofReligion
3. 12. I
Religion: A Functionalist Perspective
3.12.2 Integration through Values
3.12.3 Integration through Social Control
3.12.4 Dysfunctions of Religion
3.13 Sects and Cults
3.14 Pluralistic Religion
3.15 RwalReligion
3.16 Beliefs and Practices in Villages
3.16.1 Rural Worship; 3. 16.2 Beiiefs and Practices of Rural People
3.17 Village Temples and Festivals
3.18 Summary
3.19 Key Terms
3.22 F wther Reading/References
UNIT 4 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY 7I.95

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Meanng of Marriage
4.3 Forms of Marriage
4.3.1 On the Basis ofNumber of Spouses
4.3.2 Levrate; 4.3.3 Sororate
4.4 Hindu Marriage as a Religious Sacrament in India
4.5 Forms of Hindu Marriage
4.6 Rules of Mate Selection
4.7 TribalMarriage in India
4.7.1 Preference in Mate Selection
4.7.2 Marriage among different Ethnic Groups
4.7.3 Divorce among Hindus
4.8 Marriage among Muslims
4.9 Divorce among Muslims
4.10 Marriage among Christians
4.11 Recent Changes in the Institution of Marriage
4.12 The Structural and FunctionalAspects of Joint Family
4.12.1 StructuralAspects ofJoint Family
4.12.2 Functional Aspects of Joint Family
4.13 Recent Changes in Joint Family
4.14 Summary
4.15 Key Terms
4.16 Answers to 'Check your progress,
UNIT 5 PATTERNS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN TNDIA 97-ttl

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Meaning of Social Change
5.3 The Need to Study Social Change
5.4 Some Allied Concepts of Change
5.5 Continuify and Change as Fact and Value
5.6 Meaning of Sanskritization
5.6. I Brahminization to Saaskritization
5.6.2 Models of Sanskritization
5.6.3 TheRole oftheDominantCaste
5.7 Westernization
5.7. 1 ril'estern :r;alion and Modernization
5.7.2 Westernuatimand Socio-Cultural Changes
5.7.3 Relation between Sanskritization and Westernization
5.8 Tradition andModernity in India
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Terms
5.11 Answers to 'Check Your progress,
5.13 Further Reading
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Sociology is the science that studies the various aspects of society. This book, NOTES
Sociolog,t of Indian Society deals with the various facets ofthe Indian society.
The book has been divided into five units for the convenience of studying these
aspects.
The first unit discusses the briefhistoryand natwe <jfthe Indian society. It
also analpes the demographic composition ofthe countrywhile examining fictors
like language, culture and religion r,vhich act as uniting as well as dir,idrng factors
forthe country.
The second unit elaborates on the Indian caste system b), detailing the
meaning, characteristics and nature of traditional caste systems in India.. It also
discusses the differences between vama andjati andthe recent changes brought
about by legislations in the caste system. The unit analyses the features of the
Protection of CMI Rights Act, 1 955 and the subsequent amendments thereof
The third rinit discusses the nature oftraditional nral economyand its social
effects. It moves 6n 16 discuss the varied changes in the traditional rural economy
in the country brought about by worldwide industrializat ion. The j ajmani system,
the introduction ofcottage and small-scale industries andtheir subsequent effects
on the Indian rural socio-economic scenario have also been herein analysed.
The various forms ofmarriage existing in the Indian society and the effects
thereofon the smallest structure of society, fu-ily, etc., have been critiqued in the
fourth unit. The unit discusses the types ofmarriages held in the Hindu, Muslim
and aboriginal tribal communities in the country.
The last unit elaborates on the various pattems of social change in India. It
discusses the traditional social fabric vis-d-vis the influence that the British rule
brought along with it. The unit outlines Srinivas' concept of ,sanskritizationand
the domination o f certain castes in the social structure.
The book, Sociolo g,, of Indian S o ciety has been written in the self-leaming
format. Each ofthe units begins with an 'Introduction', followed bythe 'Unit
Objectives' and then the details ofthe topic of each unit. At the end ofthe unit is a
'Summary' and'Key Terms' to hep students recapitulate the contents. The'Check
Your Progress'and 'Questions and Exercises' sections in each unit also help in
better understanding ofthe subject. 'Further Reading' creates a research interest
in students for further exploration ofthe topics covered.
S elf- In s truc ti o na I Materia I

1
Facets of Indian Society
UNIT FACETS OF INDIAN

SOCIETY
NOTES
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Nature of Indian Society
1.3 A Brief History
1.4 Demographic Composition of Indian Society
1.5 Various Diversities
1.5.1 R.eligious Composition and Diversitv
1.5.2 Linguistic Diversity
1.5.3 Cultural Diversity
1.6 Unity inDiversity
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.9 Answers to 'Check Your Frogress'
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about the demographic composition oflndian society.
This unit will also help you understand the nature of Indian society and its
multidimensional aspects. It discusses the various diversifying factors oflndian
society and also analyses how these diversities can act as unifying forces, thereby
reflecting on unity in diversity. The unit gives an introduction to Indian society and
also analysesthe conplexnature oflndian societywithdiversifyinginfluences and
the common bond which unifies it.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

Aft er going through this unit, you will be able to :
o Describe the nature and characteristics oflndian society
o Explainthe various diversities interms ofreligiorl language and culture
o Analyse the unifying forces oflndian society
1.2 NATURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

India is a vast country withgeogaphic aL area of3 ,2ST ,240 sq km and a population
a
of over one billion. The societyin India is quite old and complex innature. Many
scholars have diverse opinions on the origin oflndian society. However the old
Self-InstmctionalMalerial 3
heritage oflndian society has shown enough evidence ofimmigrants from various
raaial, ethnic and religious groups. 'India's cultural heritage is one ofthe most
ancient, extensive and varied among all those who make up the cultural heritage of
mankind. Throughout the ages many races and peoples contributed to India's
NOTES culture. Some came into contact withher onlytenporari$, others seffledperrnanently
within her borders. The keyrote ofthe distinctir,e culture thus evolved was synthesis
on the basis ofeternal values'. t So India has a long history and its cultural tradition
isveryrich.
1.3 A BRTEF HISTORY

Indian societyhas undergone crises andfurbulences inthe past. Various aspects
oflndiansocietyhave contributedto its dpamic character. T.K. oommenrightly
says,
The social formation of the Indian society is the end product of a long historical
process. The more important elements which moulded the process are: one, the
Aryan invasion estimated to have occurred about 3 500 years ago which brought
Hinduism, the caste system and Sanskrit to the Indian subcontinent. Before this
intervention the land was occupied by pre-Aryan adivasis (early settlers) and
non-Aryan Dravidians; two, the emergence of Hindu protestant religions such
as Jainisrn and Buddhism, some 2600 years ago; three, the advent of christianity
in the first century and Islam in the 7th century. These were pre-colonial and pre-
conquest intrusions which occurred through immigration and the conversion of
local upper castes; four, arrival of tinyimmigrant religious communities such as
Jews, Zorastrians, and later the Bahai's; five, Muslim conquest ofNorth India
which began in the Sth century and continued till the 18th century turning the
Indian subcontinent into the largest Muslim congregation in the world; six, the
emergence ofyoungest Indian religion, Sikhism, nearly45O years ago with ptrnjab
at its epicentre; seven, western christian colonialism which started in South
India and gradually spread to the rest ofthe subcontinent.2
1.4 DEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION

OF INDIAN SOCIETY
The population of India on I March 200 1 stood at 1,028,7 37,436 (i.e. more than
102 crore or rnore thanT,a2l million or more than one billion), according to the
provisional results released by the office ofthe Registrar General and Census
Commissioner oflndia. Of this, 532,223,090 were males and 496,514,346 werc
females. Thus India became the second country in the world after China to officially
cross the one billion mark. India's rich cultural heritage is reflected in its 28 states,
each unique in its own way and contributing to the glory oflndia. Among the states
in India, Uttar Pradesh is the most populous with a populatio n of 166,197 ,921
r'Excerpts from the introductory remarks in 'The

cultural heritage of India', vol. 1,
Sri Ramakrishna Mission Publication.
2'
Ootnmen, T.K., 2005, Crisis and Contention in Indian Society. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
4 Self-InstructionalMaterial
andthe statewiththe lowestpopulationis SilCcimwith 540,84las itspopulation. Facets oflndian Socie|
India's sex ratio is 933 females per 1000 males. The state with the highest sex
ratio is Keralawhich is 1,058 perthousand, slightlymore thanthe national average.
However, Haryana has the lowest sex ratio which is 861 per thousand males.l
The sex ratio is an important social indicator ofthe equityprevailing between NOTES
males and females. Though India has witnessed women being accorded a high
status during theVedic times, this has deteriorated withthe passage oftime. Muslim
invasion dwing the medieval period was also an important.factor for the deploring
condition ofwomen today. A lot ofeffort was made by socialreformers to enhance
the status ofwomen. But genderequalitystillhas alongwayto go sincepatriarchy
is deeply embedded in the Indian social structure.
Mahatma Gandhihad said, 'India lives in its villages'. The majorityofthe

population in India lives in villages with agriculture as the main means oflivelihood.
The Census fromthe office ofRegistrar General and Cersus Cornmissioner, 2001
shows India'sruralpopulationas742,490,639 (722%) while, theurbanpopulation
is 286, 1 1 9,6 89 (27 .8%). Therefore, Gandhiji envisioned 'Gram Swarai ' wherein
there wouldbe social and economic changes in the villages. About Harijans he
remarked, I have believed and repeated times without number that India is to be
found not in its few cities but in its 7,00,000 villages. we town dwellers have
believed that India is to be found in its towns and the villages were created to
minister our needs. We have hardly ever paused to inquire ifthose poor folk get
sufficient to eat and clothe themselves with and whether they have a roofto shelter
themselves from sun and rain (Gandhi, 1 9 36:63). This illustrates how the entire
edifice oflndian culture and civiiization is built on a platform of tradition.
CrrucrYouR PRocRESS
l. Name two protestant religions oflndia.
2. Which is the most populous state in India?

3. Which is the state withthe highest sex ratio?
4. Who said, 'India lives in its villages'?
1.5 VARIOUS DIVERSITIES

It is often said that there is no other
countrythat offers the same cultural diversity
as India. India is indeed unique when it comes to diversity, with29 different states
each with their own distinct traditions and character, and a population rich rn ith
diverse religious faiths, dress and accents. Such a level ofdiversity could perhaps
be found elsewhere in an entire region such as Europe; however, in India this
diversify is contained within the boundaries ofa single nation.
t th. **tt.t f-te been taken from the Office of the Regishar General and Census Commissioner,
India.
SelJ-Instructional Material 5
India is a vast country and from north to south and east to west various
cultures have amalgarnated, promoting culturalpluralismamidst cultural diversity.
The composition oflndian society reflects the various diversities existing in India.
It is essentialto remember that the bulk ofthe Indianpopulation represents racial
NOTES admixture in varying degrees. Racial origins, however tenuous, are apart ofthe
ethnic memoryofmost ofthe communities. This plays a significant role in shaping
their identity and self,-image. In this unit we will discuss the reiigious, linguistic and
cultural composition of India and observe hov,r these act as diversifying factors
and at the same time have an underlying unity. Diversity in India is found in terms of
race, religion, language, caste and culture. Sociologists saythat tndianunityhas
beenbothpolitico-geographic and cultural innafire. The diversities have remained,
but simultaneouslyprovided for a mainstream culture.
1.5.1 Religious Composition and Diversity
Indian societyis divided into a large number ofreligious communities. Broadly

there are seven major religions, Hinduisrq Islanr, Christianity, Jainisnl Buddhisr4
Sikhism and Zorastrianism. kr Indi4 Hindus constitute the majority ofthe population
(80.5%). The Muslims are the second largest religious group (13.4%). The
Christiansabout(2.3Yo),Sikhs (1"9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains(0.4%), and other
religions like Jews, Zorastrians, Parsis, etc., comprise (0. 6%). Al1 these religions
are further divided into various sects. Though the other religious communities are
numericallyless, yet their contributionto India's culturalheitage is noteworthy.
Table 1.1 illustrates the distribution ofdifferent religious communities in India.
Tsble 1,1 Distribution of Dffirent Religious Communities in India
Religious Composition Population Percentuge (%)
Hindus 827,578,969 80.5

Muslims 138,1 89,240 13.4
Christians 24,090,0i6 2.3
Sikhs 19,215,730 1.9
Buddhists 1,955,2A7 0.8
Jains 4,225,453 4.4
Other religions and persuasions 6,639,626 0.6
Religion not stated 727,5gg 0.1
'fotal 1,028,610,329 100.0
Sourcez 2010-11, Ofrce of The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi.
ly'ole: Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao-Maram and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district
of Manipur State.
AJI religious groups are further divided intemally. The Muslims mak.e up a
large proportion of the totalpopulation in Jammu and Kashmir. Some coastal
districts in Tamil Nadu and Kerala and in Lakshadweep comprise entirely of
6 Self-lnstntctional Material
christians. sikhs are more numerous in punjab. Buddhists are mostly
found in Facets of Indian Society
Maharashtra andAnrnachal Pradesh and the Zorastrians in and around
Mumbai.
The christians are more numerous in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra pradesh
and
tfe North-East Region. They make alngeproportion of the total population
in
theNorth-East. NOTES
Traditionally different religions have existed in krdia in peacefirl coexistence.
The secular nature oflndian society was well acclaimed worldwide. But
the British
policyof'DivideandRule'andthepartitionofthe countryledto various corrrnunal
tensions. communalism, which is blind loyaltytowards one's own religion,
has
created conflicts and tensions among various religious communitier. politi.,
practised in the name ofreligion has firther aggravated the problem
as zuch politics
is based onnarrow vested interests. Article 25 oftheConstitutiongives
all religious
cornrnunities the right to 'profess, propagate and practice their religion'
. It is peJinent
to know that the right to propagate one's religion was includedL deference
to the
concenN ofthe minority communities, particularly Muslims and christians,
who
maintained that preaching and propagating their faith was an essentialpart
oftheir
religion.
Hinduism is the oldest religion and is divided into various sects and cults.
Hinduism is basicallydivided into Shaivite (worshippers oflord Shiva),
Vaishnavite
(wonhippers oflord vishnu), Shakta (worshippers of Shakti or Mother
Goddess
in different incarnations like Durga, Kali, parvati, etc.) and Smarta (worshippers
o_f all the three Gods).Even among these there are further
sub-divisions *t g
Hindu religi'n more complex. Moreover, the Hindu religion has accommodated
many Gurus, saints and their followers like swami Chidanand, Shivanand,
etc.
some sects like Satnami, Kabirpanthi, Radhaswami, Swaminarayan, etc., are
also
prer,alent in Hinduisrn Brahmo sarnaj andArya samaj are also apart
ofHinduism
Therefore Hinduism r,vith its diverse cults, sects, rituals and doctrinal differences
accommodates many believers.
Muslims are divided into two major groups, Sunnis and shias, out ofwhich
Sunnis have a larger population than Shias. Indian Christians are divided
into
catholics and Protestants; whereas Buddhism is arso divided into two, Mahayana
and F{inayanabased on differences inreligious doctrines. The Jains in
India are
divided into Digambara (unclothed) and Swetambara (white robed). The Jains
do
not practise untouchability and no restrictions are observed with regard to
commensalityandsocialintercourse. It isinterestingto note thatbothBuddhism
and Jainism evolved as a protest against the tsrahminical social order
and the
superior position ascribed to Brahrnins.
Siktism is a synthesizing religion and the majority ofthe Siktrs are found in
Punjab. However, after partition there has been a Lrge scale migration
and now
Sikhs are fourd alrnost everywhere in India and even in other like u.K.
and u.S, Theirunique tradition oflangar (free food for all) has "oi*tri.,
brought together
ryanyreligrous cornrnunities and also inculcatedthe feeling ofcomnunityand irvice
to mankind. Sfthplaces ofworship, Gurudwaras, are f,ound weryuzhere
in the county.
Self-lnsn'uctianalMaterial 7
Facets of Indian Society The Parsis and Jews in India are smallreligious communities who have
contributed alot towards the industrialdevelopment oflndia, e.9., JamshedjiTata
who founded the Tata group of industries. The Parsis are mostly fountl in Murnbai
and Jews are found in Kerala and Maharashtra.
NOTES
While the religious composition oflndian society has also resulted in the
diversiffing ofreligion, there is no denying the fact that religion has also acted as a
uniffing force. While most societies grant individuals the right to religious belief in
lndiacommunities enjoythe right to continuewiththeirdistinctreligious practices.
Perhaps the most signific antpart ofthis is that in all matters of family, individuals
are governed by their community personal laws (Larson, 20O1).Religious
communities also have the right to set up their own religious and charitable
institutions; they can establish their own educational institutions, and above all,
these institutions can receive financial support from the state. Thken togetheE these
are the ways by which public recognition has been granted to difflerent religious
communities and space given to them to continue with their way of life (Mahajaa
ie98).
India has many religious festivals which are celebrated amongst all religious
communities. Festivals like Diwali, Id-ul-fitr and Christmas are celebratedbyall
religious commtrnities. Centres ofpilgrimage suchasBadrinath, Rameshwaranl
Kedarnath, Ajmer Sharif and many more attract people from every corner of
India acrossreligious lines and strengthenthe process ofnationalintegration. The
touristplacesportraying beautif.rlMuslimarchitecture like the Taj Mahal, Lal Quila,
Qutub Minar, eta., attractpeople from allwalks of life.
CrrucxYouR PRoGRESs
5. Which are the seven major religions in india?

6. Which two factors led to communal tension in India?
7. WhichArticle inthe Constitution gives Indians the freedomto practice
their ownreligion?
8. Whichtwo groups are Muslims divided into?

9. Name three pilgrimage destinations in India.
1.5.2 Linguistic Diversity
India has ahvays been multi-lingual courtry Language has also been an inportant
a
source of diversity as well as unity in India. According to the Grierson (Linguistic
Survey of India, 1903-28) there are 179 langaages and as many as 544 dialects
inthe country The Constifutionoflndia, inits 8th Schedrrlerecognizes 22 official
languages withEnglish as an important associate language. Allthe rnajor languages
have difflerent regional variations and diaiects. Some ofthe dialects ofHindi are
Bhojpun, Rajasthani, andHaryanvi. Originally, only 14languages were included
inthe Sth Sohedule. Bodo, Dogri, Konkani, Maithili Manipuri, Nepali, Santhali
8 Self-Instructional Material
and Sindhi were recognized later. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru had rernarked, 'The makers Facets of Indian Society
ofthe Constitution were wise in laying down that all the 13 or 14 languages were
to be national languages.' The languages listed in this schedule have acquired
different ftlmes at different stages andarebetterknownasthe scheduled languages
now. The Minorities Commission report and the official Language Resolution 3 of NOTES
1968 considered languages listed in the schedule as rnajor languages ofthe country
The'Programme ofAction' Document, I 992 ofthe National policy on Education,
1986 corsidered them as modem Indian languages.
The highest literary awards in the country are given to i4 literary languages
in India by the S ahitya Academy, and newspapers and perio dicals are published in
35 languages everyyear.
English is recognized as an inportant instrument ofknowledge disseminatioa
commerce and maintenance of international relations. Aprovision was made to
extend the use ofEnglish language inthe article 343 as 'officiallanguage ofthe
union' for all official purposes of the union even after a period of fifteen years
with a provision that 'the President rnay, during the said period by order authorize
the use ofthe Hindi language in addition to the English language'.
Table 1.2 provides ahst of Z2languages arranged in descending order of

speakers' strength. originallyamong the scheduled languages, the speakers of
Hindi had the highest percentage (4 1 .03?0. Ho\r'ever, it is noticed that the linguistic
regions in the country do not maintain a sharp and distinct boundary rather they
gradually merge and overlap in their respective border zones.
Tuble 1.2 scheduled Languages in Descending order ofspeakers'strength, 2001
,S/. Na Language Percentuge of Total Population
1 Hindi 41.03
2 Bengali 8.11
J Telugu 7.19
4 Marathi 6.99
5 Tamil 5"91
6 Urdu 5.01
7 Gujarati 4.48
8 Kannada 3.69
9 Malayalam 3.21
l0 Oriya 3.21
11 Punjabi 2.83
l2 Assamese 1.28
l3 Maithili 1.18
t4 Santhali 0.63
15 Kashmiri 0.s4
contd...
Self-lnstructional Material 9
Facets of Indian Society 16 Nepali 0.28
t7 Sindhi 0.25
18 Konkani 0.24
t9 Dogri 0.22
NOTES
20 Manipuri 0.r4
21 Bodo 0.13
22 Sanskrit N
Saurce: 2010-ll, Office of The Registrar Generai & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi.
* Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao-Maram and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district
of Manipur for 2001.
* * The percentage of speakers of each language for 200 t has been w orked out on the total
population of India excluding the population of Mao-Mararr, Paomata and Purul sub-
divisions of Senapati district ol Manipur due to cancellation of census results.
N- Stands for negligible.
Though all the languages spoken in India are different from each other, yet
they may be grouped into four linguistic families; the Austric F'amily (Nishada),
Dravidian family (Dravida), S ino -Tibetan Family (Kirata) and Indo -European
Family (Arya). The languages ofthe Austric family are spoken bytribal people in
Meghalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in parts of Central Indian tribal
belts like Ranchi, Mayurbhanj, etc.
The languages ofthe Dravidian farnilyare spoken in southernparts oflndia.
The dialects and languages ofthe Sino-Tibetan family are spoken are spokenby
the tribalpeople ofthe North-Easternregion and inthe sub-Hirnalayan region in
the North and North-West. People in the Ladakh region, Jammu and Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh also speak these languages. The speakers ofthe languages
of Indo-European family are found in North India. The majority ofthe people in
the North Indian plains speak Indo-Aryan (Indo-Ernopean family). Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh also have large population of speakers ofthese languages.
The degree oflinguistic diversity in india is perplexing, not only for visitors
but also for Indians. Each ofthe country's 28 states has adopted one or two ofthe
22 officiallanguages. India's linguistic barriers are compounded by the fact that
eaohlanguage also has aunique writtenfonrl with ana$habetthat is unrecognizable
to people who are ignorant ofthat language.
The linguistic diversity found across India stems from a history that saw
numerous ancient kingdoms, each with its own language. These languages rernained
distinct to the area even after a kingdom was dissolved or merged with another.
State lines later drawn by the colonial rulers often crossed former political and
lingu ist ic bo undaries.
After Independence, many of the southern states in India opposed the

installation offIindi as lndia's national language. Simultaneously there rvas a strong
lobby across different regions ofthe country for organization of siates on a linguistic
basis. This has resulted in the protecting and encouraging of linguistic diversity.
l0 SeU:lnstnrctionul Mqterial
The forrnration ofgroups based on cornrnon linguistics, each with the political rights Facets of Indian Society
to administer itselfwithinthe skucture ofthe federalspterq rezultedinthatparticular
linguistic community becoming the majority in that specifi c region. The recent
Telengana issue is an important example w'here there was a demand for a separate
tringuistic province. 'Language also becomes a diversi$ring factor when it is used NOTES
as a vote bank for politics'. (Kamraj Nadar)
Slogans like 'TamilNadu forTamils', 'Maharashtra lbrMarathis'. and so

on further aggravated the language problem.
Aithough there is a great diversity of languages and dialects in India,
fundamental unity is found in the ideas and themes expressed in these languages.
Sanskrit has influenced manylanguages inlndia. However in spite ofdiversities
Hindi continues to be the national language and people of one State can
communicate withpeople ofanother S tate and,amtronal language generates national
sentiment.
CmcrYoun Fnocnnss
10. Name ttrree dialects ofHindi.
II . How many languages were officially recognized in the 8th Schedule?

12. Whatposition does Englishhold in India?
1.5.3 Cultural Diversity
India is a multi-cultural society and is a fine example of diversity and unity in

cultures. India's rich natural resources have attracted many from across the world
bringing about great diversity in human cultures. Powerfulkingdoms and empires
contnbuted to the shaping oflndia's culturalregions. The various conquests in the
historical past have also been responsible for creating diversity. The bulk of the
Indian population represents racial admixture in varying degrees. Unlike several
other landswhere the dominant humancultures have tendedto absorb or eliminate
others, inlndiathetendencyhasbeento nurture diversity, w}ichhasbeenfavoured
by the diversity ofthe country's ecological regimes. (Gadgil and Guha, lgg2)
From the beginning, Indian civilization has witnessed a pluralistic culture.

This pluralistic culture which has its roots in the vedic period, was enhanced by
the upsurge ofBuddhism and Jainisrq and was fi.rther reinforced during the early
medieval period, which saw the founding of the Bhakti Movement. ve<lic society
was an admixture ofdiftbrent cultures. It was a combination ofAryan and non-
Aryan, with amix oftribal elements added. There are ffulnycuitures which co-
exist simultaneously in India. Communities in India demonstrate commonalities in
culture traits irrespective ofwhich religious background they belong to, even though
these religious groups are firther subdivided.
Self-lnstructional Material I I
Facets of Indian Society Many studies on cultural diversity and syncreticismhave been conducted
by sociologists and anthropologists like Y. SirgfU N.K. Das, Madan, Majumdar,
etc., w{rich adhere to various sociological approaches like Structwal Functionalism
ofRadcliffe Brown or Functionalism ofMaiinowski. However, all this research
NOTES proves that in spite ofthere being so many contrasts and diversities, there exists an
underlying thread ofunity which is seen in cultural and regional traits. India has
undergone many cultural changes since independence. On one hand, where ethnic
and regionalgroups or castes, tribes, minorities and other groups are fighting for
their individual identities, there is a pervasive comrnonality of many integrative
culturalprocesses. In India we cannow increasingly see a rise in 'inter-regional
migration' which results in the merging ofregional cultural traits, cooking pattems,
cultural perforfirances, riiual forms, sryles ofdress and ornamentation. A sense of
synchronization is evolving which helps in dissolving prevailing differences and
contributes towards culhral consistency.
Moreover, the role played by Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature
in strengthening India's unity is praiseworthy. India celebrates various festivals
together which reflect the solidarity ofpeople oflndia amidst cultural diversity.
Thus it is to be noted that diverse societies in India have evolved through dialogue
and interactions at different levels. The multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual
and multi-religious society in India is the result of a constant exchange of ideas
amongst the various groups. India is the best example of portraying various
diversities and within this diversity a peculiar thread ofunityprevails making India
aunique nation.
1.6 UNITY TN DIVBRSITY

When India became independent n 19 47, freedom fighters and those who framed
our Constitution worked on a document which provided for a cultural$ diverse
state. Independent India had to allay the fears of its people and the leadership was
urged to keep to its promise ofproviding equality to all the people oflndia. Respect
forthe individual couldonlycome about throughrespecting the diversebeliefs and
traditions that the people represent
Unity in diversity expresses the opinionthat India can remain a strong and
unified countrywhile retaining its culturaldiversrty. As aresultofthe geographical
mobility ofpeople, various parts ofthe country are found to have commonalities in
their ways oflifb. Religious communities share fiulny cofirmon cultural rights but
this doesnot extendto themhaving anyseparatepoliticalrights, whereasrecognized
linguistic communities enjoy culturai and political rights. These rights have
simultaneously encouraged ciiversity and strengthened democracy.
Other areas like judiciary or law are also based on the principle ofequality.
Asingle Constitution, a national flag, comtnon cuffency, national anthem, etc.,
further strengthen the unity of India. All Indians are conscious that they hbve a
12 SeA-Instructional Material
distinct nationalidentityamidst various diversities. Thevariorx historicalmonuments, Facets of Indian Society
temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras atttactlot oftourists andreinforce
the
bondofunity.
NOTES
CrmcrYouR PRocRESS
13. What tluee symbols do Indians have in common?
14. Name an anthropologist who conducted studies on cultural diversity.
I.7 SUMMARY
r India is a vast countrywith
a population ofover one billion. Tluoughout the
ages, manyraces andpeoples have contributedto India's culture. This unit
discussed the nature and composition of Indian society. It provides an
understanding about the nature of various diversities prevailing in India,
namely religion, language and culture, and here you learn how these
diversifying forces simultaneously act as unifying forces.
o The majority ofthe Indian population lives in its villages, impacting the entire
edifice oflndian culture and making it traditional in nature.
o Traditiorlally different religions have existed in India in peaceful coexjstence .
The secular nature o flndian society was well acclaimed worldwide till the
British policy of 'Divide and Rule' and the partition ofthe country led to
various communal tensions.
o Article 25 ofthe constitution gives all religious communities the right to
'profe ss, propagate and practice their religions'.
o India has also always been a multi-lingual country English is considered the
official language ofthe unionandthe umfying factor forthe country, while
Hindi is the national language.
o A single constitution, a national flag, common culrency, national antherq

etc., are other unifying factors to strengthen the unity in India.
1.8 KEY TERMS

o Harijan: Literallymeans children ofGod; this is a scheduled caste in India
a Digambara: Adivision ofJainism, those who are unclothed or sky clad
a Swetambara: A division ofJainisrn, those who are robed in white
o Langar: Sikh custom ofdistributing free food to all
a Gurudwara: Sikh place ofworship
o unity in diversity: Expresses the opinion that India can remain a strong
and unified countrywhile retaining its culhral diversrty
Self-Instructional Material 13
I.9 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'
1. JainismandBuddhism
NOTES 2. UttarFradesh
3. Kerala
4. MahatmaGandhi
5. Hinduisnr,Islarn, Ckistianir[2, Jainisnr, Buddhisn! SfthismandZorastrianism
6. The British policy o f 'Divide and Rule' and the partition of India.
7. Article25
8. Sunnis and Shias
9. Kedarnatlr, Badrinath and Rameshwaram
1 0. Bhojpuri, Rajasthani and Haryanvi
11. l4languages
12. English is the official language ofthe Union.
1 3. National antherrq curency and a single Constitution
14. Y.K. Das
1.10 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Which are the important elements that contributed to the formation ofthe
lndian society?
2. Write a short note to explain how religion can be a uni$ring and diversifying
factor.
3. What are the rights accorded to religions'so that they can be practiced
free$?
4. Which are the four linguistic families?
5. What is'inter-regional migration'?

Long-Answer Questions
1. 'There is no other countrythat offers the same diversityas India'. Elaborate.
2. Write a detailed note on the religions in India.
3 . Elaborate on the linguistic diversity in lndia.
4. Explain'unity in diversity'.
5. How can culture be a source of diversity and unity? Elaborate.

6. Discuss the demographic composition oflndia.
1.11 FURTHER READING/REF'ERENCES
Dube, s.c. 1977. India since Independence: social Report on India, Ig47-
72 . Mumbai: Vikas publishing House
NOTES
Hutton, J.H. 1983. Caste in India.Mumbai: OUp.
Kapadia, K.M. 1966. Marriage and Family in India.Mumbai: OUp.
Singh, Y. 1986. Indian sociology; sacial conditioning and Emerging
C o nc ern s . Delhi : Vistaar.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962 . caste in Modern India and other" Essays. Mumbai: Asia
PublishingHouse.
References
Gadgil, M. and Guha, R. T992. This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of
trndia. New Dehi: Oxford University Press Berkeley: Universif of Calilornia
Press.
Larson, G. James (ed.). 2001 . Religion and personal Law in secular India: A
Call to Judgement New Delhi: Social Science press.
Mahajan, Gurpreet. 1998. Identities and Rights: Aspects of Liberat Democracy
in India. New Delhi: Oxford University press.
Self-lnstructional Materiql 15
UNIT 2 CASTE SYSTEM
Caste System
Structure
NOTES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Meanngof Caste System
2.3 Charucteristics of the Caste System
2.4 Concept of Varna
2.5 Difference befween Varna and Jati
2.6 Recent Changes in the Caste System
2.7 Untouchabiliry
2.8 Features of the Protection of Civil Rights Act
2.9 Summary
2.10 Key Terms
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Pritim Sorokin's oft quoted statement 'anunstratified society is a myth', clear$
reflects that stratification is inherent in nature. Social straffication has existed in all
known societies. India has been considered as one of the most divided of all
knownsocietiesinthehistoryofmankind. Stratfficationistheorganizing ofsociety
according to the different social status ofindividuals. The traditionalmethods of
the stratification of society in India have unique characteristics, and these have
been studiedbyscholars throughout the world. The caste systern, withits various
levels ofsuper castes and subordinate castes and its many customs and taboos, is
responsible forawmding Indiathe dubioushonowofbeingthemost dividedsociety
in the world. From your study ofthe earlier unit you are aware ofthe nature of
Indian societyandthe uniqueness oflndia as a diverse country, which, at the same
times maintain the ethos ofunity. This unit will help you to understand the internal
dynamics oflndian society through its caste system and how this institution has
created inequality for many years.
2.I UNIT OBJECTIVES

o Understand the lndian system of stratification
o Describe the meaning ofcaste and analyse the characteristics ofthe caste
system
Self-ln.rtructional Material 17
Caste System
* Distinguish between caste (iati) and colour (varnas
a Ana$se the modem changes in the Indian caste system
t Understand the notion of untouchability
NOTES a Describe andanalyse the contents ofthe pCRAct
2.2 MEANNNG OF CASTE SYSTEM

Caste is an ancient social institution that has been apartof Indian history and
culture for thousands ofyears. It is an institution uniquely associated with the
lndian subcontinent and hence is ofindigenous nature. While social an angements
producing similar effects have existed in otherparts ofthe world, the exact form
has been found elsewhere. The term 'caste' owes its origin to the portuguese
word casta meaning race, pure breed, etc. In India, caste is termed as jati.
Theoretically the caste system can be understood as the combination oftwo sets
ofprincipies based on differences and separationand the other onwholism
and hierarchy. M.N. Srinivas in his book , caste in Modet n India,provides a
sociological definition ofcaste system. To hinn, a sociologist would define a caste
as a hereditary, endogamous, usually localized group, having a traditional association
with an occupation, and a particular position in the local hierarchy ofcastes. IIe
further stated that relations between castes are governed, among otherthings, by
the concepts ofpurityandpollution, andgenerally, nuximumcommensalityoccurs
within caste. According to Irawati Karve in her book Hindu society: An
Interpretatian,'T\e Indian caste society is a societymade of semi-independent
units, each having its own traditional pattern ofbehaviour. This has resulted in a
multiplicify ofnorms and behaviour, the existence of,which has fourd ajustification
in a religious and philosophical slntem'Accordingly, the Hindu religion is intrinsic
in the particular stratification found in caste.
ManyWestern and Indian scholars have studied the caste system and have
tried to define it" Sir Herbert Risley defined, 'Caste as a collection offamilies, or
group offamilies, bearing a comrnonname, claiming a common descent from a
mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling
and regarded bythose who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single
homogeneous community.' c.H. cooley state4 'when a class is somewhat skictly
hereditary we maycall it a caste.'However the above views reflectthat caste is
usuallyagroup ofpeople sharing similaritieswithregard to race occupatiorl breed,
colour, etc., and thls institution is hierarchical in nature.
Caste as a system of social stratification has been an issue of sociological
debate. Such debates have generated two viewpoints with regard to the caste
systerrr-structural and cultural. The structuralprinciple ofstratification canbe
explained by accepting the caste system as a general principle of stratification
which depicts the hierarchical arrangements ofpeople. The cultgrai view ofthe
caste systemcanbe explained interms ofpredominance ofideas Hke pollution
andpurity, ideas of segregation, mutualrepulsion, etc. However allthese views Caste Svstem
fir*her reflect on sub-variation of castes and understand caste in terrns of
particularistic phenomenon or that caste is ofuniversal application. On the basis of
a cornbinationoftwo dichotomuspropositions, we candistinguishfourapproaches
about the caste spterr5 narnety, strucfiral universalistic, structural piuralistic, cultural NOTES
universalisticandculhiralparticularistic. Theshucturaluniversalisticviewisprornoted
byK. Davis, N.K. Bose andA.R. Desai. They are of the view that caste in India
manif,ests the general principle of a closed form of social stratification based on
hierarchy. The structural parlicularistic view on caste is fromoted by E. Leach
who contends that the use ofthe word caste is used to define the system of social
stratification found in traditional Indian societyand which is also surviving to a
large extent in rnodern India. The cultural universalistic view of caste is held by
weber and Ghurye w*ro consider caste a culhral phenomenoq a matter ofideology
andvalue system. The caste systemprornotes the idea ofhierarchy. The cultural
particularistic view ofcaste is held bylouis Dumont. He says that the caste system
is basedupon a set ofideas like pollution andpurity and these ideas aie unique to
India.
CrmcrYoun Pnocnrss
1. To which language does the word 'caste'owe its origin?
2. Who is the author of Caste in Modern India?
3. List anytwo approaches to the caste system.
2"3 CHARACTBRISTICS OF TT{E CASTE SYSTEM

The caste system in India has a complex nature. Many scholars, namely Ghurye,
Hutton and Ketkar, have pointed out the characteristics ofcaste" Ketkar describes
two characteristics ofcaste, namely, (i) that membership is confinedto those who
are born of members and includes all persons so born, (ii) the membership is
forbidden by an inexorable social law to men outside the group. From this, it can
be said that if a man should be banned from his caste for some reason, he would
be without anygroup, since no other group, lower or higher could accept him into
its mernbership. M.oreover it also limits the choice ofmarriage parfirers. GS. Ghurye
in tris book Caste and Race in India. has identified six characteristics ofthe caste
system"
(a) Segmental division of society

The caste systern exhibits a segmental division which shows that the groups are
divided into various groups called castes. Each caste is a well defined social group,
where menrbership is assure.d at birt[ making transferring from one caste to another
unfeasible. Each caste has its individual socialposition, professions, traditions,
Selflnstructional Material 19
Caste Svstem
rules and regulations. Every group has their own its own ruling body called the
caste or jati panchayat which ensures that the rules of that particular caste are
being adheredto. Suchpanchayats make decisions not onlyabout rnatters pertaining
to castes but other offences as well, offences that legitirnately fallwithin the judicial
NOTES process. These include matters like eating, drinking, matters related to marriage,
non-payment ofdebts, breach ofcustoms peculiar to a caste, petty assaults, etc.
Caste was thus a group as Ghurye rightlypoints out, 'with a separate arrangement
for meting out justice to its members apart from that ofthe cornrnunity as a whole,
withinwhich caste was included as onlyone ofthe groups. Hence the mernbers of
a caste ceased to be members ofa communityas a whole, as far as that part of
their morals which is regulated by law'. In other words, it can be said that .each
caste is its own ruler'. The citizens owe their moral allegiance to the caste first,
rather than to the community as a whole.
(b) Hierarchy
Each caste is positioned hierarchically in society. The divisions of caste can be
noted by watching the actions ofhigher castes. Castes are never equal in status
and one caste has either higher or lower in status compared to another. Ghurye
pointed out that 'there are as many as two hundred castes which can be grouped
in classes whose gradation is largely acknowledged by all. But order of social
precedence among the individual castes of any class, cannot be made definite,
because not onlyis there no ungrudging acceptance of such ranks but also the
ideas of the people on this point are very nebulous and uncertain'. For instance,
rank of certain castes can be determined by finding out fromwhom a designated
caste takes water. one may take water from his equals or superiors, but not from
his inferiors unless it is served in a brass pot.
(c) Restrictions on commensality and social intercourse

Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food, drink and
social intercourse. Food is another rank indicator. Indian food is placed into two
groups, pakka khanq and,kachcha khana. Pakka khana is made with clarified
butter from flour, sugar and sweetmeats, while kuchcha khana iscooked with
water or salt. Pakka khana is taken from most inferiors, but kachcha khana rs
taken with discrimination. Roughly, a man will take kachcha khana from the
same peop le fr om whom he will take w ater (zhkm, r 9 62) . In practice mo st castes
seem to have no objection on taking kachcha food from the hands ofa Brahmin.
A Brahmin, on the other hand does not accept kachcha food from the hands of
any other caste. So far as pakka foodor pakka khana is concerned, a Brahmin
cantake fromthe hands ofa few castes only. According to Ghurye, thirty-six out
ofseventy-six uP castes take kachcha food fromtheir ownmembers only"
Besides food, there are widespread beliefs ofpollution bytouch which
require the members of different castes to maintain social distances from one
another. Theoretically, the touch ofa mernber of any caste lower than one's own
20 Self-InstructionalMqterial
defiles person ofa higher caste. The rigidity ofthis rule however varies from
a Caste System
caste to caste and place to place; e.g., it is prevalent in u.p. and Gujarat. As per
the classifi cation given by Ghurye, the shannar, a to ddy-tapper o f Tamil Nadu,
contaminates a Brahmin ifhe approaches the latter within twenty-four paces. In
Kerala, aNayyar would approach aNarnboodri Brahmin but maynot touch him. NOTES
In fact so much rigiditywas attached to pollution that a Brahminwould not even
perform his ablution within the precincts ofa Shudra's habitation.
(d) Endogamy
The caste system also imposes restrictions on marriage. Castes are divided into
sub-castes and each sub-caste is an endogamous group. The principle ofendogamy
was so prominent that Westermark, an eminent sociologist, said, 'It is the essence
of caste system.' Every caste or sub-caste insists that members should maffy
within the group. Any breach of this rule is viewed as a serious offence, the
punishment for which often amounts to being ostracized from one,s own community
or caste. However there are few exceptions to this rule in the form ofhypergamy
(marriage of a man o f a higher caste with a woman from a lower caste). Except in
cases of hypergamy, each caste had to adhere strictly to the rules with regard to
matrimonial alliances. For instance, the younger son ofa Namboodri Brahmin of
Kerala can onlymarry aNayyar woman.
(e) Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation

In a caste-based society, there are restrictions on choosing one's own vocation.
Each caste group is traditionally associated with a caste occupation which is
hereditary. Abandoning one's hereditary occupation was looked down upon so
people strictly followed their caste occupation even ifit was not lucrative. Thus, a
Brahmin would consider it his rightful duty to become a priest while a shoemaker
would consider it his dutyto make shoes. No castewould allow its members to
take on any profession which was either degrading or impure. There are however
occupations like trading, agriculture, military service, rvorking in the fields, etc.,
whichwere considered as being opento all.
(f) Civil and religious disabilities

Social segregation is another aspect of caste differentiation. Ghurye remarked,
'Segregation of individual castes or ofgroups of castes in a village is the most
obvious mark ofcivil privileges and disabiiities and it has prevailed in a more or
less definte form all over India.' In a village or a town various castes were
segregated onthe basis ofresidence. Segregation has been more severe in South
than inNorth India. In the South, as refemed to by Ghurye, parts ofthe town or
village are inaccessible to certain castes. The agitation bythe impure castes to gain
free access to streets in Vaikam in Travancore brought into clear reliefsome ofthe
disabilities ofthese castes. 'All over India,' Ghurye points out, ,the impure castes
are debarred from drawing water from the village well, which is used by members
ofothercastes.'AMahar inMaharashtra, forexample, was forbidden fromspitting
Caste Svstem
on the road lest a pure caste gets polluted ifhis foot happens to touch it. Besides
these, there were restrictions on Shudras to enter ternples and participating irr the
performance ofcertainrituals. Theywereprohibited fi'omrecitingVedic Mantras
and performing Vedic rituais. They had to satisSr themselves with Puranic rituals.
NOTES A Brahmin was not expected to bow to anyone while members of other castes
were required to bow to him"
CrmcxYouR PRocRESS
4. Give two characteristics of caste as descrfoed by Ketkar.

5. Name two functions ofcaste panchayats.
6. How canrank ofcertain castes be determined?
7 . What is the difference betwe en pukka and kacccha khana?
2.4 CONCEPT OF VARN.

It isnow agreedthat allsocialdivisiors inlndiawere not hereditaryinthebeginning;
rather theywere only firnctional division-s. In Hindu social organization,varnars
only the reference category: it is not a fi.urctioning unit of social structure, and only
refers broadly to the ascribed status of different jatis.lt is also a method of
classification (Dube, 1990). So far as rhe etymological meaning of vatnu is
concerned, it has come from Sanskrit root, Zri, whichmeans colour. Thevarna
system evolved as a result ofthe conflict between the different races. Fair skinned
Aryans entered the Indian sub-continent through its north-r,vest borders around
1500 sc, conquering the dark-complexioned original inhabitants and, laying the
foundation for a class system based on birth. It is also stated rntkrc Purusasulcta,
a hymn in the Rig Veda, that the four categories of society come out from the fotr
parts of Purusa who is the supreme being. The professions of thes e varnas or
groups are related figuratively to the parts of the bo dy of Pwrusa. It is an anatomical
analogy between man and society to illustrate the various ranks and functions of
difrerent groups.
According to the Rrg Veda, tL'rc aldest scripture. the words Rajanya, Vaishya
and Shudra are present only in the Pa rustasukta. The four castes can be classified
into Brahrnanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins are thought to
have emerged frorn the mouth ofthe Punrsa and are therefore plaoed at the highest
strata ofsociety. Their particular tasks relate to speech. The second level is that of
the Kshatriya (Rajanya) who emerges fiom the arms cfthe Par rusa andtherefore
has the honour ofhandling weapons. The vaishyas are thought to come out ofthe
thighs ofPurusa making their professionagriculture and trade. Last, the Shrrdras
emerged fromthe feet ofthe Purusa making themthe lowest part ofthe body,
Shudras are therefbre placed in the deptirs ofthis four-fold dMsion of society"
The Pwrusasuktaisapparentlythe contribution oftheAryans as it carne Caste System
into being aftertheAryars had already settled down in krdia. As theAryans needed
labour to purse the agriculfuraltasks, theyemproyed.dasas. slowly dasas
became
a sytonyrn for Shudra. Both these words have their roots in the Iranian
language.
The word Dasa is an adaptdtion ofthe Iranian wor d. dahaeor comrnon man. NOTES
The
word Shudra relates to the word kurda, which is the name ofa pre-Aryan tribe
which still exists in Iran. As per the sayings in the Rig veda,theprcfessionof a
priest and warrior is considered higher than the profession ofthe agriculturalist.
People ernployed as agricultural labourers or slaves carne to occupythe lowest
position in society. The constitution ofthe Pel russsukta andits insertion inthe
Rig
Veda wastheinitial effort to orgattae,and make offrcial the miskeatment
ofnon-
Aryans bytheAryans.
2"5 DIF'FARENCE BETWEEN VAR]VA AI{D JATI
Lhrna andjati (caste) may appear synonyrnous but are two separate categories.
The inier-changeabilityofthese temrs has created confusion in the scciological
analysis ofthe institution ofcaste. Caste is a confirsing word; in different contexts
it has been used to convey different meanings and social categories. It is better to
use the termT'ali to denote an endogamous communitywith a more or less
defined
ritual status, and some occupation traditionally linked to it (Dube, 1990). Jati is a
socialgroup, aunit ofgreat irrportance and a basic component ofthe social system.
Varnq is frequently mentioned in Sanskrit scripfure, jati less often. Emile
Senart
warned that the two terrns are confused in the literary tradition wldclr, he wrote, ,is
less concemedwiththe frithfulrecord offacts thanwiththeirarrangement
in rystems
conforming to the tendencies ofa stronglybiasedgroup' (Senart, 1930).
However, the origin ofcastes has no semblance to the origin of varnas,
though in the process ofdeveiopment ofcastes, they came to be associated
with
van'nas. srinivas (1962) holds that varnahas provided a common social
ianguage
which holds good or is thought to hold for India as a whole, that is, it tras enabtea
ordinary men and women to grasp the caste system by providing them with a
srmple and clear scheme which is applicable to allparrs oflndia. He further holds
that importance ofthe vaftta system consists in that it finnishes an all India frame
into which thei atis ,occupying the lower rungs, hale throughout tried to raise their
statusbytakingoverthecustomsandrituals oftopjatis.Casteistiedtolocality
but varna functions on an all India basis.
The crucial distinction between varna and,jati is that, where varna is a
system ofdifferentiation in the epoch ofAsiatic mode ofproduction, which
was
c}nt acteitzqd by general exp lo itatio n, thej at i syst ern developed later in the
epo ch
of feudalism and was clnracterwed by localized exploitation in a ciosed vi^ltage
economy, where the ruling class lived offthe land (Gupta
,lgg5). lhrnamaT,be
described as an abstract classification ofpeople on the basis ofa rryzthical
origin;
iati, on the other hand, is a concrete grouping based on ritual and occupatioLl
SelJ-Instructional Material 23
Caste System
criteria. Varna shauldbeunderstood as a synbolic frameworkwithinwhichdiverse
castes or jatis are grouped together. Caste belonging to the same varna may
have no social ties with each other. For instance, a Kashmiri Brahmin and a South
Indian Brahmin belong to the same varna,but they do not inter-marry or inter-
NOTES dine. Castes have regional, linguistic and communal diversities incorporated in
them. As a consequence, castes having the same varna rank are quite distinct
from each other. The varna framework has served as a means of caste mobility
but mobility is restricted amongTatzs. However, it can be said that varna is a
reference group to variousT'cfis oflndian society.
CrmcrYouR PRocREss
8. What does the Sanskrit word for varna mean?
9. Which are the four varnas?
10. What Iranianword has the word dasa evolved from?
11. List three factors which impacted the caste system.
12. Name two changes brought about inthe caste system.
2.6 RECENT CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM

The Indian caste system has undergone tremendous transformation in modern
times. The caste systemhas undergone and is stiliundergoing adaptive changes.
M.N. Srinivas quite aptly referred to the changes brought about in independent
India as the erecting of constitutional defences for the protection ofthe backward
sections ofthe population, especially the scheduled castes and tribes. This has
provided a new lease of life to the people. Many factors are responsible for the
transformation in caste system.
Srinivas draws out a distinction between the traditional and modern caste
system which roughly coincides with the distinction between pre-British and post-
British period. It was indeed a matter of great significance to learn about the
nature ofrendering political power to Indians by the British. This was an important
step in the various castes assuming political functions. 'Ihere were territorial
boundaries inthe pre-Britishperiodwhichseparatedthe castes bylimiting their
mobility. However, later on, the interdependence of castes upon each other for
economic and other functions somehow became instrumental in liberating castes
fr om territorial fi liations.
Srinivas also refers to the building of roads all over India, and how the
inhoduction ofpostage, telegraptr" cheap paper and printing, especially in regional
languages, enabled castes to organize themselves as theyhad never done before
(Srinivas, Ig62).However, Prof. GS. Ghurye has also reflected uponthe lrrpact
24 Sef-lnstructionalMaterial
ofBritish rule on the Indian caste system. The civil and penal codes introduced by Caste Svstem
the Britishoverthe subcontinent oflndia took awaymuchofthe powerpreviously
exercised by caste panchayats (Srinivas, 1962). However the process of
Sanskritization has also been instrumental in bringing about social mobility leading
to fluidityinthe caste structure. NOTES
Other factors like Western educatio n,urbantzation, industrialization and the
new legal system also contributed a lot in bringing about changes in the caste
system. The growth of industries and the service sectorshave also led to the
expansion ofoccupational opportunities for many castes. So, in spite ofthe ascribed
status assigned to castes, people focused on achieved stafus. Such occupational
spaces have led to the abandonment of the principles of pollution and purity.
Moreover, democratic decerxralaation ofpower right down to the grassroois
level has led to an increased participation in the political process and besides
economic success, access to political power has become another means of status
enhancement.
Some ofthe prominent changes identified in the caste system are as follows:
1. There hasbeen a decline inthe supremacyofBrahmins. The Brahmins
who used to occupy the topmost position in the stratification system of
India are no longer considered the most superior. Modem occupations
andwbutuation has led to increased occupational mobility among other
castes which has enhanced the status of castes lower than the Brahmins
in the hierarchy. In the present-day context, the weberian notion of
one's class position gains ascendancy over one,s caste position.
2. Thejajmani systemhas also weakened .The economic context ofinter-
caste relations which is termed as the jajmani system has lost its
siginificance. The monetization ofeconomy and expansion ofthe market
system inrural areas had a severe impact on the economic functions of
castes.
3. The secondimportant change is thepositionofcastes came about due
to processes like Sanskrittzation.Initially it was observed that the caste
ryatem had a rigid structwe which strictly prohibited social mobility. But
with occupational interdependence and opening ofgreater avenues for
employnent, the lower castes had an opportunity to pursue an
occupation accoiding to their choice. This led to fluidity in the caste
structure and considerable positional changes were observed.
4. The Protective DiscriminationPolicy ofthe Government fiuther led to
the enhancement ofstatus ofmany ofthe zubjugated castes. Suchpolicies
also led to the improvement inthe socio-economic conditions ofvarious
castes.
5. The enforcement ofthe SpecialMarriageAct of 1954 firtherbrought
about many changes in improving the marital alliances among the castes.
Initially endogamy was strictly observed as an attribute of caste and
S elf-In s truc tio nal Mater ia I

Caste Svstetn people violating it were ostracized fromthe village. But the Special
Maniage Act iegalized inter*caste rnarriages, which is a significant change
inthe entire system.
6. The notion of pollution and purity and restrictions on feeding and
NOTES
intercourse are no longervalid. The enactment ofthe Untouchability
Offences Act, 1956 was an important milestone in this direction.
Untouchability was made a punishable offence and a person found
practising it is severelypunished eitherinterms otbeing finedor sentenced
to imprisonment.
7. With industrialization, new occupational structures have developed in
urban areas. These new occupations are are not dependent onthe caste
ofaperson. Recruitments to these occupations are solelybasedupon
technical skills which can be acquired through modem education. Thus
the traditionalconcept ofcaste occupationhas lost its significance.
8. Contemporary society is undergoing massive transformation due to
technological breakthroughs and is witnessing rniany cultural changes" A
new class oflower caste rnban youth, whom some scholars have termed
as the 'breakthrough generation', are playing a significant role in lxinging
about a sea-change by breaking the boundaries that had kept the Shudras
in conditions of extreme poverty. This new generation of educated
Shudras are po sitioning themselves for mo dem urban jobs.
Thus, the caste system has undergone many changes in the recent years. It
is however difficult to predict the complete disappearance of such a system. It can
be said that though there has been enough fluidity in the system due to various
forces, yet the system still persists in India. The practice ofpolitics through caste
(casteism), the entire reservation issue andthe recent debate about calculation of
caste census fi.rrther stirred the caste sentiments.
2.7 UNTOUCHABILITY
Caste and untouchability have always been one of the important areas for
sociological investigation. Sociologists and anthropologists have been engaged in
understanding the various aspects of caste anduntouchability. Untouchabiltyhas
been a socialmalaise responsible for diferentiation in Indian society. Though there
has been a significant change in the caste system post independence, and due to
modernization, yet the practice has not disappeared completelyfromthe Indian
social context. According to G. S. Ghurye, the idea ofpollution and purity, whether
occupational or economic, is found to have been a factor which gave birth to the
practice ofuntouchability. According to Dr. Majumdar, the untouchable castes are
those who suffer from various social and political disabilities, many ofwhich are
traditionally prescribed and socially enforced bythe higher castes.
Mahatma Gandhi first used the term Harijan (children of God) fcir those
sections ofpeople w{ro suffered fromvarious social, religious, economic and political
disabilities. 'Untouchabilityis the product, not ofthe caste slntern, but the distinction Caste System
ofhigh and low status that has crept into Hinduism and is corrocling it' (Gandhi,
1932). So it can be said that untouchability has been a social practice in India of
treating some people unjustly because oftheir low ascribed status. There was a
traditional beliefprevalent in lndia that a person's birth decided his destily and NOTES
some castes werebeiievedto be 'impure'andtheir shadow couldtlefile aperson
of higher caste. The untouchables known by several names like Chandalas,
Panchammas, Avalnas or Harijans, were not allowed to pursue education, draw
water fromvillage wells, enter temples oruse public roads.
The definition ofuntouchabilty most oft en given in India has two different
meanings. First, untouchability is a stigma attached to some people because ofthe
pollutiontheyconvey.It is a stigmabycaste frombirth, not fromdeedsperformed;
it lasts tlnoughout'life and cannot be ritually eliminated. The concept ofritual pollution
by caste pervades the whole traditional caste structure and untouchability, in this
sense ofthe terrrl is conceptuallyno different in kind. It is difterent onlyin degree
and is used forpollution-by-caste which is so great that the rest of societysegregles
its members from these castes and protects itself against them. Second,
untouchability refers to the set ofpractices engaged in by the rest ofthe society to
protect itselffrom the pollution conveyed by the untouchables and to syrnbolize
their inferior status. This is the most cofilmon use ofthe term. Untouchability is
rarely defined in a sentence; it is usually described in terms ofcivil, social and
religious disabilities (Dushkin, 19 67).
However, a considerable amount ofregional variation exists in the manner
inwhichsocialrelations among different groups ofcastes havehistoricallyevolved.
As is widelyknown, there are different sets of cast-offgroups in different regions
and the pre-occupation with purity and pollution was not equally marked in every
patt ofthe country(Beteille, 2000).1 Manysociological studies onvillages focus
on the changes in attitudes among various castes. Though some may argue that
untouchabilityis stillalive today(Diliege, 1999),: overthe last centuryor so the
system of caste hierarchy, its forms and manifestations, have indded gndergone
considerable clunges. EvenI.P. Desai, while studyngtheuntouchables inGujarat
in 1970s observed that in rural areas there has been the emergence of a new
'public qphere' ofsocial interaction with modemization and economic development.
Such a development has lessened the practice of untouchability. The norm of
caste and untouchability had begun to be violated in the economic or occupational
sphere as well. This included seating arrangements in schools, travelling in buses
and postal services. However, when it came to the traditionalrelations that included.
the domestic and religious life ofthe people, untouchability was highly practised
(Desai, 1976).3
t . Chronicles of Our Time.New Delhi: penguin Books, p.172.

2' ".,.t11"/rt*
Deliege, R. 1999. The untouchables of India.New york: Berg publishing Ltd, p. 3.
3 Desai, l.P.
1976" (Jntouchability in Rural Gujarat. Bombay: popular prakashan.
Caste System On the basis of these observations, it can be argued that though
untouchability is now treated as a serious offence after the formulation ofthe
Untouchability OffencesAct, I955,yet in some regons it stillpersists. The atrocities
being practised against untouchables have become a thing ofthe past but there are
NOTES zubsequentregionalvariations. So, thoughthepractice ofuntouchabilityhas declined
yet the spirit ofuntouchability still survives.
CuncrYouR PRocRESS
13. What are two other names for untouchables?
14. When did the Untouchability OfFences Act come into force?
15. What is untouchability, as defined by Mahatma Gandhi?
16. Give two examples ofthe normofcaste beingviolated.
2.8 FEATURES OF THE PROTECTION

OF CIVIL RIGHTS ACT
India is a welfare state committed to the welfare of its people in general and the
welfare ofr,ulnerable sections inparticular. The Central government has been
responsible for implementing various plans and policies for the upliftment ofthe
weaker and marginalized sections ofpopulation. The practice ofuntouchability
was so rampant in Indian society that it became a social responsibility of the
government to formulate and irnplement appropriate policies to remove this social
malady. So the formulation ofProtection ofCivil Rights (PCR) Act is a signfficant
endeavour in this direction.
In order to safeguard the interests of all Indian citizens, the Constitution has
provided a detailed outline for abolishing those customs, practices, ortraditions,
including provisions inlaw, ifany, which encourage untouchabilitypractices and
other biased and prejudiced customs which society enforces on communitie s.
The Untouchability Offences Act, I 9 5 5 was enforced by Parliament five

years after the Constitution oflndia was adopted. The Act includes specific clauses
where if any outlawed customs which are harmful to a mernber of a scheduled
caste are practiced, then the court would automaticallypresume, unless proven
wrong, that the act was executed was on grounds ofUntouchability. Even after the
act was adopted, the public was not satisfied as it did not have the desired effect.
The Government oflndia saw the needto appoint a Committee inApril 1965,
chaired by Shri Illaya Perumal to investigate the issues related to Untouchability.
As per the suggestions ofthe Committee, the act was exhaustively amended in
l9l6 andit was changed to be known as Protection of CivilRightsAct, 1955.
The Untouchabilty OffencesAct, 1955 came into force in accordanceiwith
Article 17 ofthe Constitution. The name oftheAct was changedto 'Protection of
28 Self-lnstructional Material
Civil RightsAct'so that it would create more ofan impact. It was enacted on 19 Caste System
Novernber 1976. This resulted in widening the reach and making punishments
more severe. TheAct allowed offences related to untouchabilityto be punished
and extended its scope to the entire country including the state ofJammu and
Kashmir. The Act is put into practice by the administrations of the State NOTES
Govemments and Union Territory.
The goal ofthe PCRAct was to impose penalties for those indulging in the
practice ofuntouchability and for anykind of differentiation on the grounds of
untouchabilty. civil rights can be defined as any rights that are accorded to a
personbytheabolitionof'untouchability'asperArticle lToftheConstitution.
Discrimination and biases linked to certain occupations like manual scavenging,
flaying and tanning were strongly discouraged. Lack ofproperty, illiteracy and
other social and economic backwardness worsen the situation. Manyplans and
proposals are being actioned for the socio-economic and educational development
ofthe members ofscheduled castes. These schemes along withthe irrplementation
of the Protection of Civil Rights Act are slowly reducing crimes related to
untouchability. The State Govemments have beenauthorized to ler,y fines on any
person found guilty of committing an offence related to untouchability. This act
describes in detail procedures for assuring the protection ofthe casualties of crimes
linked to untouchability by setting up special courts, special tribunals, fixing period
for investigations, etc.
The Section 3(7A) defines andpunishes offences arising out ofuntouchability.
These offences include enforcing social andreligious disabilities, refusalto admit
personstohoqpitals, educationalinstifutions, refusingto sellgoods orrender services
and unlawful compulsory labour to do scavenging.
Section 7 punishes prevention ofthe exercise ofcivil rights, injury for having
exercised civil rights, inciting/encornaging the practice ofirrtouchabiliry, insulting a
Scheduled caste on grounds ofuntouchability, reprisal for exercising civil rights
and excommunicating another for not practicing untouchability. Public seryants
neglecting investigations are considered to be abetting offences under the pCR
Act. Abetting ofoffences under thisAct is treated as a commission ofthe offence
and punished accordingly. ThisAct requires courts to presume that the offences
are done ongrounds ofuntouchabilityifthe victimbelongs to a scheduled caste.
The PCRAct prescribes minimum sentence and irnprisonment and also
enhanced penalty on subsequent conviction. While convicting for refusing to sell
or render service, the court may, without prejudice to other penalty, cancel or
suspend licence. The Government may suqpend or resume the grants to institutions
punished for refusing to admit ifthey receive government grants. Moreover the
State Government under the coordination ofCentral Government shall ensure that
civil rights are available to the concerned and there are sufficient facilities oflegal
aid to victims. The Government shall appoint officers for prosecution, establish
special courts, setup committees for formulatrng and implementing measures,
Coste System provide a periodic suffey ofthe working ofPCRAct, and identify notorious areas
in orderto remove disabilities.
Fromthe abor,e discussions it becomes apparent that untouchability
had been a serious problem engulfng Indian society and creating social injustice.
NOTES
Though lot of efforts have been made to eradicate this problem yet it still exists in
some corners of Indian society and goes unnoticed. The legal dimension ofthis
problem and the implementation ofthe PCRAct have been instrumental in ensuring
social justice yet there are some cultural barriers due to which the act is not fully
successful. It is of some comfort to think that ahhough the practice ofmtouchability
made India quite unique among social systerns, the attempt to eradicate it has also
made the country unique.a
CrncxYoun Pnocnnss
17. What isthe goalofthePCRact?
18. What are two punishments as per the PCR act?
2.9 SUMMARY
Caste is an ancient social institution that has been a part of Indian history
and culture for thousands of years. This unit discussed the system of
stratification in India the caste system This unit provided an understanding
-
ofthe various features ofcastes and the sociological views to understand
the system. The differences between vat^na andjati are explained and the
factors that have brougtrt about the recent changes associated with the caste
systemhave also been explained.
The concept ofuntouchability has been explained in detail and the offences
and crimes related to it have been discussed. The Govemment oflndia has
enforced the Protection of Civil Rights Act which implements various plans
and policies for the upliftment ofthe weaker and marginalized sections of
the population. The PCRAct prescnbes minimum sentence and inprisonment
as well as enhanced penalty on srrbsequent conviction.
2.10 KEY TERMS
o Caste : A system of social stratification

o Caste Panchayat: The ruling body for a caste or j ati
a Endogamy: People can marry only members oftheir own castes
a Jati: An endogamous community with a more or less defined ritual status
a See Ghurye pp. 143-239; Cf Issacs, India's Ex-untouchables,p. 106

o Varna: A system of differentiation in the epoch of the Asiatic mode of caste system
production which was cltaracteitzed by general exploitation
o untouchability: A social practice in India oftreating some people unjustly
because oftheir low ascribed status
NOTES
2.11 ANSWERS TO OCHECK YOUR PROGRESS'

j l. Portuguese
' 2. M.N. Srinivas
3. Stnrcturaf universalistic
4. (f Membership is confined to those who are born ofmernbers and include
allpersons so bom.
(if Membership is forbidden by an inexorable social law to men outside
the group.
5. (f Makes decisions about matters pertaining to castes

(if Judges matters like petty assaults and non-payment of debts
6. By finding out from whom a designated caste takes water.
7. Pukka khana is cooked with butter and flour and sugar whjTe kachcha
khana is cookedwith water or salt.
8. Vri,which means colour.
9. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.

10. Dahae,which means common man.
11 . British rule, Western education, industrialization.
12. Decline in the supremacy ofBrahmins; inter-caste marriages were made
more comlnon.
13. Chandalas,Avarnas
14. 1955
I 5. Untouchability is the product, not ofthe caste systerq but the distinction of
high and low status that has crept into Hinduismand is corroding it.
16. Seating arrangements inschoof travelling inbuses.
1 7. The goal ofthe PCRAct was to impose penalties for encouraging the practice
of untouchability and for any kind of differentiation on the grounds of
untouchabilty.
18. (i) The Government may suspend or resume the grants to institutions
punished for refusing to admit iftheyreceive government grants.
(if While convicting for refusing to sell or render service, the court may,
without prejudice to other penalty, cancel or suspend licence.
Caste System
2.12 QUESTTOI\S AND EXBRCTSES
NOTES
I. State three definitions of caste as given by eminent sociologists.
2. Wlnt are the four approaches ofthe caste system?
3 . List the six characteristics of the caste system as explained by Ghurye.
4. List five religious restrictions imposed by society on mernbers of lower

castes.
5. Differentiate between varna andj ati.

1 . How can the cultural view ofthe caste system be explained?
2. Explain the fow categories of society asper the Rig Veda.
3. Assess the impact ofBritishrule onthe Indiancaste system.

4. Explain the ptrnishments for violating the PCRAct.
5. Explain the sociological debate on the caste system,

6. 'The caste sptem in India has a conplex nature. ' Do you agree? Substantiate
your answer with examples.
7 . Elaborate on the six characteristics ofthe caste system as propounded by
Ghurye.
8. Describe the recent changes in the caste system.
9. Exam;ne the features ofthe Protection of Civil Rights Act.
2.13 FURTHER READING/REFERENCES
Dube, 5.C.1977. India since Independence: Social Report on India, 1947-

7 2 . Mtxrbai: Vikas Publishing House.
Hutton, J.H. 1983. Caste in India.Mumbai: OuP.

Kapadia, K.M. 1966. Marriage and Family in India. Mumbai: OUP.
Singh, Y. 1986. Indian Sociology: Social Conditioning and Emerging
C o nc erns . Delhi : Vistaar.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962 . Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. Mumbai:Asia
Publishing House.
References Caste System
Zinkln,Taya. 1962. Caste Todoy.NewYork: Oxford UniversityPress, p. 6.

Dube, s.c. I 990. Indian society,New Delhi: National Book Trust.
Senart, Emile. 1930. Caste in India.London: Methuen. NOTES
Srinivas,M.N. 1962. Caste in Modern India and other Essays.Bombay: Media
Promoters and publishers pr,t. Ltd.
,
I
Desai, I.P. 7976. Untouchabili.ty inRural Gujarat.Bomb'ay: Popular Prakashan.
r pushkin, Lelah. 1967. 'scheduled Caste Policy in India:
History Problems,
Prospects', Asian Surey,Vol. 7. No. 9, September 1967 (Universityof
California Press), pp. 626-36.
Self-Instructional Mattriat 33
UNIT 3 R.URAL ECONOMY,{I{T}
Rural Economy
and Religion
REI,IGION
NOTES
Structure
3.0 lntroduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 The Nature of Village Economy
3.3 Features of Pre-Industrial and Industrial Economic Systems
3.4 The Jajmani System and its Bearing on Traditional Society
3.4.1 Nature of JajmaniRelations
3.4.2 Jajmanl Paynents and Obligations
3.4.3 Change and Continuity inJajmanl Relations
3.4.5 Declin e of Jajmani System and Changes
3.5 The Indian A gr ar ian C ontext
3.6 Cottage and Small-Scale Industries
3.6.1 Objectives of Small-Scale Industries
3.6.2 Changing Srnall-Scale Industries
J.t Changes in Village Economy
3.8 Industrialization and Social Change
3.8.1 EconomicStructure
3.8.2 Demographic Shucture
3.8.3 Social Structure
3.8.-5 gdusalion and Religion
3.8.6 Structural Changes Associated with Development
3.8.7 Structural Differences in periods ofDevelopment
3.9 Meaning of Religion
3.10 The Origin and Evolution of Religion
3.10.1 Evolutionism; 3.10.2 CriticismofEvolutionism
3.i1 Sacred and Profane
3.12 Social Functions of Religion
3.12.1 Religion: A Functionalist perspective
3.12.4 Dysfuirctions of Religion
3.13 Sects and Cults
3.14 Fluralistic Religion
3.i5 RuralReligion
3.16 Beliefs and Practices in Mllages
-Beliefs
3. 16. 1 Rural Worship; 3. I 6.2 and practices of Rural people
3.17 Village Temples and Festivals
3.18 Summary
3.19 Key Terms
3.20 Answers to 'Check Your progress,
3.22 F urther Reading/References
Self-Insnucfional Material 35
Rural Economy
and Religion 3.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is divided into two sections, rural economy and religion. The unit will help
NOTES you to understand the nature ofvillage economy in the pre-industrialphase as well
as in the post-industrial phase. You will leam about thejajmani system and the
changes associatedwith it. The unit also explores the sociological dimensions of
economic life where you will leam about the viewpoints ofvarious sociologists. It
discusses cottage and small-scale industries, agricultrue andallied activities, and
so on. Finally, the dynamics ofrural society are explored in the first section ofthe
unit.
The second section ofthis unit provides an understanding ofreligion in general

with a particular focus on ruralreligions. Some theories about the origin ofreligion
are explained and you will be able to understand the various primitive forms and
functions of religion. You will learn the nature of rural religion, the beliefs and
practices and festivals of the ruralpeople. At the end ofthis unit, you will learn
about the various changes in the religious life ofruralpeople.
3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to :
e Understand the nature ofvillage economy in the pre-industrial and post-
industrialphases
o Explain theja.imani system and the changes associated with it
o Describe the views ofdifferent sociologists regarding economic life in India
o Assess the importance ofthe small-scale village industry
o Understand the meaning and evolution ofreligion in India
o Explain the various forms ofreligion
o Identi$r the religious beliefs and practices ofrural India
3.2 THE NATURE OF VILLAGB ECONOMY

The village has been an important unit of sociai and economic organtzation since
the pre-historic period. The standard and often reprinted quotation on the lndian
village as a monolithic, atomistic, unchanging entrty, is from a report by Sir Charles
Metcalfe, one ofthe founding administrators ofBritishrule inlndia. The passage
begins, 'The village communities are little republics, having nearly everything that
they want within themselves and almost independent of any foreign relations.'
(Mandelbaunl Ig7}).Otherswhohaveasignificantcontributiontowardsstudies
of villages are Sir Henry Maine, Mahatma Gandhi, Karl Marx, M.N. Srinivas,
etc. The villages or 'little corrnrtrnities' as termedbyRobert Redfield are societies
chatacterued bya 'we-feeling' or a communitarian life. The traditionalview of Rural Economy
Indian village porhays it as a self-sufficient unit. and Religion
The Rzg veda also mentions that the society is divided into many dpamic
hierarchical groups ofwhichthe smallest unit is the family, andmany such families
constitute a village. In ancient literature, the word village was interpreted as a NOTES
goup offamilies living at one place. The leader ofthe village was known as gramini.
Even in the epic Mahabharata, there are references ofvillage communities as
rudimentary units ofadministration. Besides the Mahabharata, many other books
ofancient literature have mentioned the village. Ac cordngto Manusmriti,a village
is the smallest unit of administration which has its own individual organization.
But with the passage oftime, modern field studies show that villages are no
longer self-sufficient and hardlyrepublics. Inter-village trade, marital alliances
and other economic needs makes a particular village dependent on another.
However, the study ofrural communities has become indispensable inthe field of
anthropology and sociology. Post-Independence, the Indian government has paid
special attention to the progress and improvement ofthe villages. Thus the studies
ofrural communities were assisted by the govememment. D.N. Majumd w's caste
and communication in an Indian wllage (1958), oscar Lewis's wttage Life
in Northern India,Indian wllage by S.c. Dube and India's wllages byM.N.
Srinivas ( 1968), are some important sociological contributions after Independence.
A village communitycan be defined as a group ofpersons permanently
residing in a definite geographic ar arca and whose members have developed
community consciousness and cultural, social and economic relations which
distingpish them from other communities. The traditional, rural economy in lndia
was primarilya subsistence economyinwhichthe economic organization involved
exchange ofgoods and services between vario us localj atiswithin the framework
ofjajmani relations. Periodic markets were held on festive occasions where goods
and services ofvarious artisan castes as well as products manufactured in the
urban centres, were exchanged. Though these periodic markets did not constitute
an integral part ofthe rural economy, they were more valued for their sociaf rather
than economic functions. Alimited degree ofcash economy and market exchange
existed in pre-industrial urban centres. Such limited market exchange did not
influence the society in any significant way. The system ofland revenue settlement
introduced bythe British demanded the payrnent ofrevenue in cash. The village
economy got linked to the urban economy and later indirectly to the national
economy. But this partial monetization and extension ofthe market economy to
rural areas had only negative consequences and did not bring about any significant
change in social relations.
only after Independence was there an expansion ofthe market economy.
However, wide spread expansion o f market and monetization had far-reaching
consequences for the traditional rural economy. First, with the introduction of a
market economy, there was a change in the nature ofproduction. The market
economy openedup avenues for mobility. The volume oftrade and commerce
Rw:al Economy
increased, which fbcilitated economic integration oflndian society. Occupational
and Religion
diversfficationandincreasing specializationofoccupations inturn created a demand
for educational institutions to provide specialized training. The market economy
had its impact even on the most conventional vocations. owen M. Lynch in his
NOTES study of the Jatavs ofAgra city said that they were traditionally engaged as stone
cutters, labourers, scavengers andtanners ofleather. The shoe industrydeveloped
and they made economic progress. However, the sociological effects ofthose
economic changes were many..With the development ofthe shoe industry, the
Jatavs became residentially segregated and their interaction with other castes was
reduced to a minimum. This consequently loosened the upper castes' control over
the Jatavs.
CHscxYouR PRocRESS
1. Who wrote Caste and Communication in an Indian Wllagd?
2. What professions didthe Jatavs ofAgra follow?

3. What is the main characteristic ofan industrial society?
3.3 FEATURES OF PRE.INDUSTRIAL ANI)

INDUSTRIAL ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
The economic s-vstem ofrural lndia is founded mainly on functional specialization
and interdependence among various castes. Eachvillage has severaljatl segments
which have separate ties in certain spheres. But there are also neighbourhood ties,
andpersonalandfamilyrelationships andanimosities. Three aspects of nterjati
and inter-personal relations within the village merit special consideration; the inter-
dependence ofjatis throughthe exchange of specialized occupational services;
the functioning ofvillagepanchayats (generallyinvolving representatives ofall7'arzs
residing inthe village) inadditionto jatipanchayats;andthe factionalpolitics of
the village. (Dube, 1990). Inthis unitwe will discuss the systemofvillage economy
based on occupational inter-dependence of castes, calledthejajmani system.
Pre-industrial economies were basically agrarian economies. These were
charucterized bythe preponderance of extended kin groups. Kinship loyalties
tend to be very strong and are based on interpersonal interactions to a large extent.
Economic activities and division oflabourwere very srnple inprimitive societies.
The division oflabour was based on age and sex. It was self-sufficient in fulflling
economic needs. The custom ofoffering gifts in these societies developed as social
obligation on one hand and as a kind ofprirnitive trade on the other. Surplus
productionmadepossiblethe exchange ofcommoditiesbetrveen groups. Agrarian
economywas characterized bythe use ofland as the main source ofproduction;
collective, familial orpersonal ownership of land; development of an exihange
38 Self-lnstructional Materiql
system for excessproduction, and development ofregularmarkets. Daryle Forde, Rural Economy
in a comprehensive survey ofprimitive societies, shows that there is considerable and Religion
vanation in institutions withinthe same economic t1pe.

Historians have also gathered enough evid enceto show that the Indianvt\lage
was internallyundifferentiatedand self-sufficient. During the Mughalperiod of NOTES
Indian history economic differentiation had progressed considerably among the
peasantry. There were large cultivators using hired labour and raising crops fbr the
market, and there were small peasants who could barely produce enough food
grains for their own subsistence. tseyond this differentiati.on among the peasantry
there were still more definite divisions between the caste peasantry and the 'menial'
population (Habib, 1982).
However, after the middle ofthe 1 9th century the Industrial Revolution and
industrialization took the form ofa definite ryatern The industrial economy is based
on diferentiation and a conplex division oflabow. Since Independence, the process
ofindustrializationhas progressed morerapidly.At the same time, much effort has
been devoted to raising the ievei ofproductivity in agriculture as an indispensable
basis for capital accumulation and industrial exparsion. It is apparent from studies
that economic growth in India is impeded by numerous social factors: high fertility,
the caste sSatenl resistance to innovation founded upon religious belie{ dependence
ofthe individual in a joint family, and so on. on the other hand, there are clear
signs that economic progress is ardentlydesired and that nationalplanning as well
as government encouragernent to private enterprise is generally approved.
Industrialization and economic growth depend as much on understanding social
factors as on economic calculation.
Industrial society is characterued by a high degree of division of labour.
The inportance ofprirnary relations and kinship ties are reduced and a great deal
of social interaction occurs in secondary groups and large, anonymous urban
communities. Given the condition ofanomie, alienation andrapidity ofchange,
community integration is a major problem in industrial societies.
3.4 THE TAJMANI SYSTEM AND ITS BEARING

ON TRADITIONAL SOCIETY
The jajmanl system is a system oftaditional occupational obligations. Castes in
early India were economically interdependent on one another. The traditional
specialized occupation ofa villager followed the specialization assigned to his
caste. The specialization of occupation led to the exchange of services in village
society. This relationship between the 'servicing'and the 'seryiced' castes was not
contractual, individua[ impersonal or temporarybut was caste oriented, long term
and broadly supportive. The relation between a landor,r.ning family and the laldless
families that supplied them goods and services is known a sthejajmanl system"
Rural Economlt The termjajmani systemwas introduced by W.H. Wiser in his book Zfte
and Religion
Hindu Jajmani System based on his study of Karimpur village in UP. Harold
Gould has described the jajmani systemas an inter-frmiliar inter-caste relationship
pertaining to the patterning of superordinate and subordinate relations between
NOTES patrons and suppliers of services. The patrons are the families of clean castes
while the suppliers of services are the families oflower andunclean castes. The
system is reciprocal to the extent that aman of a comparatively low caste will
serve a Brahman patron on certain occasions, while on others the same Brahman
will serve him, in turn, in his role ofpriest at family rit es. Thejajmani system is
essentially an agriculture based system ofproduction and distribution ofgoods
and services. Through the jajmani relatiors the occupationalTa/ls get linked with
the landowning dominant caste.Thejajmanl systemoperates aroundthe families
belonging to the landowning dominant caste, the members ofwhichare called
jajmans. The landowning caste maintains a paternalistic attitude ofsuperiority
towards their occupational castes who are called Kamln s in northern India. In
terms ofKarl Polanyi's classification of exchang e systemjajmani excltange can
be termed asaredistributive system of exchange.Thejajmani relations entail
ritual matters and social support as well as economic exchanges. Pauline Kolenda,
referring to j aj mani system has said'HinduT aj mani system may be approached
as an institution or social system within Indian villages made up of a network of
roles and into the system as a whole and legitimized and supported by general
cultural vahres.'
3.4.1 Nature of Jajmani Relations
Jajmani relations are exclusive inthat the farmer familyis supposedto carryon
such relations with only one blacksmith frmily, and those blacksmiths should make
tools only for their own farmer families. The families ofvillage officials or village
servants, e.9., the watchman, matntatnsjajmanirelationswiththe whole village
rather than with particular families.
A patron familymust carry onj ajmani relations with those whose services
are required for ritual pu{poses, especially conceming the family's pollution and
also withthose whose services andproducts me materiallyuseful. Thoughmost of
these casteshave specialized occupationsyet theyperformmultiple functions. For
instance, though barbers have a specialized occupation of cutting hair yet they
have multiple roles to play in a wedding. The barber's wife cleans and refurnishes
the house, massages the bride, helps herbathe and dress. She joins in the wedding
songs sung when the groom's party is met. The barber accompanies the wedding
party in the ceremonial round, doing for the members ofthe wedding whatever
tasks need to be done. He is present through all the rituals, helping the priest,
performing such duties as the formal fying ofthe groom's shirt to the corner ofthe
bride's dress. In retum, the barber and his wife are given a sum ofmoney and tips
of a rupee or two when they perform some special service in the course of the
rites. S.C. Dube, on the basis ofhis study of Shamirpet village near Hyderdbad,
has shown how barbers play the additional roles ofmatchmakers and messengers. Rural Economy
Jajmani associates are expected to be, and some are, broadly supportive of each and Reltgion
other, with the quality ofready help that close kinsmen are expected to show.
3.4.2 Jajmani Payments and Obligations

NOTES
The relation usually involves multiple kinds ofpalments and obligations as well as
multiple functions. N.S. Reddyinhis studyof Senapurvillage ofeasternup in
1 955, found that the traditional work oflohars was as iron
or blacksmiths. But in
Senapur they also worked with wood because there were no carpenters in this
village. They make and repair agricultural implements for the landowner farmers,
the thakurs. This work is apportioned among the Lohars according to hereditary
shares. Each familyhas an exclusive and inalienable right over its share ofwork,
which is not encroached upon by others. According to Harold Gould, these lower
castes (kamins) make their ownjajmani arrangements either through direct
exchange of labour or by paying in cash or kind. In some villages in Mysore that
Alan Beals has studied, men ofthe lowestjatis are employed as village servants,
as watchmen and irrigators. This gives them a more assured income than that
enjoyed byfamilies ofseveralother jatiswhichrankhigher inthe localhierarchies.
In Gould's tabulation of actualjajrnani payments in Sherupur village (Fauabad
district, UP), 'the washerman received the lowest average remuneration, the barbers
next lowest, and the carpenter and blacksmiths the highest in order ofprecedence
which accords perfectly with their relatir,e traditional statuses, .
3.4.3 Change and Continuity in Jaimani Relations
The j aimanl relationship has by now been largely supplanted in many villages,
although in a few it has completely disappeared. The power ofa local dominant
iati,hasbeen reduced in manyplaces because their village dependents can move
awaymore easilythanwas formerlypossible, and can earn some income from
outside the viliage as well. Yet the advantages ofjajmani as a method ofeconomic
stability and security are still sufficiently great so that many villagers want to contirlue
with at least some such arrangements. The cuitivator gains from them in that he
gets bbtter credit and a more certain labour supplythan he usually can through
cash trarisactions. In addition to the economic benefits, the ritual services that
i ajmani associates provide are still in demand. Some landowners in villages of
Poonadistrictkeepupjajmanirelationsmainlyso thattheymayhaveritualservices
readily available, as when a waterman must cleanse polluted clothing alter a death,
or when a messenger of low7'a/i must be sent around to relatives with the news of
a death, or when a goldsmith must purifi the household deities. Iri a village of
Barmer district in westem Rajasthan, there have been notable changes, but when
Bose and Jodha studied the villages in!963,many of them still maintained some
jajmanirclations. Certainfamilies no longer performtheir traditional occupations
but may keep up certanj ajmani relations. In a study conducted of400 households,
about 129, which is 75 per cent maintaned,jajmani ties rvith families ofthe low
leather worker jati. About60per cent maintained suchtieswith carpenter families.
Self-lnstructionul Material 4l
Rural Economy Thoughjajmanirclattonsare clearlyimportant inthe eyes ofthesevillagers, they
and Religion
are ofminor consequences in the village economy. Jajmani interchange, in this
and many other villages, still provides a measure of economic credit and stability
and it also helps to define the local social order by identiffing those who can
NOTES secure ample ritual services.
Whether thejajmani systemisan exploitative systemis questionable. Biedleman

(1959) explicitlyequatesthejajmanvuith'exploiter'and theknminwith'exploited'
and characterized the system as feudal. He believes thejajmani systemto be one
ofthe chiefinstruments ofcoercion, control and legitimizationwieldedbyhigh
caste, landowning Hindus. The kamins are totally dependent onthe jajmans.
The jajmans, on the other hand, treat the kamins in a paternalistic way and help
them socially in emergencies. The jajmani exchanges are considered mutually
beneficial; they tolerate the occasional irrelevant demands of thetr kamin s just as
thekaminstoleratethe occasionalcoacionofthenjajmans. Therefore, to consider
thejajmani as anexploitative systemwouldbe illogical. Kolenda, Orensteinand
Harold Gould have maintained that condetntngjajmani arrangements as brutally
exploitative is too sweeping a generalu:ation. The system persists not because of
anyrationaleconomicmotivations butbecauseofits inportanceto the maintenance
ofthe social status and pattems of social interaction that are essential to the successful
practice ofrural Hinduism. To Gould, thejajman status refers to a religio-economic
category rather than a social stratum. Thus, it can be conclud ed that j ajmans
cannot be perceived as exploiters, and the desire to become ajajman is not a
desire to get feudal status or a common inclination to 'exploit the weak' but the
wish to practice certain rituals and a way of life necessitating the avoidance of
rnpunty.
3.4.5 Decline of Jajmani System and Changes

Thej ajmanl system was challenged when India pame under foreign domination.
Gradually, after independence, the stability ofthe system was at stake. In order to
bring about economic development deliberate attempts were made to link village
economy to the regional and national markets by establishing transport and
communication networks. As a result, the self-sufficiency ofrural economy was
destroyed. The process ofplanned development initiated after Independence was
oriented towards bringrng about capitalistic transformation in agriculture. However,
the important changes in societythat have affectedthe jajmani systemin the last
five or six decades are: reduction in the powers ofthe village elders, effect ofthe
factory system and industrialuationon the quality of services rendered by the
kamins, changes inthe rigidityofthe caste system, introductionoflandreforms,
better enployment inrnban areas, etc. The dominant castes nowprefer to summon
politicalhelp rather thandepend ontheir kamins for support. Irawati Karve and
Y.B. Darnle, foundtwo-thirds oftheir respondents(222 out of326) ina survey
conducted n1962 in five villages in Maharashtra, and Bose and Jodha found Rural Economy
86 per cent ( 1 1 1 out of 129) ofthe respondents in their survey conducted and Religion
in 1 963
in Barmer district in western Rajasthan, nfavotx ofjajmani system.This
was due
to the economic benefits, the availabilityofthe ritual services, getting ofdependable
support by the landowners from some ofthe families and castes in their factional NOTES
struggles, and getting patron's protection in exigencies. yet the fact is that the
traditionalT ajmani relations have weakened in recent years. Hardly any village
economy is now carried on through jajmani arratgements. Biedleman
too is of the opinion thatitis doubtful if thejajmani systemwill survive inthe
comingyears.
CurcrYoun Pnocnnss
4. What is theja.imani system?
5. Who used thetermjajmani for the first time?
6. Differentiat e betw een kami ns andj aj mans.
7 . What are the main disadvantag es of thejajrnani systent?
8. What is an important change to affect thejajmanisystem?
3.5 THE INDIAN AGRARIAN CONTEXT

India has been a predominantly agricultural country with agriculture being the
backbone of rural economy. According to census 2001,56.6 per cent ofthe
population are engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Agriculture has been a
dominant mode ofoccupationandone ofthe largest contributors (1g.5 percent)
to GDP. Arural economy relies on agriculture and the allied activities ofagricuhure
are dairy poultry fishery goat and sheep, sericulture, etc. In this context, the
study of agrarian economy becomes an important aspect of social sciences. In
fact, agrarian studies have not occupied a centralposition in sociological discourse
like studies on caste, kinship, gender, etc. Though some sociologists who have
worked on developmental studies have made some references, yet agraianstudies
came to the core of the discipline of sociologywith the publication ofAndre
Beteille's 'Studies inAgrarian Social Structure'in 1974. Beteille pointed out that
the Indian village was characleraed by abaffling variety of land relations and a
complex hierarchyofownership rights over land. Bydefining little commgnities
not inrelationto landbut throughother socialinstitutions likekinship, religionand
social organuation of caste, there was a shift away from looking at the rural
population in relation to agriculture and land (there were some notable exceptions
to the broad frend such as Bailey, 1 958; Gough, I 955; Mukherjee, lg7 l).
Much before village studies were initiated by professional anthropologists
during the early 1 950s, social life in the Indian village and its agraianstructures
Self-Instructional Materiel 43
Rural Economy were extensively documented by colonial ethnographers, though, as with many
and Religion
other practices of colonial historiography, the accounts were written in a manner
that justified colonial subjugation oflndia (Cohn, I 987). Along with earlier writings
of James Mil| Charles Metcalfe's notion of Indian Village Community set the
NOTES tone fbr much ofthe later writing on rural India.
3.6 COTTAGE AND SMALL.SCALE INDUSTRIES

Since the organized sector was veryweakbefore and just after Independence,
the Government took steps to develop modern industries, especially large and
basic industries (Poojary 1996). The deliberate attempt by the state to industrialize
the economy in terms of large and basic industries led to the marginalization ofthe
unorganized sector. This led to a regional imbalance, and also resulted in the
concentration ofthe means ofproduction in the hands of few (Hazari, 1964).This
development forced the Govemment to revise the industrial development policy
and take steps to promote small-scale industries. Thus the small-scale sector was
promoted to rectifzthe problems and create employrnent opportunities during the
Second Five-Year Plan period. However, the role of Mahatma Gandhi in the
formation of small and cottage industries cannot be ignored. His emphasis on
spinning and the philosophyof 'Swaraj' have been instrumental in encouraging
cottage industries.
The Ali India Village Industries Association was established n T93 4. So far
as themeaning ofcottage andsmall-scale industries are concemed, the termcottage
industries, includes the entire gamut ofeconomic activities except agriculture, which
are carried on at, or near the home ofthe worker. The most widespread activity is
that ofmanufacturing light or non-durable consumer goods for sale. Theyuse liltle
power-driven machinery and generally depend on the skills of the worker (Jaffe
and Azumi, 1960). It can be said that cottage and small-scale industries would
help inemplo5zment generationandaddressthe iszues ofpovertyandunenployment.
Such industries also contribute in equitable distribution ofincome, create avenues
for entrepreneurship and mobilize local resources and skills.
However, the Fiscal Commission made a major conceptual advance in
distinguishing cottage and small-scale industries on the wage-labour criterion, and
the relationship between proprietors and workers. Acottage industry is thus one
which is carried on wholly or primarilywith the help ofmernbers ofthe family,
either as awhole or as apart-time occupation. Asmall-scale industry onthe other
hand, is one which is operated mainly with hired labour, usually ten to fifty hands
(GOI, 1950). The Cottage Industries Boardwas established :r:r1941.In1952,
the Board was split into three separate boards, Khadi and Village Industries,
Handicrafts and Handlooms. In 1954, a Small-Scale Industries Board was also
set up.
44 Self-lnstruLtional Moterial
3.6.1 Objectives of Small-Scale Industries Rural Economy
and Religion
The Second Five-Year Plan, while promoting small-scale industries identified
the
importance ofsuch industries. It believed that such industries provide immediate
large-scale alployment, skillmobilizationandresourcemanaagemment.
Moreover, NOTES
someproblems ofunplannedurbanizationcanalso be avoidedwiththe establishment
ofsmall-scale industries. However, the following are the objectives ofsmall-scale
indushies:
o Employment generation
o Equrtable distnbution ofnational income
o Mobilizationofcapital
o Mobilization ofentrepreneurial skills
o Regional industrial dispersal
The Second Plan document had also assumed that existing small industry
would be protected from inroads into their markets ofthe products ofdeveloping
large industry, specificallythat range ofsmall industrywhich layoutside
the biggei
towns. This required measures to reserve items for small-scale production oJy.
3.6.2 Changing Small-Scale Industries

Thus, it becomes evident that small-scale industries have contributed a lot towards
India's economy. These industries have also been an important feature ofrural
economy. Many efforts have been made to promote small-scale industries in
India
but these industries have undergone manyups and downs post liberalization.
Globalizationandthe inpact oftechnologyhave brought about manynew challenges
to small- scale industries.
CrmcrYoun PnocRnss
9 . when was the All India village Industries Association established?
10. Give one objective ofsmall-scale industry.
11. Name three spheres in social life where industrialization has brought
about a change.
12. List apre-condition for industrialization.
3.7 CHANGES IN VILLAGE ECONOMY

There have been many changes in the village economy due to agrarian
transformation. The onslaught ofmodern technologyhas changed the traditional
subsistence nature of agriculture to modern farming. The use of modern
improvements in cultivation improved the varieties ofseeds, fertilizers, pesticides,
Self-Instmctional Materiql 45
Rural Economy etc. There is also increasedproduction, betterrnarketing facilitiespost-hberalizatioru
and Religion
changes in land tenure system, etc. An important aspect of agraianchange is
social change . Agricultural transformation in the form ofinproved cropping pattems,
high level ofme clwtnatioabetter rnarket ficilities, etc., have contnbuted in cha"gmg
NOTES the old social order ofrigidity in the system. Such a change alters the traditional
institutional arrangements and cultural practices in a village based on divisions of
caste and other aspects of social structure. Even the traditional syst emslke jajmani
has undergone manychanges due to agranantrattsformationas the traditional
relationships betweenvarious caste groups seemto have altered. The phase of
industrializationhasbrought about innumerable changes inthe sociallife ofthe
villagers.
3.8 INDUSTRIALIZATIOI{ AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Industrialization refers to sustained economic growth following the application of
innate sources ofpower to mechanized production. Industrialization is not only a
mechanical process, but a social process as well. It affects the socio-cultural
environment somewhat subtlyandproduces fir-reachingconsequences inl'arious
spheres of social life. Industrialuationhas rightlybeen described as the second
wave ofchange in human civilization. Thus, industrialization brings about a wide
range ofchanges covering the whole gamut of social life. The consequences in
various spheres ofsocial life have beendiscussed as follows:
3.8.1 Economic Structure

(i) Industrialization reduces the proportion ofpopulation directly engaged in
agriculture. The invention ofnew agricultural technologies reduces the
demand ofdirect physical labour.
(if The productive sector ofthe economymoves from a subsistence levelto a
surplus marketing levei.
(ii| A high degree oflabour mobilitytakes place.

(iv) The occupational hierarchy becomes too complex with many divisions and
sub-divisions. The specializations and pro fessionaluation add fuither
conplexityto it.
(v) There growth in marketing and commercial centres for
is seen a substantial
the sale ofconsumer goods forprocurement ofraw materials and unfinished
products.
3.8.2 Demographic Structure

(i) With the increment in rnedical technolory and standard ofliving, the mortality
rate is considerably reduced.
(if The growth ofindustrial centres results in heavy migration fromvillages to
industrial centres. W.E. Moore rightlyremarks, 'The historical association
between industrialization and urbanization is by no means complete, but is Rural Economy
verypronounced.' and Religion
(iif Hear,y migration to industrial centres results in growth ofurban slums.
3.8.3 Social Structure NOTES

The social consequences of industrialization are many and varied. Some ofthese
are:
(i) Social mobility has led to the disintegration of the joint family. There is
weakening of family and kinship ties.
(D With industrialization, two culturalprocesses go on simultaneously. There
develops a common st andarduedculture best suited to the industrial way
oflife' This culture becomes more and more popular ttloughrapid expansion
ofmassmedia. Onthe otherhand, the regionalculture gets more distinction
andidentity.
(ii! Stratificationsysteminpre-industrialsocietieswaslargelybasedonascriptive
factors. But withthe growth of industrialization the traditional systern of
stratification started breaking down. Industrial society is based on values of
' achievement'. So the closed system of stratification
is replaced by an open
system of stratification. Social mobiiity, both inter-generational and intra-
generational, becomes the nonn.
(iv) Secular and rational attitude graduallyreplace the traditional religious faiths.

Pre-conditions forthe development ofindustrializationare the creationofa cohesive
nation-state organized arorxrd a common language and culture.
(i) Enfranchisement ofthe population and the institutionatzationofpolitics
around mass parties or in other words democ rat;r:ation.
(if Rise ofa welfare state and growth of numerous agencies of social control.
This results due to the increasing role of state inmaintaining integration,
stability or equilibrium in society.
(iir) Growth of a universal legal system
3.8.5 Education and Religion

Industrialization itselfis a product of certain changes in education. Traditional
religious education is replaced by secular scientific and utilitarian education.
Industrialization also brings about profound changes inreligious institutions. Religion,
which was the agency of social control, tends to lose all these functions. The
cognitive functions ofreligion are takenoverby scienie.
Thus industrialization has a number ofconsequences on Indian social life.
The old principles of collectivisrn, ritual purity, spiritualism sacredness, emotional
bond are being replaced by individualism, secularism, materialism and
Rural Economy contractualism. In spite of such changes, the traditional values and cultrnal ethos
and Religion
have not been replaced nor have they disappeared completely from the Indian
society.
NOTES 3.8.6 Structural Changes Associated with Development

In the first instance societybegins to reorganize its people and other resources in
the followingways:
(i) With resp ectto technologt,there is a change from simple and traditional
techniques torvards the application of scientffic knowledge.
(tl lnagriculture,the change is from subsistence farming towards commercial
production of agricultural goods.
(l\ is from the use ofhuman and animal power towards
In indus try, the transition
industrialization proper, or the use of power driven machines tended by
wage earners and producing goods that are sold for a price in the market.
(iv) In ecological awangements, there is a movement from the farms and
villages towards urban centres.
There has been a change of social structures during economic and social
development, structural changes that nations experience as theyattempt to push
their economies forward. Firstly there is structural differentiation, or the
establishment ofmore specialized and more autonomous structuralunits. The second
is the emergence of new patterns of integration or the establishment of new
coordinative structures, especially legal, political and associational as the old social
order is rnade more complex andperhaps obsolete bytheprocess ofdifferentiation.
3.8.7 Structural Differences in Periods of Development

There has been a change from multifunctional role structure to several more
specialized structures. Inpre-industrial societies, production was based on kinship
units. Exchange and consumption were embedded deeply in family and the village.
But with economic growth, several kinds of ec6nomic activities were removed
fr om this family community complex.
Emile Durkheim: Solidarity as an active force in economic life

Most ofthe insights ofDurkheim conceming economic integration are found in his
book, The Division of Labour in SocieQ.To analyse how social life is integated,
Durkheim set up a dichotomybetween two types of society-segmental and
complex. To hirn, segmental society is a homogeneous society with the presence
ofmechanical solidarity. There is the presence ofrepressive law in such society.
Here on one hand there is the subordination ofthe individualto the undifferentiated
collective conscience ofthe society and in differentiated or complex societies,
powerful forms ofintegration operate. There are restitutive laws present in complex
societies. He differed from Spencer in that he stressed the increased salience of
integration in complex societies, rather than tending to regard it as a by-product of
!rrrir.,,, : nai interactions.
48 Self-Instructional Mattrial
Max Weber: The origins and sustaining conditions for capitalism Rural Economy
and Religion
Max weber made a comparative analysis ofsocieties by using the method ofthe
ideal type. weber mentioned two kinds of ideal-t1pe constructs. Ahistorically
unique configuration suchas 'rationalbourgeoisie capitalism'refersto the systerniatic
NOTES
and rationalorganzatron ofproduction itself While identi$ing the historical
conditions that gave rise to industrial capitalism, Weber rejected the explanation
that the rise of capitalism could be explained by the increase ofpopulation. on the
positive side, he considered the rise ofascetic Protestantisrrl especially Calvinisrrq
established social and psychological conditiors conducive to this form ofcapitalism
To hrn, bureaucracy also forms the most rational form ofsocial organization for
perpetuating industrialcapitalism. Weber found certaininstitutional structures
permissive for industrial capitalisrn and found these structures in the political and
legal complex. So Weber specified certain institutional conditions under which
rnaximummobilityis bothpermitted andregulated. Weber also stressedthe political
and legal regulation ofmoney and exchange. Above a[ rational capitalism cannot
flourish unless the political authority guarantees a money supply with relatively
stable values. As to the type ofmedium ofexchange, Weber sawthe advantage of
a generalaed money currency since it allows for expansion ofmarket and creation
ofcredit. However, unlike traditional economists, Weber was not interested in the
regularities produced within the capitalist system ofproduction but in establishing
the irnportant background institutional conditions under which the capitalist ryatem
itselfand its regularities could exist.
3.9 MEANING OF RELIGION

Religionis concernedwiththe sharedbeliefs andpractices ofhumanbeings. It is
the human response to those elements in life and environment ofmankind which
are beyond their ordinary comprehension. Religion has also been characterized as
that aspect ofhumaq social and personal life which embodies the most sublime of
human aspirations. There are many definitions ofreligion. It is defined 'as a system
ofbeliefs and practices bywhich a group ofpeople interprets and responds to
what they feel is supernatural and sacred'. Roland Robertson states that religion
refers to the existence of supernatural beings which have a governing efect on life.
Religion, according to Ogbum, is the attitude towards a super human power. The
super human, the unseen, the supernatural and the beyond, has ahvays attracted
the minds ofmen from ancient times to the present. Thus, a religion is more or less
a coherent system ofbeliefs and practices concerning a supernatural order of
beings, forces, places, or other entities; a systemthat for its adherents has inplication
for their behaviour and welfare implications, that the adherents in varying degrees
and ways take seriously in their private and collective life.
Se[-lnstmctional Material 49
Rural Economy
and Religion 3.10 THE ORIGII\ AND EVOLUTION OF RELIGION
The early sociological studies ofreligion had three distinctive methodological

NOTES characteristics; these werc evoltttionist, positivist and,psychologistic. These
are shown in the works ofcomte, Tylor and Spencer. In comte's sociology, one
ofthe fundamental conceptions is the law ofthree stages, according to which
hurnan thought had passed through the theological, metaphysical and positive stages.
Comte treats theological thinking as intellectual error which is dispersed by the
rise ofmodern science. He traced, within the theological stage, a development
from animism to monotheism and he explained religious beliefin psychological
terms byreference to the perception and thought processes ofearlyman .Later,
comte propounded his own religion ofhumanity and thus recognized, in some
sense, a universalneed for religion.
3.10.1 Evolutionism
However, the works ofrylor and Spencer were much more rigorous as they were
concerned with explaining the origin ofreligion. Theybelieved that the idea ofthe
soul was the principal feature inreligious belief and set out to give an account, in
rationalist terrns, ofhow such an idea might have originated in the mind ofprimitive
man. According to this, men obtained their idea ofthe soul from a misinterpretation
ofdream and death. Spencer refers to that original theory ofthings is which, from
the supposed reality ofdreafils, there results the supposed realityofghosts. E.B.
Tylor believes animism to be the earliest forms ofreligion. He argues that animism
derives fromman's attempts to answer two questions ofthe difference between a
living body and a dead one and what are the human shapes which appear in
dreams and visions. The soul is a spirit being which leaves the bodytemporarily
during dreams and visions. To AustralianAborigines, the animals were invested
with a spirit as were the man-made objects. Tylor argues that religion, inthe form
ofanimism originatedto satis$rman's intellectualnature, to meet his need to rnake
sense ofdeath, dreams andvisions. Naturisr4 onthd otherhand, isthebeliefthat
the forces ofnature have supernatural power. Max Muller believes this to be the
earliest form ofreligion. He argues that naturism arose from man's experience of
nature; inparticular, the effect ofnature uponman's emotions. Where animism
seeks the origin ofreligion in man's intellectual needs,naturism seeks it in his
emotional needs. Naturism is man's response to the effect of the power and
wonder ofnature upon his emotions.
From the origin ofreligion, 19th cenhry sociologists tumed to its evohrtion.
Tylor provided an example. He believed that human society evolved through five
major stages, beginning with the simple hunting and gathering band, and ending
with the complex nation-state. Religion evolved through five stages, in the same
way as the evolution of society. Animism is the beliefin a multitude ofspirits formed
bythe religion ofthe simplest societies. Monotheisnr, the beliefin one supr'eme
God, formed the religion ofthe most complex. Tylor believed that each stage in
the evolution ofreligion arose frompreceding ones and that the religion ofmodern Rural Economy
and Religion
man is ingreat measure onlyexplainable as a developedproduct bfan older and
rudersystem.
3.10.2 Criticism of Evolutionism

NOTES
However, there are manycriticisms ofthe evolutionaryapproach. The origin of
religion is lost in the past. However, theories about the origin ofreligion can only
be based on speculation and intelligent guesswork as some cdtics say. Moreovero
the precise stages for the evolution ofreligion do not fit the facts. Andrew Lang
has pointed out that many of the simplest societies have religions based on
monotheism which Tylor claimed was limited to modem societies.
CHscxYoun Pnocnnss
13. What is Roland Robertson's definition ofreligion?
14. What were the three main characteristics ofreligion according to early
sociological studies?
I 5. Name two sociologists who conducted studies on religion.
16. Differentiate between animism and naturism.
17 . Name two sociologists who discussed the social f,mctions ofreligion.
18. What is the main characteristic ofthe functionalist perspective?
3.11 SACRED AND PROFANE
Durkheim held that the essence of religion is to sustain the divisions into the
phenomena of the sacred and profane. He does not hold that the essence of
religion lie in the belief in a transcendent God. He holds that the true aim ofreligion
is to establish the phenomena of sacred andprofane inthe society. The 'sacred'
consists ofa body ofthings, beliefand rites. Supernatural entities are alwap sacred,
that is, worthy of being treated with respect whether they are good or evil.
Supematuralbeings and forces are invisible and intangible but certain sacred objects
me quite tangible and visible, for exarrple, the altm in a Christian churctr" Everything
in a church shares, to some extent, in the sacredness ofthe more specifically
shared objects. On the other hand, everything that is not holy or unholy is profrne,
every place, being, thing or act. Profanity is using names without proper respect.
Some theorists once held that certain objects are sacred because oftheir
intrinsic qualities. In fact, almost arything canbe treated as sacred. Sacredness is
not aqualityinherent inobjects;it is, rather, inherent inattitudes ofthedevout. The
key to an understanding of tangible sacred objects is the realization that they are
tangible, visible symbols ofthe intangible invisible natural order. For instance, a
Rural Economy
church is like an1, other building, not merely an artrfactwhich serveb an utilitarian
and Religion
purpose. It is also anelaborate syrnbol, avirtual space and adomain symbolic of
culturally altered activities and values. The symbolic aspects of a church or temple
are more prominent and obvious than those ofmost secular buildings. Such examples
NOTES show that sacred objects are sacred because of their synrbolic value and not
because oftheir intrinsic properties. They facilitate worship and strengthen faith.
3.12 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
3.12.1 Religion: A Functionalist Perspective

Evolutionists such as Tylor and Muller attempted to explain religion in terms of
human needs. However, the functionalist perspective changes the emphasis from
humanneedsto socialneeds. Fromafunctionalistperspective, societyrequires a
certain degree of social solidarity, value, consensus, harmony and integration
between its parts. The function ofreligion is the contribution it makes to meeting
such functional prerequisites.
Emile Durkheim
Durkheim presented a functionalist perspective on religion in The Elementary
Forms of Religiot'ts Lfe published n 1912. Durkheim argues that all societies
divide the world into two categories, the sacred and the profane. To understand
the role ofreligion in society, the relationship between sacred symbols and that
which theyrepresent must be established. He studied religion among theArunta
tribes ofAustralia. He saw their religionas totemismwhichis the simplest and
earliest from of religion. The totem is a sacred symbol of the clan which is
worshipped. According to hr4 primitive man comes to view society as something
sacred because he is utterly dependent on it. To him, social life is impossible
without the shared values and moral belief which come from the 'collective
conscience'. Intheir absence there wouldbe no social order, social control, social
solidarity or cooperation. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. Durkheim
emphasizes onthe importance of collective worship because it strengthens the
integration of society. Members of society express, cornmunicate and comprehend
the moralbonds which unite them.
Criticism: Durkheim's ideas remain influentialyet they are not without

criticism. While agreeing that religion is important forpromoting social solidarity
and reinforcing social values, they would not support the view that religion is the
worship ofsociety. Durkheim's views onreligion are more relevant to small, non-
literate societies where there is a close integration ofculture and social institutions
and they are less relevant to modem societies.
Bronislaw Malinowski
Malinowski based his study ofreligion on examples drawn fromTrobriand Islands
offthe coast ofNew Guinea. Like Durkheinl Malinowski sees religion as reinforcing
socialnorms andvalues andpromoting socialsolidarity. Malinowski identifies Rural Economy
specific areas ofsocial life with whichreligion is concemed to w*rich it is addressed. and Religion
According to Malinowski, in every society, there are certain crises oflife which
are suffounded by religious ritual. For instance, in the case of death ceremony,
death is 'socially destructive'since it takes away amember from society. At a NOTES
firneral ceremonythe social group unites to support the bereaved. This expression
of social solidarityreintegrates society. He also gave the example offishing as an
important subsistence practice ofthe Trobrianders. As withf.rneral ceremonies,
fishtng rituals are also social events. The group unites to deal with situations of
stress and so the unity ofthe group is strengthened. So Maiinowski argues that
religion promotes social solidarityby dealing with situations of emotional stress
which threaten the stability ofsociety.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons argues that human action is directed and controlled bynorms provided
by the social system. The norms ofdirect action are not merely isolated standards
ofbehaviour, but are integrated and patterned by the values and beliefs provided
by the cultural system. And religion is a part of this cultural system. As such,
religious beliefprovides guidelines for human action and standards against which
man's conduct can be evaluated. By establishing general principles and moral
belief religionhelps to provide the consensus which Parsons believes is necessary
for order and stability in society. Parsons sees religion as a mechanism for adjustment
life's crisis and as a means ofrestoring the normalpattern of life. He argues that
one ofthe major functions ofreligion is to make sense ofall experiences no matter
how meaningless or contradictory they might appear. parsons, therefore, sees a
major function ofreligion to be the provision ofmeaning to events that man does
not expect or feel ought to happen, events that are ftustrating and contradictory.
Religion mrakes sense oftheir events in terrns ofan integrated and consistmt pattem
ofmeaning. This allows intellectual and emotional adjustment.
Thus, the functionalist perspective emphasizes the positive contributionof
religion to society and tends to ignore its dysfunctional aspects. However, the
social functions ofreligion, both for the religions group itselfand the wider society,
canbe classifiedas contributionto pattemmaintenance, tensionmanagement and
integration.
Religion plala an inportant role in integration. It has an inportant part in crystallizing,

symbolzing and reinforcing common values and norms. The Ten Commandments
in Judaism and christianity, for example, are religious duties some ofwhich are at
the sametimemoral.
Morale or tension management

Morale may be defined as the level ofpositive motivation to attain group goals.
Good morale is not possible ifgoals are ill defined or conflicting, or ifthey seem
Self-lnstructional Mqterial 53
Rural Economy impossible to attain. It is said that magic rituals emphasizes the group goals and
and Religion
increases confidence that the action will be successful.

NOTES
Social control firnctions are the obverse ofmoral maintaining function. Any social
organization requires mechanism ofsocial control. Religion not only defines moral
expectations for members of the religious group but usually enforces them. To the
extent that moral norrns are supported within the religious group, they are the
same nofiIts as laid down by society. Social control within the religious group has
functional importance forthe wider societyas well.
3.t2.4 Dysfunctions of Religion

The directimpact ofreiigion remains healthy, elevating and socializing. Its indirect
effects have been dysfunctional. In Europe, religion hindered the growth of science
and inquiry.ight up to the decline of organized church in the 19th century. It has
also resulted inwars, devastations and genocides. Religious antagonismpersisted
despite the g'eat Bhakti movement in India. Communalism has gained momentum
and this was the root cause for Partition and it still persists, as is demonstrated by
communal riots. It can thus be concluded that reiigion may not work as a cohesive
force, when more than one religion exists in a society.
3.13 SECTS AND CULTS
A sect is a relatively small religious group. It is a smaller, less highly organized

group ofcommitted believers, usually setting itselfup in protest against a churctr,
as Calvinists have done. Its mernbers are usually, thoughbyno means always,
drawn from the lower classes and the poor. Sects often reject many ofthe norrns
and values ofthe wider society and replace them with beliefs and practices which
sometimes appear strange to the non-believer. Sects are, in Peter Berger's words,
in terms with the larger society and closed againsi it. The organization of sects
tends to be in terms of small face-to-face groups without a hierarchy ofpaid
officials and a bureaucratic structure. For the pure sect, the ideal of fellowship is
exacting. It is an ideal ofbrotherly love and sometimes ofcommunism and near-
communism in goods. Sects are usualiy intolerant towards other religious groups;
for example, the Black Muslim sect. It rose to prominence in the early 1960s
when the BlackAmerican movement for self-determination developed. The Black
Muslims believed that blacks are by nature divine and the whites are inferior and
evil. On initiation into the sect, members replace their slave name with a Muslim
name. Max Weber argued that sects are most likely to arise within groups which
are marginal in sooiety. They are seen as a possible response to relative deprivation.
Sects tend to arise during a period ofrapid social change. Inthis situation, traditional
nofins are disrupted, social relationships tend to lack consistent and coherent
meaning and the traditional universe ofmeaning is undermined. In a situation of
54 SefJnstructionalMqterial
change and uncertainty, the sect offers the support of a close-knit
community Rural Ecanomy
organuation,well defined and stoongly sanctioned norms and values and a promise ond Religion
ofsahation. It provides a new and stable 'universe ofmeaning which is tegitimated
byits religious belief .
B.R. wilson (1959) has classifiedthe christian sects into fourtypes. The NOTES
first isthe conversionisttype,representedbythe SalvationArmyandthe pentecostal
sects. This type tends to be fundamentalist, but theyplace much more
emphasis
upon emotional religious e4perience than upon doctrinal elaboration The
second is
the adventist sect representedbythe Jehovah's witnesses and the Christadefohions.
The earlyChristiansbelievedthat Christwould come againsoonafterthe
crucifixion
and bring the world, as they knew it, to an end. This so called eschatological
doctrine was one ofthe main factors underlying the otherworldliness ofprimitive
Christianity. The adventists see in certain evil events of the present, signs
of the
imminent end ofthe world, signs foretold in scripture. The third tlpe of
sect is the
introversionz,st, representedbythe
euakers and Societyofthe TrulyImpaired.
sects ofthis b?e tend to be mystical, but unlike the conversionist sects
they do
not seekextreme evolutional states. These sects withdraw fromthe world
to some
extent, but not to live an otherworldly life. The fourth type, the Gnosticsect,
is
represented bythe christian scientists, New Thought and order ofthe
cross.
The chiefcharacteristic ofthe Gnostic sects is their emphasis upon holding
the
correct intellectualviews, some ofu,hichusuallyseembizarre to the uninitiated.
Cults are heterogeneous groups which may claim links with traditional
religion, but their major claim is to a new religious emphasis. The cult,
unlike the
idealtype ofchurch, is a voluntary orgaruzation. No group canget along
without
some regulation of its mernbers and a cult is no exception. The cult
-uy.lui* thut
it will transform the society, as the unification ofthe church claims, or
it may look
inward and stress on an ecstatic personalreligious experience. It mayalso
stress a
particular concem, such as faith healing, and not attempt to deal with
all aspects of
life. The coherence ofthe group depends upon the emotional hold ofa
leader over
the members, or upon the fascination ofthe beliefs or rituals. In general,
cults are
not strict except in financial matters. There is a tendency for culs to emphasize
one doctrine above all others, or to focus upon a god or goddess with
certain
definite characteristics. For instance, the Christian scientists stress on the unreality
of evil especially ofphysical suffering and emphasize spiritual healing. Cults
seem
to flourish in metropolitan centres, that is, in places where vast populations live
close together physically. yet, they also have heterogeneo.rr ruitrri.,
and many
diverse problems ofadjustment. It is not so much that cults flourish in
a time of
transitionforeverytime is atime oftransition, buttheydo flourishinthoseplaces
where change is more rapid and obvious and impinges upon many people.
Since
change is going on all the time in the sociar composition of the .ity,
orr. r.ruy
suppose that many cults have short lives. some cults develop into
sects and
denominations.
Rural Economy Magic
and Religion
The goal ofassuring the repose ofthe soul ofa dead person is non-empirical, that
is, an impartial observer will have no empirical evidence available to him that
would enable himto tell whether the soul is in repose or not. When the goal of an
NOTES
action is empirical and the means are supernatural, such action is called magic.
Max Weber used the term magic to refer to religious action believed to be
automatically effective, whether the goal is enpirical on non-enpirical Malinowski
defined rnagic as the use of supernatural means to try to obtain empirical ends, but
he distinguished magic fromreligion. To regardmagic as apart ofreligion is justified
ol the ground that in magic, as in other religious activities there is the concem with
the supernatural order and with the problem of salvation. All magic is used for the
benefit ofan individual or a group. It becomes important to distinguish between
'white' and 'black' rnagic as white magic never causes harrn Magic whichrestores
to health is white so also magic to ensure victory in war. 'Black magic'on the other
hand, always does harm and is often directed against persons in the magician's
own society, thus magic to inflict disease is black. Agriculture, hunting, warfare
and health are the fields in which white magic is common. The magic rites and
spells maybe used for an individual's benefit or for the benefit of some larger
group, up to the wihole society. The Sun Dance performed in one version or another
bysome sixteenlndiarrtribes always involved severalparticipants, none ofwhom
had to be specialists in magic, although for supernatural reasons the performance
might have to meet certain qualifications such as proved bravery.
Byperforming magic, men express their strong wishes synbolicallyand
renew their confidence. The Trobriand Islanders regarded magic as indispensable
for their deep-sea fishing. However, under black magic are subsumed sorcery
andwitchcraft Sorceryconsists ofrights and spells that, according to cultural
beliefl do not depend for their efficacy upon any supematural power in the magician
himself Thus sorcery can be leamed andpractised with efficacyby anyone, provided
that the ritual is correctlyperformed and that the victim or some protector does
not use counter magic of greater potency. Witchcraft, on the other hand, is black
magic that is thought to depend upon the supernatural power ofthe magician.
Thus it cannot be transmitted, except byheredity. Among the Dobuans of the
Western Pacific, black magic is used to protect property rights and hence to punish
theft. Among the Ponds of SouthAfrica, mothers-in-law and daughters in-law
most frequentlyaccuse each other ofbeing witches, and the most frequent charge
is that the witch has sexualrelations with a familiar ofthe opposite sex, who is of
lighter colour. The imputed use ofblack magic on a large-scale is an indication of
strain or tension in the social structure. But today, social tensions expressed in
accusations ofwitchcraft are no longer found.
Rural Economy
3.14 PLURALISTIC RELIGION and Religion
Small, non-literate societies such as theAustralianAborigines have one faithand

one church. Members share a cofirmon faith and at certain times ofthe year, the
NOTES
entire community gathers to express this faith in religious rituals. In terms of
Durkheim's view the community is the chrnch. In contemporary western society,
one church has been replaced by many. Today, many denominations and sects
have replaced the comrnon faith and the established church. Today's religious
pluralismhas been interpreted as secularization. BryanWilson argues that ifthere
are a number of denominations in society, each with its own version of truth, they
can, at bebt, only reflect and legitimate the beliefs ofa section ofthe population. In
this wayreligious values cease to be communityvalues. Instead ofone religious
institution with a single, unchallenged view ofthe supematural, there are now many
with divergent views. Berger and Luckmann argue that the emergence of
denomination weakens the influence ofreligion. The continuing proiiferation of
sects hasbeeninterpreted and is seenas f,rther fragmentation ofinstitutionalreligion
andthus as evidence ofthe weakening hold ofreligionover society.
CmcrYouR PRocRESS
19. Differentiate between a sect and a cult.
20. What are the four types ofChristian sects according to B.R. Wilson?
3.15 RURAL RELIGION
In all parts of the world, the rural population is more religious than its urban
counterpart. This disparity has been noted due to a number of factors like the
dependence upon agriculture ofthe rural population. Such dependence upon nature
has glorified nature and led to the worship ofnaftral forces. The famous Tyloiean
notion of 'animism' (worship ofanimals) or Max Muller's 'naturism'(worship of
nature's forces) or even Durkheim's 'totemism'(worship of a totem or flag or
sign) are ali evidences fromprimitive societies about the nature ofruralreligion.
Thinkers ofalltimes have agreed in regarding Indians as religious-minded

people. Besides being religious, Indians are also professed to be ofphilosophical
propensity. Ifpart ofthe European fascination with India had to do with Europe's
search for its owtl origins, the 'essence'of its own character, and a rationale for its
own superiority, so the concern for 'origins' in India has to do with self-definition
and the affirmation ofa certain superiority based on antiquity. So Hindu nationalists
speak of santana dharma or 'eternal' dharma, an ideology that presumes its
sources are rooted in a pristine past. The same ideology argues for the indigenous
antiquity of the 'Aryan', or 'Vedic' culture, a period in Indian history &om which
Sel/-lnstrltctional Mqterial 57
Rural Economy allelse ispresumedto have originated (clothey, 2006).Distinguishingbetween
and Religion
Indian classical religion and Indian rural religion, S.C. Dube remarked:
Clearly, Hinduism, as it is practiced in the villages is not the Hinduism of the
NOTES classical philosophical system of India for it possesses neither the

metaphysical height nor the abstract content ofthe latter. It is a religion of
fasts and festivals, in which prescribed rituals cover all the major crisis of
life . . . analysis of life histories reveals that spiritualism cannot be said to be
keynote in the life of the community, far from it the religion appears to be a
practical one.
So, it can be said that religion in rural lndia is apracticalpractice. The

villagers in India had not been acquainted with traditional Hindu philosophy and
there was lack of education. As a result, they are, in fact, more superstitious.
However, Hinduism has been the dominant religion in Indian villages . Other religions
like Islar4 Sikhisrq Chriatianity, Buddhism and Jainism are also followed in some
villages. Some tribal districts have their own tribal religion.
3.16 BELIBFS AND PRACTICES IN VILLAGES

Hinduismembraces a multiplicityofbeliefsystems, as it is essentiallyapolytheistic
religion. The traditional Hindu beliefs include the doctrine of karma and the
transmigration of soul which means the soul travels to another body after death.
Hindu social organlzation was based on the Purusharthas, i.e., dharma, (doing
one's duty) artha, (material success), kama (sexualsatisfaction) andmoksha
(lrberation ofthe soul) with every Hindu having the ultirnate aim ofattaining mol<sha.
In this section we will discuss the various features ofrural religion.
3.16.1 Rural Worship

The ruralHindus worship many different gods and goddesses. The most important
among them is Shiva, who is worshipped in different 'forms and by different names.
People ofall castes worship Shiva and Hanilnan. Besides Shiva, the other deities
worshipped inthe villages are Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Jagannath, and so on. The
various gods intheir innumerable incamations are worshippedinvillages. Numerous
incarnations of goddesses like Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswatiand Ganga are
also worshipped.
The Indianvillager also extends his respect andreverence to manydeities

who cannot be called Hindu by tradition. One such deity is Shitala Matawho is
believed to protect people from smallpox epidemic and who sends troubles in the
form o f smallpo x when displeased. Other deities include S ati Mat a and B huiy an
Devi. Apart from the above-mentioned gods and godesses, every village has its
own rural deities which are local in nature. Many interesting stories are attached to
these deities from the oral tradition. In a village, every caste group have their own
specific pi otective deities.
58 Self-Instructional Mqterial
3.16.2 Beliefs and Practices of Rural people Rural Economy
and Religion
With regard to religious beliefs and practices ofrural people, it is believed that
often suchpractices are specific to aparticular region. Religious iife in a village is
celebrated at different levels ofcaste, sub-caste, fimily, etc.villages are recognized
NOTES
as local communities with a degree ofthe 'we-feeling' o. .ornrn*ity feeling
attached
to it. Beliefs and practices are manifestations of an attitude regarding the
supernatural. Beliefs are acharacter for the rituals and its rationalization.There is
no denying the fact that the beliefs and the exact nature ofsupernatural varies from
region to region and time to time. while some belief in fetishism, (belief in an
object) some in totemism (belief in a flag), others believe in ghosts and witches.
Even animism and naturism have been practiced in India. Many kinds of beliefs
regardingtime, auspicious andinauspicious, arepracticed inrurallndia. Forinstance,
people consider early morning as more auspicious for doing good deeds. Many
kinds ofsuperstitions concerning good and evil are found among ruralpeople HkL
aparticularactivityonparticular days andmonths are considered auspicious and
would bear good results. Specific calculations regarding the accurate time for
kavel is also associated with the beliefofauspicious and inauspicious. Moreover,
regarding the time for taking meals, suchbeliefs are taken into consideration, like
morning meal should be taken after a bath.
Apart fromthis, thereare r,'arious superstitionsregardingnaturalphenomena.
For instance, a solar or lunar eclipse is not considered as anyplanetarypositional
change, but rather believed to be catastrophes of rahu and ketu.A drought or
heavy rainfall is considered to be a manifestation ofthe displeasure ofthe gods.
Rituals are an important aspect ofreligious life in India. Village rituals are a
manifestation ofsocial significance of a local community. There are various life
cycle rituals which are practiced. These are samskaras (rites and rituals) and
occupy an important place in the life ofa Hindu. Samskaras are sacred ceremonies
w{rich unite the village folk into a goqp. There have been divergent opiniors regarding
the number of samslarqs. Some scholars like Manubelieved that there are thirteen
samskaras, some religious scriptures mention onlytwelve while some others put
the number at sixteen. However, the numbervaries fromregionto region. Some
common s ams karas are s imant onn ay anam (baby shower), annapras ana (first
food), mundan (haircutting), naamkaran (name giving), upanayan (thread
ceremony), vivaha (marriage) and anthyesthi (lastrites).
With regard to village rituals, the following are prevalent:
saadha: This ritual is performed in the seventh month ofpregnancy. Evidence
from the Vedas show that rt is cal7ed s imantonnay anam, which tsactually observed
in the fourth month ofpregnancy. However saadha is observed in the seventh
,
month. According to this rirual a pregnant wornan has to observe certain restrictions
like wearing new clothes or applying vermillion t rll saadhais done. Five to seven
days before this ritual, she is forbidden from any kind ofadornment or ornaments.
once the day for the ritual is fixed by the priest, the parents ofthe pregnant woman
Rural Economy send her new clothes, sweets, fiuits, etc. Then the ritual is performed with seven,
and Religion
nine or eleven flour cakes as these numbers are considered auspicious and then
kept on the lap ofthe \ /oman and mantras are recited.
Prasava (delivery): Inthis ritual gods and goddesses are worshipped to
NOTES
ask for the safe delivery ofthe child.
Chhathi: This is a popular ritual observed almost everywhere in India.
Both the mother and the child take a bath for the first time on the sixth day after
delivery.
Naamkaran (name-giving): This ritual is performed on the tenth day after
the birth of a child. The priest is invited and performs ayajna. The child is then
addressedbyaname for the first time.
Annaprasana (first food): In this ritiual the child is made to eat his first solid
food.
Mundan: This ritual involves shaving the head of a child at a holy place.
Upanayan (thread ceremony): This ritual is performed among the Brahmins
and Dwijas (twice-bom) where aholythreadis tied aroundthe chest ofa child.
Anthyesti (death rituals) and shraddha: It includes all those rituals starting
from the day of the death till the thirteenth day. Shraddhs is observed on the first
death anniversary.
3.17 VILLAGE TEMPLES AND FESTIVALS
Village temples occupy a significant place in the life of a village and have a
considerable influence on the everyday life ofthe village folk. Village temples are
looked upon as communityproperty and a particular familytraditionally looks
after it and performs the part ofthe priest. The temple is not merely a place of
worship; itbecomes instrumental in conductingthe lives ofpeople. It becomes a
place ofcongpegationwhere people from different castes get an opportunityto
take part in the occasion being celebrated at the temple. The cultwal life ofthe
villagers is also enrichedbythe viilage temple. Devotional songs and dances are
performedwhichbring together the entire viliage. Manyrituals are also performed
in the temple like marriages,yajnas, upanayan, etc. Some village temples even
work as educational centres and many schools are set up bytemple trusts.
Festivals and celebrations have been an integral part of Indian rural life.
Many ethnographic studies have revealed that festivals have been anoccasion for
maintaining social solidarity and strengthening the bonds of community. Oscar
Lewis presented a description ofthe festivalperformedbythe rural communityin
Rampur village, while D.N. Majumdar studied the festivals of Mohana village.
However, differences in the rnode of celebrating rural festivals corresponded to
variations in caste, community, locai culture, and so on. Different festivals are
celebrated indifferent months. The following is a list offestivals celebrated:
60 SeU:lnstruttienql Marerial
o Magh (January-February): Sakrat, Makar Sankranti, Basant panchami Rural Economy
o Phalgun (February-March): ShivRatri, Holi and Religion
o Chaita (March-April): Jagannath festival, Ramnavami

o Baisakh (April-May): Worship ofJagannath
NOTES
o Assar (June-July):Assari
o Saavan (July-August): Raksha Bandhan, Naag panchami
o Bhadoon (August-septernber): Janamashtami, Teej
c Kwaar (September-October): YljayaDashami, pitra paksh
o Kartik (October-November): Karva Chauth, Karlik purnima, Diwali,
Bhaiya Dooj.
oniy some villages celebrate all these festivals, most celebrate only some of
these. In southlndia, particularlyTamilNadu, southernKarnataka and southern
and coastalAndhra Pradesh, the principal arurual ritual in many villages is the
temple festival of a tutelary deity, normally the village goddess. In north India,
especiallythe Hindi-speaking regions, similar temple festivals are rare and the
collective village festivals are mainlyN awatn(Dussehra) and Holi, although in
some places there are no coliective festivals at all. In central lndia- the Deccan
plateau of northern Karnataka and Andhra pradesh, and Maharashtra the
- of
pattern is a combination of southerntemple festivals and northern celebrations
Nawatri and Holi (Fuller, I9g2).
Holi: Holi is a popular festival in northem and central India and falls on the
day offull moon (Phalguna) around Februrary-March. The festival is named after
'Holika', a mythical she-demon who tried to burn her brother's son prahlad, a
devotee ofVishnu. But it is believed that Vishnu saved Prahlad and Holika was
killed. The most evocative description ofHoli in north India comes from Mckim
Marriot ( 1968) who studied in Kishangarhi, a village in westem Uttar pradesh. In
Kishangarhi, people believed that Krishna first taught themhow to celebrate Holi
as a 'feast of love' and they do so with passionate exuberance. But they revel
according to a precise scheme in which all social norms are reversed: each riotous
act at Holi irrplied some opposite, positive mle or fact ofeveryday social organization
inthe village (Marriot, 1968: 210).
Bhadrakali festival of South India: while studying incoorg (Karnataka),
a village in Mysore, Srinivas observed that people celebrated a festival for a single
goddess, Kundat Bhadrakali. The festival starts during May-June and lasts for
around twelve days. An oracle, a Coorg manpossessed bythe goddess, allocates
to the various Coorgi patrilinealjoint families their customary duties at the festival.
The duties involve certain restrictions like prohibition on slaughter of animals,
breaking ofa coconut or even an egg, producing alcoholic drink, etc. The villagers
go in a procession to the Bhadrakali temple and Brahmin priests conduct the
ceremony inside the temple while the Bhadrakali oracle unr*.r, the questions
asked by anxious villagers. Animal sacrifices are made in such festivals. According
to Srinivas, in a festival like Bhadrakali, the unity of the village is particularly
Selflnstructional Material 6l
Rural Economy expressed by the restrictions that villagers, especially those with ritual deities,
and Religion
observe for its duration. At the assembly on the first day, adult males of all castes
publicly accept the ban on killing animals. Such restrictions are partly designed to
maintain the settlement's purity and they show that the village is being marked off
NOTES from others, that each person recognizes a responsibility to the entire village, and
that 'the unity of the village is projected to the mythical plane and is supported by
ritual sanctions' (Srinivas, 1 965).
Festivals of central India: Lr central India, many anmral festivals for village
goddesses are held. Dussehera, Nawatri and Holi are celebrated as collective
festivals.
Festivals in north India: Ramkherivillage inMadhya Pradesh does not

have any festivals for village deities. Adrian Mayer observed that although Navratri,
DiwaliandHoliare also times forobservances byindividualfamilies andkingroups,
these are major annual occasions for village gatherings. Almost the whole village
assembles in one place and the headman and other village officials act on behaHof
the entire population (1960). On the other hand, a study ofMohana village near
Lucknow by D.N. Majumdar showed how they celebrated Holi as its annual
festival. In this village, the Thakurs were the dominant castes and Holi brings
together the Thakurs ofMohana and other villages.
CrncxYouR PRocREss
2I. What is Hindu social organizations based on?
22. What are samskaras?

23. List three samskaras.
24. List tkee festivals that are celebrated in Indian villages.
3.18 SUMMARY
The village has been an important unit ofsocial and economic organization
since the pre-historic period. The traditional book Rig Veda also mentions
that the society is divided into many dynamic hierarchicai groups. Ofthis,
the smallest unit is the family, and many such families constitute a village. In
the ancient literature, the word village was interpreted as a group offamilies
living at one place. The leader ofthe village wask,rrcwnas gramini.Eventn
the great epic Mahabharata, there are references ofvillage commu:rities as
rudimentary units of administration.
The economic system of rural India is founded mainly on functional
specialization and interdependence among various castes. Eachvillage has
severaljati segments, which have separate ties in some certain spheres.
But there are also neighbourhood ties, and personal and fimily relationships Rural Economy
and animosities. Tlrree asp e*ts ofnter-jatiand inter-personal relations within and Religion
the village merit qpecialconsideration; the inter-dependence ofjatis through

the exchange ofspecialized occupational services; the finctioning ofviltage
panchayats (generallyinvolvingrepresentatives of all.Jjatisresiding inthe NOTES
village) in addition t o Jati panchayats; and the factional politics ofthe village
(Dube, 1990). However, iln this unit we will discuss about such a of
ryatem
the village economywhich is based on occupatiorral inter-dependence of
castes, called thejajmani system.
o However, after the middle ofthe I 9th century the Industrial Revolution and
industrialization took the form of a definite system. The industrial economy
is based on differentiation and a complex division of labour. Since the
Independence, the process of industrialization has progressed more rapidly.
o The jajmani system is a system oftraditionar occupational obligations.
castes in early India were economically interdependent on one another.
The traditional specialized occupation ofa villager followed the qpecialization
assigned to his caste. The specialization of occupation led to the exchange
of services in the village society. This relationship between the ,servicing'
and the 'serviced' castes was not contractual, individual, impersonal or
temporarybut it was caste oriented, long termed and broadly supportive.
This system in which the durable relation between relation between a land-
owning family and the landless families that supplied them with goods and
services is known asthe jajmanl system.
o Tltejajmani relationship has by now been largely supplanted in many villages;
in a few it has completely disappeared. The power of a local domnantjati
has been reduced in many places because their village dependents can move
away more easily than was formerlypossible, and can get eam some income
from outside the village as well.
o India has been a predominantly agricultural countrywith agriculture being
the backbone ofrural economy. According to the census 2001,56.6 pei
cent of the population are engaged in agriculture and allied activities.
Agriculture hasbeenadominant mode ofoccupation and one ofthe largest
contributors ( 1 8.5 per cent per cent) of GDP. Even a rural economy relies
on agriculture. The allied activities of agriculture are dairy poultry fishery
sericulture, etc. In this context the study of agrarian economy becomes an
important aspect of social sciences. In fact, agrarian studies have not
occupied a centralposition in sociological discourse like studies on caste,
kinship, gender, etc.
o Since the organized sector was very weak before and just after
Independence, the govemment took steps to develop modern industries,
especiallylarge andbasic industries (Poojary, r996).The deliberate attempt
bythe stateto industrialize the economyinterms oflarge andbasic industries
SeA-Instructional Material 63
Rural Economy led to the margtnalrzation ofthe unorganaed sector. This led to a regional
and Religion
imbalance, and also resuhed inthe concentration ofthe means ofproduction
in the hands o f few (Haz an, 19 64).This development forced the government
to revise the industrial development policy and take steps to prornote
NOTES small-scale industries. Thus the small-scale sector waspromoted to rectify
the problems and create employnrent opportunities during the Second Five-
Year Plan period. However the role ofMahatma Gandhi in the formation of
small and cottage industries cannot be ignored. His emphasis on spinning
and the philosophyof 'Swaraj' har,e been instrumentalin encotnaging cottage
industries.
o Industrialization refms to sustained economic growth following the application
of innate sources ofpower to mechanized production. Industrialization is
not only a mechanical process. It is a social process as well. It affects fhe
socio-cultural environment somewhat subtly and it produces far-reaching
co nsequences in various spheres of soc ial life.
o Religion is concerned with the shared beliefs and practices ofhuman beings.
It thehumanresponsetothose elements in life andenvironment ofmankind
is
which are beyond their ordinary comprehension. Religion has also been
characterzed as that aspect of hurnan, sociai and personal life which embodies
the most sublime ofhuman aspirations.
. The early sociological studies ofreligion had three distinctive rnethodological
characteristics; these were evolutionist, positivist andpsychologistic. These
are shown in the works ofComte, Tylor and Spencer. In Comte's sociology,
one ofthe fundamental conceptions is the so-called law ofthree stages,
according to which human thought had passed through the theological,
metaphysical and positive stages. Comte treats theological thinking as
intellectual error which is dispersed bythe rise ofmodem science. He traces,
withinthe theological stage, a development fromanimismto monotheism
and he explained religious belief in psychological terms by reference to the
perception and thought processes of early man .Later, Comte propounded
his own religion ofhumanity and thus recognized in some sense a universal
need forreligion.
o Durkheim held that the essence ofreligion is to sustain the divisions ofthe
thing into the phenomena ofthe sacred and profane. He does not hold that
the essence ofreligion lies in the beliefin a transcendent God. He holds that
the true aimofreligion is to establish the phenornena ofsacred and profane
in the society. The 'sacred'consists of a body of things, belief and rites.
Supernatural entities are always sacred, that is, worthy ofbeing treated
with respect whether they are good or evil.
o Evolutionists such as Tylor and Muller attempted to explain religion in terms
ofhumanneeds. However, the functionalist perspective changes the emphasis
from hurnan needs to social needs. From a fimctionalist perspective, society
64 Selflnstructional Material
requires a certain degree of social solidarity. vaiue, consensus, and hannony Rural Economy
and Religion
and integrationbetween its parts. The function ofreligion is the contribution
it makes to meeting such functional prerequisites.
A sect is a relatively small religious group. It is a in smaller, less highly
organized grouping ofcommitted believers, usually setting itselfup inprotest
NOTES
against a church. Cults are heterogeneous groups whichmayclaim links
u'ith traditional religion, but their major claim is to a new religious emphasis.
The cult, unlike the ideal type of church, is a volunt ary orgarnzation. No
group can get along without some regrrlation ofits mernbers and a cult is no
exception.
Small, non-literate societies such as theAustralianAborigines have one
faith and one church. Members share a cofiimon faith and at certain times
ofthe year, the entire community gathers to express this faith in religious
rituais. In terms of Durkheim's view, the conrmunity is the church. In
contemporaryWestern society, one church has been replaced bymany.
Toda.v, many denominations and sects have replaced the common faith and
the established church. Today's religious pluralism has been interpreted as
secularization.
In all parts ofthe world, the rural population is more religious than its urban
counterpart. This disparity has been noted due to a nurnber of factors like
the dependence upon agriculture ofthe rural population. Such dependence
upon nature has glorified Nature and led to the worship ofnatural forces.
The famous Tyiorean notion of 'animism'(worship of animals) or Max
Muller's 'naturism' (worship of nature's forces) or even Durkheim's
'Totemism' (worship ofa totem or flag or sign) are all evidences from primitive
societies about the nature ofrural reiigion.
Hinduism ernbraces a multiplicity ofbelief systems, as it is essentially a
polytheistic religion. The traditional Hindu beliefs include the doctrine of
karma and the transmigration o f soul which means the soul travels to another
body after death. The Hindu social organization was based on the
Purusharthas, i.e., dharma (doing one's duty) , artha (material success),
kama ( sexual satisfaction) andmol<sha ( liberation ofthe soul) with every
Hindu having the ultimate aim ofattaining moksha.
Village ternples occupy a significant place in the life of a village and have a
considerable influence onthe everydaylife ofthe village folk. The village
temples are looked upon as community property and a particular family
traditionally looks after it and performs the part ofthe priest. The temple is
not merely a place ofworship; it becomes instrumental in conducting the
lives of people. It becomes a place of congregation where people from
different castes get an opportunity to take part in the occasion being celebrated
atthetemple.
Rural Econonty
and Retigion 3.19 KEY TERMS
o Jajmani system: A system of traditional occupational obligations

NOTES o Cottage industries: Includesthe entire gamut ofeconomic activities except
agriculture, which are carried on at or near the home ofthe worker
. Religion: Amore or less coherent system ofbelieft andpractices conceming
a supernatural order ofbeings, forces, places or other entities
o Naturism: The beliefthat the forces ofnature have supernaturalpower

o Animism: The beliefthat animals are invested with a spirit as are man-
made objects
3.20 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'
1. D.N. Majumdar wrote the book caste and communication in an Indian

hllage.
2. The Jatavs ofAgra were stone cutters, labourers and tanners of leather.
3 . The main characteristic of an industrial society is a high division of labour.
4. Ajajmani systemis a system oftraditional occupational obligations.

5. W.H. Wiser used the w or d j aj mani for the first time.
6. Members ofthe landowning dominant caste are called,jajmans andthe
occupational castes are called kamins.
7 . Thejajmani systemwas the chiefinstrument ofcoercion bythe high castes.
8. Reduction in the powers ofthe village elders influenced thej ajmanisystem.
9 . The All India village Industries Association was establishe d n 1934 .
10. An objective of a small-scale industry was an equitable distribution of

nationalincome.
1 I . The tlree spheres where industrialization has brought a change are: economic
structure, demographic structure, social structure.
I 2. One pre-condition for the development ofindustrialization is the creation of
a cohesive nation-state organaedaround a common language and culture.
13. According to Roland Robertson, religion refers to the existence of
supematuralbeingswhichhave a goveming effect on life.
14. According to early sociological studies, evolutionist, positivist and
psychologistic are the three main characteristics ofreligion.
15. Comte and Spencer conducted studies on religion.
16. Naturism is the belief that the forces ofnature have supernatural porver
while animism is the beliefthat animals were invested with a spirit as were
the man-made objects.
66 Ser-Instructional Material
17. Emile Durkheimand Bronislaw Malinowski discussed the social functions Rurat Economy
and Religion
ofreligion
1 8. The functionalist perspective emphasizes the positive contnbution ofreligion
to society and tends to ignore its dysflmctional aspects.
NOTES
19. A sect is a relatively smallreligious, less organized group of committed
believers, usually setting itselfup in protest against a church. A cult is a
heterogeneous group which may claim links with traditionalreligion, but its
major claimis to anewreligious emphasis.
20. The fourtypes ofChristiansects are: Conversionist,Adventist,Infoversionist
and Gnostic.
2r. The Hindu social organizations are based on dharma, artha,kama and
moksha.
22. samskaras are sacred ceremonies whichunite the village folk into a group.
23. Upanayaan, Annaprassanna, Mundan are afew samskaras.
24. ShivRatri, Holi, Diwali are afew festivals celeb,rated inlndianvillages.
3.2I QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Define village community.
2. Whatis an agrarian economy?
3 . State fotr advantages ofmaint anngjajmanl relations.

4. What arethe characteristics ofcottage industries?
5. Elaborate on anytkee changes invillage economy.
6. What are some ofthe social consequences ofindustrialization?
7. Provide at least two definitions for religion.
8. What are the criticisms against the evolutionaryapproach?

9. Give two differences ofopinion between Parsons'and Malinowski's views.
10. write a short note on the four christian sects as classified by B.R. wilson.
1. Discuss thenature ofvillage economy.
2. Why did the extension ofthe market economy to rural areas have negative
consequences?
3. Elaborate on the features ofthe pre-industiial and industrial economic
systems.
4. Explain the working of thejajmani system. Explain its role in a village

economy.
Rural Economy 5. What are the objectives ofsmall-scale industries? Explain.
and Religion
6. Discuss the changes that industrialization brings about in social life.
7. Discuss Max Weber's views on the origins ofand sustaining conditions for
NOTES capitalism.
8. Elaborate on Tylor and Spencer's views on the origin of religion.
9. Explain two perspectives ofthe social finctions ofreligion, along with their
criticisms.
10. Discuss the various features ofrural religion.
1 I . Distinguish between the two types ofmagic, giving examples.
1 2. Analyse how' samsknras influenced the rural religious life in India.
13. Describe how anythree festivals are celebrated.
3.22 FARTHER READING/REFERENCES
Dube, S.C. L977. India since Independence: Social Report on India, 1947-
7 2 . Mtxrbai: Vkas Publishing House.
Hutton, J.H. 1983. Caste in India.Mumbai: OllP.

Kapadia, K.M. 1966. Marciage ond Family in India. Mumbai: OUP.
Si"gh, Y. 1986. Indian Sociologt: Social Conditioning and Emerying Concerns.
Delhi:Vistaar.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962 . Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. Mumbai: Asia t
PublishingHouse.
References
Bailey, F.G. 1 95 8. Caste and Economic Frontier: A hllage in Highland Orissa.
Mumbai: Oxford University Press.

Beteille,A. l9T4.StudiesinAgrarianSocialStructi.tre.Delhi:OxfordUniversity
Press.
Clothey, Fred W. 2006. Religion in India: A Historical Introducfion. New

York Routledge.
Cohn. B.S. 1 987. An Anthropologist Among the Histori ans and Other Essays.
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Dube, S.C. 1 990. Indian Society. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
Fulle1 C.J. 1992. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in
India. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Government of India. 1950. Report of the Fiscal Commission. New Delhi:
Government oflndia, pp. 99-100.
68 Self-Instructional Materinl
Habib, I. 1963. Agrararian Systems of Mughal India.Mumbai: Asia Pubtishing Rurat Economy
HOUSe. and Religion
Hazari, R.K. 1964. Report on the commiftee:for Distribution of Income and

L ev el s of L iv ing. New Delhi: Government o f India.
NOTES
Hazafi. R.K. 1966. Structure of the corporate private sector. Mumbai: Asia
PublishingHouse.
Jaffe. A.J. and K. Azumi. 1960. 'The Birth Rate of cottage Industries in
Underdeveloped countries', Economic Deviropment and Culture
Change,Vol. 9, No.l, Part 1, pp.52-63.
Mandelbaur4 David. 1910. society in India: continuity and Change. Mumbai:
Popular Prakashan.
Marriott, M. 1968. 'The Feast oflove', inMilton Singer (ed,.), Krishna: Myths,
Rite s, Attitudes . Clncago : Chicago University press.
Poojary M. chandra.1996. 'Small-Scale Sector: Myth and Reality', Economic
and Political Weekly,Vol. 31, No.21, 25May 1996.
Self-Instructional Mqterial 69
UNIT 4 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
Marriage and Family
Structure
4.0 Introduction NOTES
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Meanngof Marriage
4.3 Forms of Marriage
4.3.1 On the Basis ofNumber of Spouses
4.3.2 Levrate; 4.3.3 Sororate
4.4 Hindu Marriage as a Religious Sacrament in India
4.5 Forms of Hindu Marriage
4.6 Rules of Mate Selection
4.7 TribalMarriage in India
4.7.2 Marriage among Different Ethnic Groups
4.8 Marriage among Muslims
4.9 Divorce among Muslims
4.10 Marriage among Christians
4.II Recent Changes in the Institution of Marriage
4.t2 The Structural and Functional Aspects of Joint Family
4.12.1 StructuralAspects ofJoint Family
4.12.2 Functional Aspects of Joint Family
4.13 Recent Changes in Joint Family
4.14 Summary
4.15 Key Terms
4.16 Answers to 'Check your progress,
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will leam about the institutions ofmarriage and family,
as prevalent
in Indian society. This unit is divided into two sections; ttt" ntrt
section deals with
an important institution of society called maffiage which is one
of the social
institutions that in its various types and forms, is prevalent throughout
the globe.
This unit will help you understand the sociological aspects ofmarriage
in generaf
and the importance ofthis universal institution. In the process you will also learn
about marriage inlndia, particularlythe Hindu marriage. Marriage among
Hindus
is considered a religious sacrament. Various rituals related
to Hindu marriage and
aims ofHindu marriage are also analysed in this urit. The section
on marriage also
deals with marriage among various ethnic groups and minorities.
Keeping in mind
the secular nature oflndian society it is imperative to u:rderstand
the nature ofthis
institution among several religious and cultural groups.
Self-Instructional Material 7l
Marriage and Family The second section ofthis unit addresses another important aspect ofthe
Indian social structure which is the institution offamily. This social group is found in
every known human society. In this rinit you will leam about the forms and functions
of family in general. An attempt is also made to understand the typical Indian
NOTES family, i.e., the joint family. The nature ofjoint family as well as its structural and
functional aspects are explained. Focus is made on the recent changes associated
withjoint fimilies. Ttre dynamics ofjoint families and their relevance in contemporary
times are dealt rvith in detail as well.
4.I UNIT OBJECTIVES

o Understand the meaning and nature ofmarriage
o Explore the various forms ofman-iage
o Analyse the nature of Hindu marriage and understand its sacramental
character
o Explain the various rules ofmate selection, as well as the aims and rituals of
Hindurnarriage
o Understand the nature ofmarriage emong other religious communities such
as the Muslims and the Christians
o Examine the possibilities and characteristics of divorce among various
religious communities
o Explain the meaning of family in general and joint family in particular
o Understand the features ofjoint family and the recent changes associated
withjointfamily
4.2 MEAI{II{G OF MARRIAGE

Marriage is an important social institution which has been in existence for time
immemorial. It is a relationship which is socially approved and has he$ed to maintain
order anddiscipline inhuman sociery Sociologyis the subjectwhichdeals extensively
with the institution ofmarriage. ln the ordinary meaning ofthe tenn, marriage is the
social recognition ofthe practice wherein men and women live together as husband
and wife to raise a family. According to Horton and Hunt it is the approved social
pattern whereby two or more persons establish a famity. Children bom ofmarriage
are considered the legitimate offspring ofthe married couple. This legitimacy is
important inthe matter of inheritance and succession.
Murdock (lg4g)correctly states that it will be a serious error to regard
marriage only as an institution where sexual relations between husband and wife
are permitted. Actually its function is not only related to scx but it is also economic,
social, psychological and cultural. Hence, besides being a means of sexual
gratification, marriage also comprises ofa set ofcultural norms to Marriage and Family
ensure the
carrying on ofthe family. Maniage is a socially acceptable agreement between
two individuals and their families. It is a very common custom in India, and
has
been studied in great detail bymany sociologists as well as social anthropologists.
The institution ofmarriage also includes the responsibility ofrearing NOTES

a child
or children within the institution itself The institution ofmarriage prescnbes
that
sexual actir,'itybe confined to married partnen and it does not approve
ofillegttimacy,
i.e., birth ofa child outsidetheunion. Moreover, this institutionenables
so"t6rto
assign this responsibility of socializing a child to parents ofthe child. The probfims
ofsocializinganillegitimate child, asperGoode (1964): 'Thechildwhoseparents
are not married does not belong to the father's family, neither the father
nor his
&nrily needs to meef more than mnimal legal obhgations to the child. The child's
positionis ambiguous and its socializationexperience is likelyto be inadequate.'
Moreover, to maintain social stability it becomes necessary to assigna social
status to a child during childhood itself. This enables the childto become
clear
about his role and obligations andhis relationship with othermembers
of society.
Assignment ofa social status provides a degree ofsecuritywhich is derived from
hishavngdulymaniedpments. Malinowskihadthe followingremmksonlegitirnacy
No child should be brought into the world without aman- and one man at
that assuming role of sociological father, that is, g'ardian and
- the malethe
protector, link between the child and the rest of the commrmity.
The rule of legitimacy which is universal and fi.ndamental as the familial
institution itself ordains that a father is indispensable for the full stafus of
the child and its mother. Otherwise the child is illegitimate and the mother
disesteemed. The principle of legitimacy inplies obviously the control of
sex relations. Ifthere is any case ofconception outside marriage, it is likely
to be eliminated through infanticide.
(Davis, 1949)
Malinowski further observed that marriage cannot be defined as licensing
of sexual intercourse, but rather licensing ofparenthood.
In kinship systern, marriage is regarded not just as a relationship between
a
two individuals, but a relationship between two kin groups. The wedding ceremony
involves grft-giving between the two parties and, in some societies, thl system oi
dowry is also prevalent. Some other primitive societies as well as a few modern
societies have a custom ofpaying bride-price, which involves payrnent by the
bridegroom's familyto the bride's family. Hence, it canbe saiainat thouglthe
system ofmarriage is universaf it involves variations in rituals, rites and practices
among societies.
4.3 FORMS OF MARRIAGE

The institution ofmarriage has different forms in different societies. There are
various rules with regard to preferences, prescriptions and proscriptions while
Selflnstructional Material 73
Marriage and Family deciding the formofmarriage. Across-cultural study ofvarious societies reflects
on the different rules with regard to preftrence and prohibition in selecting mates.
However, one common criteria fbr ctrassifying marriage is on the basis ofrurnber
ofspouses. Such a classification divides marriage into fwo types: monogamy and
NOTES polygamy.
4.3.1 On the Basis of Number of Spouses
Monogamy
Monogamy is the union ofone man with one woman. This is the most popular and
widespread form ofmarriage found inmost societies across the world. Indian
society is the best example of the widespread prevalence of monogarnous
marriages. Every society considers mono gamy to be an ideal form ofnnrriage as
it exlribits immense loyaftytowards one's spouse. Eventhe BritishAnthropologist
Malinowski remarked'Mono gamy, is, has been, and will remain, the only true
type ofmarriage. The pefmanence ofrelationship that it guarantees, generates
mutuality and oneness, loyalty and affection.' (Davis, 1949)
Monogamy is considered the ideal formofmarriage among the majority of
the Indian population. However, the Musiim social structure is excluded from this.
The Hindu Marriage Act 1 95 5 also considers monogamy as the ideal form and a
Hindu nnn or woman is not allowed to have more than one qpouse without divorcing
the previous qpouse. Some other religious communities who come under the Flindu
Marriage Act are Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. Monogamy is also practiced in
Christian and Parsi communities.
Polygamy
Po$gamy is a practice wherein a person has more than one spouse at the same
time. It is hence just the opposite ofmonogamy. As tar as its etymologicalmeaning
is concerned, polygamy has come frorn the word poly (many) and gamos
(marriage). Polygamy literally means 'often married' in late Greek. It is practiced
worldwide, is cross-cultural in scope, and is forind among all continents and
adherents ofrnanyreligionsintheworld. Polygamyis atermcoveringbothpolyg,trry
andpolyandry. Polygtny is the marriage ofone male withmore thanone female
or 'plurality ofwives'. Polyglmous marriages maybe restricted or conditional.
Polygyny is found among Eskimo tribes, Crow ofNorthAmerica andAfrican
Negroes. The Nawabs of Oudh in India, during Mughal times, are said to have
had a large number ofwives. For many societies, po$gamyused to be an integral
part oftheir kinship systems, but modern times have brouglrt about a streamlining
ofmarriage patterns in societies around the world. The spread of Christianity and
European-based legal codes through colonialisrn, and the imposition of state laws
on aboriginalpeople (who are living within the borders ofmodern nation-states),
have spelt the end of poiygamy for many people. The Artic Inuit (Eskimo) for
example, practiced polygamy in the recent past, as described in older ethnographic
literahle; however, ifthis is stillpracticed, it is being done inclandestine or irregular
74 Self-Instructionql Material
ways. This is the case with,numerous populations that used to practice polygamy, Marriage and Family
but have now become integrated in the global communitywhich is oomraLa uy
mono gamy. (Zeitzen, 2 00 8)
Today, polygyny is legafly prohfuited. Mumbai enacted a law n T946,chennai

m 1949 and Saurashtra in 1950 prescnbing punishment for polygyny. polyandry NOTES
on the other hand, is the marriage of one woman with many men, i.e., it is a
practice involving pluralityofhusbands. polyandry exists amongthe Todas of
Malabar, the Tibetans and withthe polynesians
Polgamy is common ilmong the Muslims. The Indian Muslims, wrder the
influence ofTurko-Mughal rulers, had adopted this practice which gained popularity
during that period. However, due to the changing contemporary socio-economic
conditions, it is losing its popularityand acceptance in society. The two forrns of
po lygamy are discussed as follows.
Polygyny: Polygyny is a forrn of marriage where amanis permitted to

have two or more wives. In a situation where two wives (co-wives) are sisters it is
termedsororal polygmy.The othertypicalformis non-sororalpolygynyinwhich
the wives are not related. Polygyry enables a man to have more childre4 providing
hirn with broader procluction base, or workforce. as he controls the work habits
ofhis wives and children to a large exrent. polygyny may have different causes in
different societies. Westermark attributes it to enforced celibacy, earlier aging of
women, socialprestige, need to have more children, economic necessityand also
due to one's desire for a woman other than the one he is married to. In India,
polygynous marriages are not common among most castes, but are known to be
practiced among Muslims.
Polyandry: Polyandry is also a form of plural marriage, where a woman is
permitted to marry more than one man. Polyandrous marriages are relatively rare
and are more concentrated in the Himalayan ranges of SouthAsia. polyandry
exists among Trbetans, Pollmesians, Kaligang tnbals ofBrazif tribals of samoa,
Bahama ofAfrica and among the primitive tribes ofthe Malaya Peninsula..It is
sporadically found inAfrica, oceania, America and the Arctic. In India, it is found
among Todas and Kotas ofNilgiri Hills in South India, the Nayars ofKerala and
the Khasas of Jaunsar Bawar in western up (now in Dehradun district of
Uttaranchal).
There are two fonns ofpolyandry fraternal polyandry
: and, non-fraternal
polyandry.
Fraternal polyandry: This is also called adelphic polyandry, where a
group of brothers share a cofirmon wife i.e., joint husbands are brothers. For
instance, Nyinba brothers (ethnic Tibetans now living in Nepal) live together in
large households sharing a common estate and domestic responsibilities, as well
as a colrunonwife withwhomeach maintains a sexualrelationship. Generally,
each child ofthe marriage is acknowledged by and develops a special relationship
with one of the possible fathers, even where biological paternity cannot be
Marriage and Family determined. (Levine,1988). The children are treated as the offspring ofthe eldest
brother, e.g., Todas.
Non-fraternal polyandry; In this type ofpolyandry, the woman's husbands
are not related to each other. The woman has several husbands with whom she
NOTES
cohabits in turn. In the interest ofthe children, one among the husbands is chosen
as their social fither. The Nalars oflndia practiced a form ofnon-fiatemal polyandry
inwhich severalmenwere 'husbands' ofone wife. Usuallyonlythe first husband
underwent a ritual marriage with the woman before she entered puberty. He was
then given a special position as the 'ritual' father of all the woman's subsequent
children, who like their mother, had to observe the customs connected with his
death. Anyofthe menwithwhomaNayar woman engaged in sexualrelations
could be called upon to acknowledge (potential) paternity; however, this was
usually done by giving a gift to the woman and paying midwives' expenses. The
centralNayar domestic unit consisted ofa mother, her daughters and their children;
husbands and wives did not set up house together. Descent was established
exchsively througtr wome4 and children derived their group affiliations and claimed
their inheritance through their mothers. (Lienhardt ,1964)
4.3.2 Levirate
Some marriages maytake place inpeculiar circumstances. For instance, when a
man marries the childless widow ofhis deceased brother, it is called levirate.lf a
man marries the sister ofhis deceased wife, particular$ when she has died childless,
it is called sororate. Concubinage is a state ofliving together as husband and wife
without being rnarried; it is cohabitation with one or more women who are distinct
fromwifeorwives.
Levirate is a form of marriage wherein the heir of a deceased male inherits
his assets and liabilities, including his wife or wives. It specifies that when a man
dies, his widow should marry a kinsman ofher husband, typicallyhis brother. The
levirate thus provides social and economic security to widows and their children.
It also represents away for the husband's familyto maintain theirrights over the
wife's sexuality and her future children, as well as keeping the dead man's children
and his wealth within his frmily.
4.3.3 Sororate
Sororate specifies that awidower should marry a sister ofhis deceased wife.
Sororate is akin to levirate in that it fulfills the same firnction ofmaintaining relations
betweentwo fimilies even afterthe qpouse's death. In essence, the familyprovides
for another spouse to take the place ofthe member who died, and both families
usually encourage this remarriage because it continues the bond between them.
Among the To nga ofZarnbia; for example, sororatic nnri:n;ge is on$ allowed with
classificatory sisters. (Colson, 1958).The sororate may also finction without death
being involved, i.e., if a wife is barren among the SouthAfrican Zulu, her family
may provide a sister to bear children in her name. The children are socially the
76 SelfJnstructional Material
children ofthe barren womaq just as children are socially the children
husband in the levirate. @adcliffe Brown, 1950)
ofthe dead Marriage and Famity
CrncrYoun Pnocnrss NOTES

1. What functions does marriage serve?
2. What is bride price?
3 . Which is a common criteria for classifying maniage?
4. What are the two types ofmarriages?
5. which religious communities come under the Hindu Marriage Act?
6 : What does polygamy literally mean?
7 . Ditrerentiate betweenpolygyny and polyandry.
8. What arethreecauses ofpolygyq{
9. What are the two forms ofpolyandry?
10. What is anothername for fraternalpolyandr5f
4.4 HINDU MARRIAGE AS A RELIGIOUS

SACRAMENT IN INDIA
Hindu marriage is considered a sacrament, or a sacred bond. Its aim is
not only to
secure sexual gratification but also to advance spiritual development.
Ac"otdirrg
to K.M. Kapadia,'Hindu marriage is a socially approved union ofmen
and women
aiming at dharma, procreation, sexual pleasure and observance of certain
obligations.' Ancient Hindu texts point out three main aims ofmarriage. These
are
Dharma, (fulfillrnent ofreligious duties, whichwas the highest aimofmarriage),
Praja (progeny) and Rati (sexual pleasure). Several i"urors are given-for
considering a Hindurnarriage as sacred:
(i) Dharma.
(if Performance ofthe religious ceremony includes certain rites like havan,
kanyadan, panigrahan and saptapadi.
(iif The rites are performed before agniby reciturg mantras from the Vedas
by
aBrahmin.
(iv) The union is considered inviolable and irrevocable and husband and wife
are bound to each other not only until death but even after death.
(v) Though a man performs several sacraments during the course ofhis life,
a
womanperforms onlyone sacrament ofmarriage inher life, hence it carries
great importance for her.
Marriage and Family (vi) Marriage is considered to be a social duty towards the farnily and the
cornmunity and there is little scope for individual interest and aspiration.
NOTES
4.5 FORMS OF HINDU MARRIAGE
Hindu scriptures described eight fonns ofHindu marriage. These are:
1. Brahma vivah: This is the ideal form ofHindu marriage. It is settled by
parents, a Brahmin is calied to preside over the maniage rites and the daughter
is given by her father to the groom (this is called kanyadan), along with
some dowryofornaments and clothes.
2. Daiva vivah: The father ofthe bride offers his daughter in the hand ofthe
priest as dal<shina.It was considered as an ideal form ofmarriage in ancient
times but has become inelevant today.
3. Arsha vivah: In this form of marriage the bride's father gets sornething
fromthe groorn, like a pair of cattle, in exchange for his daughter.
4. Parjapatya vivah: In this form ofmarriage, the consent ofthe parents is
essential but no ceremony is performed.
5. Asura vihah: The bride price is givenbythe groomto the bride's father.
This is a sort of aneconomic contract and there is no limit or stipulation on
the amotrnt given.
6. Gandharva vivah: This was the traditional form oflove marriage. Here
neither is the consent ofparents necessarynor are therites or dowryessential.
7. Rakshasa vivah: This type ofmarriage is bycapture or abductionwithout

obtaining the consent ofthe girl or her parents. This was practised in times
when group conflicts and tribalwars were verycommon. The victorious
groups used to carry away the girls ofthe conquered group.
8. Paisacha vivah: This is the least acceptable form ofmarriage. A woman
who is seduced when asleep onmconscious orwhen incapable ofprotecting
herselfis given the status ofthe wife.
Ofthese eight forms ofmarriage, Brahmavivaha is consideredto be the
best maniage where a girl is given to a boy ofmerit in the same caste or in a caste
of equal status. Both bride and groom afe competent enough to give consent.
4.6 RULES OF MATE SELECTION

In order to ensure the purity and maintain the distinctive identif of different groups
in society, Hindu law-rnakers have stipulated detailed nrles and regulations goveming
the choice ofa partner for the union ofmarriage. These laws are based on two rules:
(i) Endogamic rule: Endogamy is a social rule that requires a person to setrect
a spouse fromwithin certain groups. These endogamous groups specifically
refer to varna, caste and sub-caste. Thus, a Brahmin boy has not only to Marriage and Family
marry a Brahmin girl but a kanyakubja boy has to marry a kunyakwbja
gtrl, a saryupariboyhas to marr)z a s atyupari girl and a gaurboyhas to
marry a gaur girl. Although endogamy is restricted to a tribe or a caste,
there are exceptions in some cases. TheAnuloma, or Hlpergamy, allows NOTES
the alliance oflower caste womento higher caste men. This practice occtns
mainly among different sub-sections ofa caste or sub-caste rather than
between castes. In Pratiloma marriage based on the rule ofHypogamy, an
upper caste woman can enter into an alliance with a man ofa lower caste.
(ii) Exogamic rule: Exogamy is a social nrle which forbids selection ofa spouse
from certain groups. The two t51pes ofexogamypracticed byHindus are
gotra exogamy and sapinda exogamy. In a few cases, besides gotra and
sapinda, thevillage is also treatedas anexogamous group. Mclennan inhis
book studies in Indian History writes that the custom ofexogamy arose
owing to the paucity ofwomen in early tirnes.
(a) sagotra exogamy: Agotra is a group whose members are believed
to have descended from a common mythical ancestor of a rishi. I"itially
there were only eight gotras but gradually their number increased to
thousands. The gotra exogamyprohibits marriage betrveen members
ofthe same gotra. The four-clanrule or fow gotraexogamous rule
prevails among Hindu castes in North India. In accordance with this
four-clan rule , a man canno t many a girl from: (i) his father s gotra or
,
clan (ii) his mother s gotra or clan (iii) his father 's mother's go tra and
'
(iv) mother's mother's go tra. rn almost all castes in the northe m zone,
according to Karve (1953) the marriagebetweencousins is prohibited.
It was Manu who imposed restrictions ongotramarriage. However
the restrietio ns on gotra marriage were removed in I 946 by the Hindu
Marriage Disabilities Removal Act.
(b) Sapinda exogamy: Theword Sapindahas two meanings: those who
can offer rice balls to the deceased, and those who share the particles
ofthe same body. Sapinda are those who are related to one another in
ascending or descending order, by five generations tlrrough the mother's
side and seven generations through father's side. Marriage with such a
person is prohibited. Gautam has recommended avoiding seven
generations from the father 's side and five from the mother 's side . The
Hindu Maniage Act 1955 prohibits sapindamariage in generaf but
allows this in the form ofcross cousin marriages as a peculiar custom
of south India. Among christians and Muslims, the elementary nuclear
famil; is the exo gamous unit. Today, even though this rule is fo llowed
by and large by all Hindus, some cases of cousin rnarriages are known
to happen.
S elf-Instruc tio na I Materia I

Marriage and Family
4.7 TRIBAL MARRIAGE IN INDIA
The institution ofmarriage is another issue on which tribal people throughout the
NOTES world have been much maligned. Indian tribes, like their counterparts in other
parts ofthe world, practice several forms ofmarriage as amatter ofconvenience
and social ac climatlzation in their respective cultural and ecological settings. Most
tribes are monogamous withfew exceptions, such as on some festive occasions.
Even among the most primitive tribes like the Toda, theAndamanese, the Kadar,
andthe Chenchr.r, where sexualmorals are lax, there still exist strict marriage rules.
Mmital fidelityis practiced and enforced inmost tibes. Proscriptions, prescrbtions
and preferences that determine the choice of qpouses or parfirers in tnbal societies,
are based onvery strict rules.

The tribes of India differ from each other in the manner in which mate selection is
carried out. On one hand societyprohibits sexual liaisons or matrimonial alliances
between particular kin or in the same clan or gotra, but on the other hand it
encourages matrimonial alliances between certain other kins. The following are
some ofthe popular types ofpreferential marriages prevalent among the Indian
tnbes:
Cousin marriage: Both types ofcousin marriages, i.e., cross cousin and
parallel cousin, are quite popular among the Indian tribes. The Gond, Kharia,
KhasiandKadar me some ofthe inportant Indiantnibespracticing cousinmarriage.
When the children ofa brother and a sister marry it is a cross cousin marriage. On
the other hand, it is parallel cousin marriage when the children oftwo sisters or
two bnothers get married. The Gonds oflMadhya Pradesh call this form ofmarriage
'doodh lautawa' (retum ofmilk). Levirate and sororate are two other types of
preferential marriages which are also said to promote 'inter-familial cordiality' by
making certain linkages imperative.
4.7.2 Marriage among Different Ethnic Grouils

Ways of acquiring mates: There are nine important ways ofacquiring mates
amongtribes:
(i) Maniage by capture.' When a man snatches a woman away from her
village and marries her, it is called marriage by capture. Many brbal societies
give social sanction to this type ofmarriage which synrbolizes valour and
chivalry. It is popular among the Naga tribes ofthe North Eastern regioq
where Nagatribals of one village used to invade the enemy's village and
capture grown up girls. Among the Ho it is called oportipi and among the
Gond it is called posiothur. It is of two types: physicalcapture and
ceremonial capture. In the case ofphysical capture, the man carries away
the woman forcefully, and marries her. However, in ceremonial capture,.the
man adopts a procedure wherein he surprises the woman by smearing
vermilion on her forehead.
(ii) Maniage by exchange.. This method has evolved primarilyto avoid the Marriage and Family
payment ofa high bride price. According to zuch a marriage, two households
exchange women with each other and thus avoid the payment ofbride
price. The Uralis ofKerala, the Muria Gonds and Barga ofBastar and the
Koya and the Saora ofAndhra pradesh practice this. NOTES
(tn) Maniage by purchase.. It is a common mode ofmatrimonythroughout
India. In this form oftribal marriage the parents ofthe bridegroompay in
cash orkind to the bride's parents. This moneyor.material goodsis the
bride pride. It is prevalent among Munda, oraon, the Santhal, Rengma
Naga, etc. The worst financial consequence is seen among the Ho tribals of
chota Nagpur, Bihar, Their poor economic condition has been made worse
by the increasing amount ofbride price.
(iv) Maniage by elopemenf This takes place when a couple love each other
and want to marry against the wishes oftheir parents who are against this
marriage. In this situation, both ofthem run away from the village for a
certain period of time after which they come back and are then
acknowledged as husband andwife. This is called,raji khusimariageamong
the Ho tribes ofJharkhand. The tribes ofchotanagpur also practice this.
(v) Maniage by service: This is another way ofavoiding thepayment ofbride
price altogether (or minimizing it considerably) through services rendered
by the prospective groom at the bride's residence for a particular period. If
the girl's father is satisfied with the work done, then he gives his daughter,s
hand to him at the end ofthe period. Ifhe is dissatisfied, then the man is
asked to leave the house and never come back. This is practised among the
Gonds, Baigas, Birhor, etc.
(i) Marriage by intrasion.' In this kind ofmarriage, the girl is desirous of
getting married to the young marU but he is unwilling. The girl thrusts herself
on the unwilling groom and his parents. She does this in order to serve the
would-be man in her life but is humiliated and tortured in return. If she
persists inher efforts and endures her torment for a considerable period of
time, she is finally accepted as the daughter-in-law. Among the oraons it is
known as nirbolok and among the Ho as anader.
(vii) Maniage by trial: This is the recognition ofpersonal courage and bravery
as highly desirable traits in a young man. It is most popular annng the Bhils
during the Holi festival. Young men and women perform a folk dance around
a pole or a tree, to the top ofwhich coconut or gur aretied. The women
make an inner ring ofdancers around the tree. when a young man attempts
to break tkough the cordon to climb the tree to eatthe gur andbreak open
the coconut, the girls resist his attempt. Iq in spite ofthis, the man succeeds
then he has the right to demand any ofthe surrounding girls as his wife.
(t'ttt) Maniage by mutual consenf.; This is a result ofthe contact that the tribals
have had with Hindus over a period oftime. This practice is similar and
Self-Instructional Material 8l
Marriage and Family prevalent among Muslims, Hindus, Clristians, etc., in which all the forrnalities
ofmarriage are arranged by the parties concerned through the process of
mutual consultation and consent.
(ix) Probationary mawiage.'As per this practice, the husband and wife are
NOTES
permitted to live together for some time in the bride's house. Ifthey like
each other and decide to marry, the elders alrange their early marriage. In
case the couple do not find each other's temperament to be suitable and
compatible, they separate,.and the man has to pay cash compensation to
the girl's parents. It is prevalent among the Kuki ofArunachal Pradesh.
CrmcxYoun Pnocnnss
11. Name two forms ofHindumarriage.
12. What is the difference between anuloma andpratilomamaniages?

I 3. What are the two types of exogamy practiced by Hindus?
T4. As perGautanl who shouldmarriagebe avoidedwith?
15. Name three ways ofacquiring mates prevalent among lndiantribes.
16. What is marriagebycapture calledbythe Gondtribe?

Marriage in the traditional Hindu society, regarded essentially as dharmic, is

graduailybecoming secularized in the modern era. Desertion, separation and
divorce, though not clearly sanctified by Hindu law except in very unusual
circurnstances, have received significant attention in the Hindu Marriage Act 1955.
This code also eliminated the discriminatory status ofprevious customs by which
a man exerted more power, enjoyed a superior position, and had the right to seek
a divorce or abandon a wife on his own. The Ma.rriage LawAmendmentAct
1976 widened the basis for seeking divorce byproviding divorce throughmutual
consent, and on the grounds ofdesertion and cruelty.
4.8 MARRIAGE AMONG MUSLIMS

In marriage among Muslims, a man and woman enter into a solemn pact for life.
There is a popular conception that in Islamic law, marriage is not considered to be
sacrament but rests entirely on a contractual basis. Muslim marriag e ts called Niknh
and is both an act of ibadal (devotion to God) and maumalat (dealngs among
men). Witnesses are a necessary condition for a valid marriage. There are two
main sects ofthe Muslirn community in India, Shias and Sunnis. Inter marriages
among these groups are discouraged. There are two types ofMuslimmarriages,
regular (shahi) and inegular (fas id).
Muta rnarriage Marriage and Family
Muslims also have a system of temporary marriage, called mM a marriage. Thts

is a marriage settled by amanand a woman by mutual consent and without the
interventio,n ofkin. A man is permitted to contract muta marriage with a Muslinr, a
Jew or a Clristian girl but a woman cannot contract such a marriage with a non- NOTES
Muslim. Awife secrned through muta marriage is known as sigha.Inthis form of
nrarriage, theperiod of cohabitation must be stipulated and the amount ofdowry
should bepredetermined. where the dwation ofthe rnarriage has not been fixed,
the marriage rernains illegitimate.
Dower {Mekr)
Dower comprises ofrnoney or propertywhich the wife gets from her husband
whenshemarrieshirnAsperMuslimlaw, doweris the obligationwhichi.s imposed
on the husband as a rnark of respect to his rvife. The amount of the mehr is
determined either before, or after, or at the time ofthe marriage. Though it cannot
then be reduced, it may be increased at the husband's will. It can either be prompt
(mu a1'j al) or deferred (muwajj al).
4.9 DIVORCE AMOI{G MUSLIMS

Under Muslim law, the contract ofmarriage can be dissohed either with or without
the intervention ofthe court. The divorce can be obtained either on the basis of
Muslirn law byjudicial decree, or the marriage can be broken without the court's
intervention, by the husb and at his will (calle d talaq) or by the mutual consent of
husband and wife called (khula or kohl and,mubarar). The difference between
khula andmubarar is that, in the former the divorce is intiated at the instance of
wife, whereas in the latter, since both the parties desire separation, the initiative
can be taken by either wife or husband. Divorce or talaq, can be carried out in
any one ofthe following three ways:
$) Taluq-e-ahasun: This consists of a single pronouncernent made dgring a

tuhr (periodofrnaturation) and followed by abstinence from sexual relations
throughout theperiod of iddat.
(n) Talq-e-hasan: This consists ofthree pronouncements made during three
successive twltrs andno intercourse taking place during any ofthese three
tuhrs.
(tln) Tulaq-ul-bidat: This is a disapproved form ofdivorce which includes two
types oftriple declaration and a single irrevocable declaration. The triple
declaration conrprises three pronouncements made in a single tuhr, erther
in one sentence or in three sentences. This form o f talaq is irrevocable. It is
themost commonmodeof talaq inthe country.
In addition to these three types of t alaq,the Shariat A ct of 1937 makes a
mention ofthree otherkinds ofdivorce as well:
Self-lnstructional Moterial 83
Marriage and Family (i) IIla: In this, the husband swears by god promising not to enter into sexual
relationships with his wife for four months or more. Ifthe husband follows
his promise, the marriage is considered dissolved.
(ii) Lian: Ifthe husband imposes a false charge of adultery on the wife, the
NOTES
wifeprays to the court that thehusbandbe orderedto takebackhis charge.
(rn) Zihar: In this, the husband compares his wife with some near relative whom
he cannot marry. For instance, ifthe husband compares his wife withhis
mother, he cannot enter into sexual relationship with her unless he repents
for this comparison. Ifhe fails to do so, the wife can divorce him.
CnrcxYoun Pnocnnss
17 . What is a muslim nl kah aconbination ofl
18. What are the types ofMuslim marriages?
19. Who is asigha?
20. What is the difference between frft ula and mubarat?
4.10 MARRIAGE AMONG CHRISTIANS
The Christian society is stratified into Protestants and Catholics. The Catholics are
further divided into Latin Catholics and Syrian Catholics. These groups are generally
endogamous and do not marry intra-group. In Christianity, religion plays a
predominant role in maritalunions. Christians believe that ma:riages are made in
heaven and decided by God. The Christians usually practice monogamy and there
are strict restrictions on po$gamy. Divorce is not appreciated bythe Church. The
Christian marriage rystem is quite different from the Hindu rnarriage system. The
Indian Christians follow the Western rnarriage system ofthe British.
The ChristianMarriageAct 1872 isthe lawthat regulates solemnization of
marriages among Christians. It extends throughout India except the territories,
which immediately after 1 Nov. 1956 comprised of the states ofTravancore,
Cochin, Manipur, and Jammu and Kashmir. Christian mariage focuses on certain
inportant aims likeprocreation, prohibitionofsexualrelations without nwriage,
and mutual heS and comfort. Hence, it is conect to state that Christian rnarriage is
a bond between man and woman, normally intended to be binding for life, for
sexual union, mutual respect and conpanionship, and establishment of a frmily. In
a true marriage, eachpartner seeks the fulfilrnent ofthe other. By conrplementing
each other the union between husband and wife is enhanced. In their love for one
another, through their faithfirlness to one another and in their fruitfukress, husband
and wife reflect God's image in a mysterious and wonderful way. Their union is the
fruit ofmore than companionship or partnership; it is the deepest intimacy. (Amold,
2007). As FriedrichNietzsche writes, 'It isbrought about bythe resolve oftwo to
84 Self-Insbuctional Material
create a unity which is more than those who created it. It is reverence
for one Marriage and Family
another and for the fulfiknent of such aresolve.' (Arnold,,2007).
Marital unions
The Syrian christians remained as endogamous groups and marriage between
NOTES
Latin and Syrian Christians were rare. In the Kerala Churclr, denomitional
divisions
grew. The Syrian Christians are ethnic groups who differ from others in
terms of
their doctrinal beliefs and religious principres. Marriages between different
denominations are possible only iftheybelong to a single originbfsyrian Christians,
rather than being converts. While selecting a rnarriage partner, it is ensgred that
the
partners are not related byblood. The christian wedding takes place in
a church
in the presence of a priest. However, christian marriage takes place
with the
consent ofboth the bride and the groom The Christians practice divorce
as well,
and grounds like adultery and cruelty can lead to the dissolution ofmarriage.
Among the christians, widow remarriage is accepted and also encouaged.
CnpcxYoun pnocnrss
21. What is Christian society divided into?
4,II RECENT CHANGES

IN THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE
The onset ofglobalizationhasbrought about innumerable changes inthe institution
ofmarriage. For instance, in the case of India, the majority of citizens, even those
who have formal education, practice arrangedmarriage. However, commitment
towards the union ofmarriage is disappearing as a result ofmodemization in India
these days (India Today, Aug. 1, 1998). In urban India, youngsters
are more
inclined to choose their ownpartners, though arranged marriages still
continue to
dominate. The culturalvalues ofupper and middle class Indians, aswellas urban
Indians have changed considerably due to the influence ofmedia and the
evolving
trends of a co smopolitarl Western culture.
Even though the traditional nature ofmaniage has changed considerably,

the beliefin marriage remains intact and marriage continues to be an lnportant
institution in Indian society. At this point in time, India is undergoing rapid changes
on the basis of strong economic growth, which is leadingtohigh.onrumpttn
patterns, newerprofessional and economic opportunities and upward
mobility.
Marriage and family are pre-eminent institutions that govem andimpact the
lives
ofpeople on a personal level. These connect very closely with economic growth
and its related benefits. Demographic trends, intra and inter-country
migration,
economic shifts and political and gender sfuggles are rapidly changing it
. rnurriug,
scenario insocieties acrossthe globe. The questionsthenarise, *.
th... findamental
shifts inthe inportance, [pes and nahne ofrnaniage actuallychallenging the
sanctity
Self-Instructional Mqterial 85
Marriage and Family ofmarriage per se? Are the younger generations ignoring parental matchmaking
criteria and basing marriages on ronxrnce and love (or choosing their own partnem)?
Which sections of youth (class, caste, occupation, location, and region) are
embodying these changes the most? Where and how do meetings, matchrnaking
NOTES and courtship take piace? How are marital preferences being discussed and
negotiated within the wider circles ofthe family, community and caste nexus?
These are some ofthe important questions u'hich should be addressed.
In a far-reaching recommen<lationto the MinistryofWomen and Child
Development, the National Commission for Women has sought a change in the
definition of 'wife'- as described in Section 125 of CRPC, which deals with
maintenance and suggested that it include women involved in live-in relationships
as
-
well The move aims to harmonize other sections ofthe law with the Protection
ofWomenfromDomestic VioienceAct that treats alive-incouple'srelationship at
par with that of a legally rnarried husband and wife.
Despite the changing rules of nrarriage, divorce and live-in relationships, the
institution ofmarriage still occupies an important place in the hearts and minds of
people inlndia.
4.12 THE STRUCTURAL AND FUI\CTTOF{AL

ASPBCTS OF JOTNT FAMILY
The institution of ajoint famrb/ is ofancient but ofunknown origins. Its existence or
non-existence in pre-Vedic times is a matter of surmise. Since Vedic times, it has
been aninstitutionalpart ofthelndianwayoflife. Farnilyinlndiaisnotjustnuclear
in character, but also an extended one. The termjoint family was coined by Sir
HenryMaine to describe the patrilinealtype ofextended familywhere altrthe rnale
members hold joint ownership rights in the family property. According to Irawati
Karve, 'A joint tbmily is a group ofpeople who live under one roof, eat food
cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, who participate in common
worship and are related to each other as sorne particular type ofkindred.'According
to HenryMaine, 'The Hindujoint familyis a group consisting ofknownancestors
and adopted sons and relations related to these sons through marriage.' The word
'cornmon' or joint property here, according to the Hindu SuccessionAct 1956,
means that all living male and female members upto three generations, have a
share inthe patemalproperfyand, without the co-partner's consent, the property
cannot be sold or disposed off Further the degree oflointness also varies from
familyto family.
4.12.1 Structural Aspects of Joint Family
In the joint family structure, the husband's relatives his wife, unmarried sister
-
and children, each have specific positions. Ajoint family includes mernbers who
are related lineally, collaterally, or both. Couples may be reiated lineally (sr.ich as a
iather-sonrelationship, or sometimes, a father-daughterrelationship) or collaterally
(abrother-brotherrelatiorship or, sometirnes abrother-sisterrelationship). pautine Marriage and Family
Kolenda presents the following types ofjoint fami$ on the basis ofthe relationships
ofits members.
(i) cottateral joint family: comprises of two or more married couples
betweenwhomthere is a sibling bond. NOTES
(ii) Supplemented collateral joint family: This is a collateral joint family
rvhich also comprises unmarried, divorced or widowed relatives. Thl
supplemental relatives are generally the rvidowed or ijivorced persons.
(iii) Lineal joint fami$: Two couples between whom there is a lineal link living
together, i.e., betweenparents and their married son, or sometimes between
parents and their married daughter.
(iv) supplemented lineal joint family: It is alinealjoint frmilytogetherwith
unmarried, divcrced or widowed relatives who do not belong to either of
the lineally linked nuclear families, e.g., the father's widower brother.
(v) Lineal collateral joint family: In this tlpe ofjoint family, three or more
couples are linked lineally and coilaterally. For instance, there can be a
farnily consisting ofparents and their two (or more) married sons, together
withthe u:rmarried children ofthe coupies.
(vi) supplemented lineal collateral joint t'amily: In this type, there is a lineal
collateral joint family plus unmarried, widowed, separated relatives who
belong to neither ofthe nuclear families.
The traditionaljoint family has several structural features.
(i) It has an authoritarian structure: The fact that the male plays a major
role in the occupational sptem automatically rnakes him the symbol ofpower
and authorityinthe frmil,vsystemas well In a dernocratic family, the authority
is vested in one or lnore individuals on the basis ofcompetence and abiiiry
However, in an authoritarian family, the power is traditionally given only io
the eldest male of the family because ofhis age and seniority. The hlad
allows little individual freedom to other family members and may or may not
consult them in decision making. In a democratic family, however, it is
obligatory for the head to consult other members, and consider their opinions
before making any decisions.
(ii) rt has a familistic organization: This refers to the subordination of
individual interests to the interests ofthe family as a whole, which means
that the goals ofthe family are more inportant than the goals ofthe individual
members.
(iii) status of members is determined by their age and relationships: The
status ofmanis higher than that ofhis wife. When members are frorn different
generations, the status ofa person in the higher generation is higher. The
status
ofa person ofhigher age is higher than the status of a yoiinger person? ard the
status ofa woman is determined by the status ofher husband in the fanrily.
Marriage and Family (iv) Conjugal relationship: In the joint family, the conjugal relationship is
important but is always subordinated to the consanguinealbond to suit the
requirements ofthe larger system. It would tend to destroythe stability of
the joint frmily ifthe conjugal relationship gained relative primacy.
NOTES
(v) Filial bond: The cultural values ofjoint family system emphasize the filial
and fraternal bonds. However, the father-child relationship is more of an
'avoidance' type while mother-+hild relations are characterized by strong
emotional intimacy. The frther is the synbol ofauthority and interaction
with the fither is generally limited. Here agaiq the avoidance relation between
father and sonhelps in the solidarity ofjoint family. Aclose relation between
father and children may threaten the solidarity of fraternal relationship.
(vi) The sibling relationship: The sibling relationship is usually a close one but
there are sources of constraint that may influence it. The structural source of
constraint, for instance, may rise from the all important age issue which
creates status differentiation among brothers.
(vii) Principle of seniority: The eldest male (or female) may delegate the
authorityto someone else, but eventhis delegation is based onthe principle
ofseniority, which limits the scope for the development ofan individual The
principle of seniority is generally supported by the cultural system
characteristic ofpeasant societies. While seniorityis the basis for general
determination ofauthority, this authority cannot be used arbitarily. The eldest
male must conform to specific family and caste traditions in defining
appropriate ends and in judging the action ofall members ofthe family.
(viii) Division of labour in the joint family: The pattern ofwork distribution
follows a generallywell-defined sex-based division. Men are entrusted the
responsibility ofrnanaging the occupational sphere while women are allocated
the household responsibilities.
4.12.2 FunctionalAspects of Joint Family
For thousands ofyears, many Indians have been living in a joint family systern The
institution has not onlywithstood the challenge oftime but has adjusted to the
changing socialrequirements. Its functional aspect is felt on all aspects of social
life. For this, it has been described as a microcosm ofthe profoundly pluralistic
nature oflndian cultrne in allits manifestations. Commonrituals and ceremonies
followed byjoint families have come down the generations and help integrate the
family. The joint family also serves the function ofbothprimaryand secondary
socialization Childrenhavebeeninitiatedintothejointfimilycuturetlrroughlegends
and folklore. Members of the joint family share a bond of mutual obligations,
understanding amongst each other, love, reciprocalrelationships and a cooperative
spirit. Additionally the joint family is a functional unit which is based on socialistic
norrns. The rights andprivileges are divided equallyamongst its members.
88 Self-Instructional Moterial
Marriage and Family
CrmcxYoun PRocnnss
22. Name lwo tlpes of.joint families.
23. Name two structural features ofthe traditionaljoint family. NOTES
4.13 RECENT C}IANGES IN JOINT FAMILY

There is rro doubt that the joint family is undergoing signifrcant change ancl this
reorganization is bound-to create sociologicaiprJtt.-r. The impact of
lndustrialzation and urbanization has also led to erosion of some of the family
bonds. Generally, the factors that result ur change in the family are studied as the
cause ofthe erosion ofthe joint fumily.
(i) Econornic factors: Industrialization and rapid economic development have

hastened the process of social change due to the increased mobility of
individuals towards newer opportunities for employment invaried spheres.
This has had an effect on the joint family system in India as well. Since
independence, diversification of occupational opportunities has increased
with ajudicial commitment to encourage equalitybetween the sexes and to
provicie a boost to bring women into the development process.l
(ii) Educational factors: The colonial rule created significant opportunities
for higher education. A1l castes and comrnunities were provided with
oppcrt'unities to educate themselves. English language education made the
people aware ofindividualistic, liberal and humanitarian ideas which did not
agree with the existing Hindu customs and practices and brought to the
forefront issues concerning child rnarriage, equalpropertyrights to wofirer!
etc., which were strongly followedbythejoint family system.
(iii) Legal factors: Legislations pertaining to employment, education, marriage
and propertyhave impacted the joint family system in several ways. Labour
laws which were designed to protect the interest ofemployees, such as the
Indian workers compensation Act (rg23) and rhe Minimum wages Act
(194s) reduced the financial dependability ofmembers onthe joint frmily.
In 1930 the Hindu Gains oflearningAct was passed, which stated that
property acquired by a Hindu as a result ofhis education became his personal
property even if his education was paid for by the joint family. post-
lndependence, the Hindu Succession Act ( I 9 5 6) was passed which provided
daughters and sons with equal rights to propertyrights. These legislations
challenged the long established inheritance patterns and also the subordinate
and dependent position ofwomen within the family
(iv) {.irbanization: Rapid urbanization has impacted fimilypatterns and fimily
dynamics inlndia. It has resulted ina large-scale shift fromruralto grban
Self-Instructional Material E9
Marriage and Fatnily areas. This separation of family members due to mobility, has affected the
size and compo sition of families.
Though the joint family system is gradually disintegrating, it would still be a

mistake to conclude that the traditional joint family is breaking down ard the parent's
NOTES
or patriarch's domination is disappearing. There is a definite trend towards the
nuclear family in urbanized areas; however, the rural connnunity is totallyunafected
by the conjugal systern Hence, it is unlikely that the traditional joint family in krdia
is going to disappear anytime soon. K.M. Kapadia (1972) is ofthe opinion that
families which have migrated to cities still retain bonds with their joint frmily back
in the village or town. Even after they residentially separate themselves, they do
not function as an isolated or completely independent unit as they retain their
kinship and joint family ethics. In his study, 'The Indian Joint Family in Modern
Industry' Milton Singer (1968) points out that the joint familycontinues to be the
nofin among industrial entrepreneurs despite changes in their material conditions
ofliving. He observed that changes have taken place within three generation in the
residential, occupationaland educational sphere. Thoughsocialmobilityincreased,
yet these alterations have not transformed the joint family into isolated nuclear
families. On the contrary, a modified joint family organization is emerging in the
urban industrial setting where even members from the ancestral homes or villages
are moving to urban areas. Thus, according to Singer, the industrial centre srnply
became a new area for the working ofthe joint family system. Pauline Kolenda in
her study 'Regional Differences in the Family Structure of India' ( 1987) observes
that industrialization serves to strengthen the joint family as an economic base has
been provided to support it or because more hands are needed in a renewed
family enterprise or as kin can heS one another in the striving for upward mobility.
By analysing all these factors of change in the family system, it can be said
that though the traditional type ofjointness (i.e., togetherness in residence,
functioning andproperty) inlndian frmilyis yielding to nuclearresidences, however
since the functionaljointness persists both in rural and urban areas, in coming
decades, jointness as a sentiment and as a cultural objective wili continue to exist.
The present Indian family is not structurally isolated because it forms an integral
part ofa wider system ofkinship relationship. The socialrelationship between
members offamilies is based onbinding obligations and emotional support. The
conjugaf filial and fraternal bonds continue to remain strong in our society.
CnncxYoun Pnocnnss
24. Which three factors have brought about changes in the joint fami$
90 SeU-lnstructionql Marerial
Marriage and Family
4.14 SUMMARY
Marriage
' important social institutionwhich has been in existence since
is an
time immemorial. It is a relationship which is socially approved wherein
NOTES
men and women live together as husband and wife to raise a family. Its
function is not on$ related to sex but it is also economic, social, psychological
and cultural. The institution ofmarriage also includes the responsibility of
rearing a child or children withinthe institution itself
o The institution ofmarriage has different forms in different societies. There
are various nrles w*rile deciding the form ofrnarriage. The main classification
is on the basis ofnumber of spouses. Monogamy is the union ofone man
and one woman. Polygamy is the union of either one man and many women
or one wornan and many men. Indian tribals practice different forms of
marriage than those seen in urban India.
o In rnarriage among Muslims, a man and woman enter into a solerm pact
for
life. There is a popular conception that in Islamic law, marriage is not
considered to be sacrament but rests entirely on a contractual basis. Muslim
marriage is called Nikah and isboth an act of ibadat (devotion to God)
and maumalat (dealngsamong men). witnesses are a necessary condition
for a valid marriage. There are two main sects ofthe Muslim community in
India" Shias and sunnis. Inter nmrriages among these groups are discouraged.
There are two types ofMuslimmarriages, regular (shahi)and irregular
(fasid)
o under Muslim law, the contract ofmarriage can be dissolved either with or
without the intervention ofthe court. The divorce can be obtained either on
the basis ofMuslim law byjudicial decree, or the marriage can be broken
without the court's interventio4 bythe husband at his will (called ra laq) or
by the mutual consent of husband and wife called (khula or kohl and
mub arat). The differenc e betw een khula and mubarat ts that,in the former
the divorce is intiated at the instance ofwife, whereas inthe latter, since
both the parties desire separation, the initiative can be taken by either wife
or husband.
o The christian society is stratified into protestants and catholics. The
Catholics are flrther divided into Latin Catholics and Syrian Catholics. These
groups are generally endogamous and do not maffy intra-group. In
chistianity, religion plays a predominant role in marital unions. christians
believe that marriages are made in heaven and decided by God. The
christians usually practice monogamy and thete are strict restrictions on
polgamy. Divorce is not appreciated by the church. The christian rnarriage
system is quite different from the Hindu marriage system. The Indian
Christians follow the Westem marriage systemofthe British.
Marriage and Family o The discussion on rualr:iage leads to the topic ofjoint families and how they
were so prominent in Indian society, and hov,'due to economic and other
factors the systemis disinteglating. However, it wouid stillbe amistake to
conclude that the family is breaking and the role ofthe patriarch is diminishing
NOTES as India is still tightly bound byties ofkith.
4.15 KEY TERIVIS
o Marriage: The socialrecognitionofthe practice whereinmen and women

live together as husband andwife to raise a farnily
o Bride price: Payment by the bridegroom's lamily to the bride's family
o Monogamy: The union ofone manwith one woman
o Polygamy: Apractice wherein a person has more than one spouse at the
same time.
o Polygyny: The marriage of one male with more than one female '
o Polyandry: The marriage ofone w-omanwithranymen

l
o Sororal polygyny: Marriage whentwo wives are sisters

o Levitrate: When a man marries the childless widow ofhis deceased brother
c Sororate: When a nun marries the sister ofhis deceased wife, particularly
when she has died childless
o Concubinage: Astate of living together as husband and wife without being
married
o Gotra: Agroup whose members have are believed to have descended
from a coffrmon my'thical ancestor
o Nikah: Muslimmarriage
o Muta marriage: Muslim system of temporary marriage
4.16 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESS'
l. Marriage serves the following functions: economic, social fulfiling sexual

relations and psycholo gical.
2. The payment by the bridegro om's family to the bride 's famiiy is known as
bride price.
3. Marriages are classified on the basis ofthe number of spouses.
4. Monogamy andpolygamy are the two tlpes ofmarriages.
5. Buddhists, Sikhs. Jains come under the Hindu Marriage Act.
6. It means often man'ied.
7. Polygyny is the marriage ofone rnale with more than one female or .phrality Marriage and Family
ofwives'. Polyandry on the other hand, is the marriage ofone woman
with
manymen.
8. Enforced celibacy, earlier ageing of women, and social prestige
are the
three c ause so f po lygyny. NOTES
9. Fratemal and non-fraternalpolyandry are the two types ofployandry.
10. Adelphic polyandry is the other name for fratemalpolyandry.
11" Brahrna vivah andArsha vivah are the two forms oiHindu
marriage.
12. Anuloma mariage allows the alliance of a lower caste woman to
a higher
caste man whereas tn a pratilomo marciage an upper caste woman-can
enter into an alliance with a lower caste man.
13. Gotra and Sapinda exogamy are the two types ofoxygamy.
14. According to Gautanr, mariageshourd be avoided seven generations
from
the father's side and five fromthe rnother's side.
I 5. Maniage by capture, marriage by tria! marriage by mutual consent are the
three approved ways ofselecting amate.
16. Posiothizr is the term used for 'marriage by capture' in the Gond
tribe.
1 7 . A Muslsrn n i kohis a combina rjon
of I badal ( devotion to God) and,Ma um a I at
(deatings among men).
18. Shahi and fasid are the two types ofMuslimmarriage.
1 9. A wife procured tkough the Musrim
muta type of marriage is known as a
Sigha.
20. The difference b e$ryeen khula and mubarar is that, in the former the divorce
is intiated at the instance
ofwife, whereas in the latter, since both the parties
desire separation the initative can be taken by either one.
21. Protestants and catholics are the two divisions of chrstianity.
22. callater:aljoint familyand linealjoint familyare the two types
ofjoint family.
23 ' The traditional structural feafures are: the authoritarian structure, and
the
thmilistic organization.
24. Fconornic factors. educational factors and legal are the three factors that
have brought about changes in the traditionaljoint fu-ily
4.17 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. What are the different categories ofpo$gamy?
2. Discuss the advantages oflevitrate.
Marriage and Family 3. Whyis aHindumarriage considered sacred?
4. What are the two rules on which basis the choice of a partner for the union
ofmarriage is based?
NOTES 5. Explainthe fotx gotrarule.

6. What is raj i khusi marriage?
7 . Elaborate onthe wayofacquiring amateby'marriageby service'.
8. Identiffthe three ways that divorce canbe carried out as per Muslim law.
9. What arethe aims ofaChristianmarriage?
10. What are the types ofjoint families?
1. Discuss the different forms ofmarriage.
2. Write a detailed note on Muslimmarriage in India.
3 . What are the various forms ofdivorce in the Muslim commtrnity? Explain.
4. Explain Hindu marriage as a religious sacrament.
5. Describe the eight forms ofHindu maniage.
6. Elaborate ontheways inwhichtribals canacquire amate.
7. What has brought about the recent changes in the institution ofmarriage?
E"plain
8. Elaborate on the structural features ofthe traditionaljoint family.
4.18 FURTHER READING/REFERENCES
Dube, S.C. 1977. India since Independence: Social Report on India,.1947-

7 2 . Mttrrbai: Vikas Publishing House.
Hutton, J.H. 1983. Caste in India.Mumbai:OUP.

Kapadia, K.M. 1966 . Maniage and Family in India. Mumbai: OUP.
Singh, Y. 1986. Indian Sociology: Social Conditioning and Emerging
Conc ern s. Delhi: Vistaar.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962 . Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. Murnbai: Asia
PublishingHouse.
References
Arnold, ChristophJohann. 2007. Sex, God and Maniage. NewYork: Plough
Publishing House. U. S.A.
Colson, E. 1958. Maniage and the Family among the Plateau Tonga of
Northern Rhodesia. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Goode, williamJ. 1964. The Family.prenticeHall Inc. New Jersey:p.20. Marriage and Family
India Today, Aug. 1, 1998, under section called 'Marriages' by Sheela Raval,
'Till Whims Do Us part,' pp.60_6 1.
Levine, N. 1988. The Dynamics of polyandry. Kinship, Domesticity
and NOTES
Population on the Tibetan Border. chicago: university ofchicago press.
Lienhardt, G. 1964. Social Anthropolog,,. Oxford: Oxford University press.
Malinowski. Parenthood, The Basis of social structure.,quoted by Kingsley
' Davis tnHumanSociety,lg4g.London: Macmillan.'
Radcliffe Brown. A.R. I 950. Introduction inA.R. Radcliffe Brown and
c.D. Forde
(eds). African systems of Kinship and Marriage. London: oxford
University Press, pp. I -85.
zertzen, Miriam Koktvedgaard. 200 8. p o ly g amy : A C ro s s - cu ra I A
I tu n alv s i s .
Oxford. NewYork.
S elf- Ins lruc tional Material

UNIT 5 P,{TTERI{S OF SOCIAL
Patterns of Social Change
in India
CHANGE IN XiqDIA
NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Meaning of Social Change
5.3 The Need to Study Social Change
5.4 Some Allied Concepts of Change
5.5 Continuity and Change as Fact and Value
5.6 Meaning of Sanskritization
5.6. 1 Brahminization to Sanskritization
5.5.3 The Role of the Dominant Caste
5.7 Westernization
5.7. 1 Westernization and Moderrization
5.7.2 Westernization and Socio-Cultural Changes
5.7.3 Relation between Sanskritization and Western ization
5.8 Tradition and Modernity in India
5.9 Summary
5.10 Key Terms
5.13 Further Reading
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about the process ofsocial change"
constant change has always been the way ofnature. As Heraclitus, the
Greek philosopher once remarked, one cannot step into the same river twice,
since by the second time one steps in, the river has changed its direction.
All human societies urdergo change and it is imperative to understand that society
is always in a constant state of flux. Indian society has undergone a plethora
of changes right from its inception, beginning from the transforrnation of an
agricultural society into an industrial society. With the growth and development of
technology, the Indian societyis nowtermed as information society, orknowledge
societv. This unit will explore the various changes in Indian societywith a particular
focus onthe modernization oflndian traditions. This unit will also help you to
understand the important processes of social change like Sanskritization and
Westernization.
Seflnstructional Materiql 97
in India 5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
After going throughthis unit, you willbe able to:
NOTES o Llnderstand the meaning of social change
. Assess the need to study social change
c Explain the various processes of change like Sanskritization and
Westemization
. Analyse the debate on tradition and modernity or change and continuify
5.2 MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Change is ubiquitous and has always been the law of nature. Social change is a
process ofalteratiors, modifications andtransformationwithinthe socialstructure.
This includeschangesnot onlyinthe size andparts ofthe society, butalso changes
in the existing pattern ofrelationships between individuals, groups and the larger
society.
Change is a broad concept, and changes in the structure and culture of

society are initiated through internal and external sources. Social change pertains
to the issues of change in established patterns of social relations, or change in
social values, or change in structures and sub-system operating in society. Social
change is mostly partial but could be total as well. The International
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences looks at change as the important alterations
that occur is the social structure, or in the pattern of action and interaction in
societies. Change also inrplies alterations inthe structure and function of a social
system. lnstitutions, pattems of interaction, work, leisure activities, roles, norms
and other aspects of society can be altered over time, as a result ofthe process of
social change.
5.3 THE NEED TO STUDY SOCIAL CHANGE

Towards the end ofthe 19th century and at the beginning ofthe 20th century
sociologists and anthropologists were preoccupied with the problem of how
societies had evolved fromtheir originalprimitive state. The concept ofevolution
formulated by Charles Darwin in the field ofbiology, was applied to sociology as
well. Indian sociologists are very interested in the issue of social change since
Indian society is now in the process of changing itseHfrom an agricultural society
to an industrial society; from a colonial society, with emperors and monarchs to a
republican society; from a society based on caste and class to a society which
aims to be casteless and classless. with equality of opportunityto every citizen
guaranteed bythe Indian Constitution adopted in 1950.Also, the transformation
of men and social relationships has been necessitated by the new social political
and economic patterns. Hence, it is an important task for the social scientists to
study how the transformation is taking place and also to ana$se the
nature ofthe patterns of sociat change
obstructions whicharepreventing or slowing downthe speedofthe
transfomration. in Inctia
5.4 SOME ALLIED COI{CEPT'S OF CHAI\GE

NOTES
Social change is seen to be a neutral concept. The other two tems often mentioned
along w{ththis concept are 'evolution' and 'progress'. Evolution expresses
continuity
and direction of change and means more than only growth. Evolution involves
something more intrinsic, a change not only in size but also'in structure. progyess,
on the other hand, implies change in a direction towards a final desired goal.
It
involves a value judgement.
Monis Ginsberg has undertaken a sptematic analysis offactors which have
been invokedbydifferent writers to explain social change.
(i) The conscious desires and clecisions ofindividuals (exemplified by
development ofthe small or nuclear fimily
ryatem in Westem cogntries)
(if Individual acts influenced by changing conditions
(iif The structural changes and structural strains (Marxian analysis)
(iv) Extemalinffuences
(v) Outstanding individuals or groups
(vi) A confluence or co-location of elements from different sources
converging at a givenpoint
(vii) The emergence ofa common purpose
(viif Fortuitous occuffences (Norman conquest of England, the Black
Death in the 14th century the British conquest oflndia, etc.)
5.5 CONTINUITY AND CHANGE

AS FACT AI{D VALUE
Social trife is proven to undergo continuous change. Much recent sociology, under
ttre influence offunctionalisrn, has disregarded change or has presented it in
such a
w'ayasto suggest that socialchange is something exceptional. The emphasis has
been upon stability of the social system and the system ofvalues and beliefs,
and
upon consensus, rather than diversity and conflict, within each society. There are
certain general conditions which cause social change, the most important being
the
growth ofknowled.ge and occurrence ofsocial conflict. Conflict as a condition
of
social change has played an important part in historicallybringing about larger
social units (Conrte and Spencer recognized) in establishing or reinforcing
,oJiul
stratification, and in diffrsing social and cultural innovations. Secondly, conflicts
betweengroupswithin societyhavebeenamajor source ofinnovationand change.
Continuity in society is maintained by inparting social traditions to new generations
throughtheprocess ofsocialization. Allthese factors establish socialchange as
a
fact. Social change is also regarded as a value by members ofsociety. For instance,
Patterns of Social Change in a societycharacterizedbyextreme inequalities, a change torvards an egalitarian
in India
social order is valued by the poor. The 19th century classical evolutionist regards
the growth of industrial society as progress. Any change in that direction was
treated as a value, as is continuity. People want to preserve their customs and
NOTES faditions and violentlyresist any atterrpt at change. Emile Drkheirn" Talcott Parsons
and others impute values to order, stability and persistence. Thus, both change
and continuity are viewed as fact and value.
5.6 MEAI{II{G OF SANSKRITIZATION

Sanskitization is a special socialprocess urique to India. As a concept, it is indebted
to M.N. Srinivas coined the term n T952 in his book, Religion and Society
Among the Coorgs of Mysore. He substituted his earlier concept of
Brahminization wtthSanskritization. Sanskritization has occurred throughout
Indian history and still continues. It represents features of religious, social and
cultural change bysignalling increasing socialmobility and decreasing caste rigidity.
Thus, it became the centre ofattention for scholars oflndian society.
Srinivas defines San-skritization as 'a process by which a low Hindu caste
or tribe or other goup changes its customs, ritual, ideology and way oflife in the
direction ofa higher and frequently "twice-born" caste'. Typically, these changes
result in a contention to a higherposition inthe caste hierarchy. which is made ovcr
a period oftime, usually a generation or two, before the 'arrival' ofthe lower
caste, tribe or group is conceded. Sanskritization is usually followedby, laying a
claim to be from a higher caste than the caste in question but this upward progression
can also occur without Sanskritization and vice versa. However, the mobility
associated with Sanskritization results only in positional changes in the system and
does not lead to any structural change.
Sanskritization can occur by adopting habits ofvegetarianisrn teetotalisrn,

the worship of 'Sanskritic deities', or by engaging Brahmins for rituals.
Sanskrilization can appiyto rifuals and custorn, or to ideas andbeliefs. It is essential
ingredient is the imitation ofbehaviour and beliefs associated withhigher status
groups.(Stall.l963)
Srinivas also confirmed that Sanskritizationisnot limitedto theHindus. He
concluded that it also occurs among tnbal and semi+ribal groups such as the Bhils
ofwestern lndia, the Gonds and Oraons ofcentral India, and the Pahadis of the
Himalayas. The process usually results in the tribe. which is undergoing
Sanskritizatioru claiming to be a caste and therefore, Hindu. tn the traditional systern,
the onlyway to become a Hindu was to be a mernber of a caste and the unit of
mobilitywas usuallya group, not anindividual or family.
5,6.1 Brahminization to Sanskritization
The process ofsocial mobility among castes was first ref,ened to as Brahminization
by Srinivas. He discarded the termBrahminization as a substitute for sanslffitizatior:.
100 Self-Instructional Moterial
since some ofthe vedic rites are the privilege ofBrahrnins
and other twice-born Patterns of Social Change
castes and therefore cannot be imitated by others.(Stail,1g63). in India
However,
Sarskritization is a broader tetm than Brahminization. Srinivas
even found that the
lower castes were motivated to imitate the customs ofBrahmins
in Mysore and it
was a generaltendency among the lower castes to imitate the NOTES
higher caste cultural
way of life. In fact, in some cases the higher castes *.r"
nJn-Brahmins, i.e.,
Kshatriyas, Jats or Vaishyas with subsequent regional variation.
In this context,
Brahminization seemed to be a nu,to*i..* to exprain such a t
ug. pro..r, oi
culrural and social mobility.
will now explore the involvement ofvarious caste groups in the process
lve of
Sanskritization. Srinivas unduly stressecl on the Brahminicai mojel
ofsarnkrit ization
inhis book on Coorg Religion and.Note on Sanskritization and
Westernization,
and he ignored the other Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra
models. He derived the
Brahminical model from the Kannada, Tamil and relugu Brahmins
and not fi,om
tsrahmins of other regions. D.F'. pocock has pointed out the
role of the kingly
ofsanskritizationandalso the existence ofaKshatriyarnodel
3o{e-lintheprocess
in additionto the Brahminicalmodel. Srinivas observes that,
apart fromtle kirrgly
d:h, other models are adopted by rocally dominant castes and the c oncepio
To
dominant caste supplements in some ways the concept of Sanskritization.
f
(Srinivas,
1972). Milton Singerhas also agreed to the fact that there
exist three modeis of
Sanskritization.
Among the 'twice-bom' varnas, the Brahmins are quite particular

about the
performance ofrites so they are regarded as 'better models'
oisanskritization by
Srinivas. The cultural content of each varna, however, varies
from one area to
another and from one time period to another. The diversity is generaliy
far greater
at the lower levels ofvarna hierarchy than at the highest.
M. N' Srinivas has also pointed out the diversity in the Brahmin varna.
_ In
the first place, some elements ofthe iocal culhue are comrnon
to ail the castes
living ur a region, ti-om the highest to the lorvest. For instance, the
Brahmins and
the Harijans of a region would speak the same language,
celebrate common
festivals and share certain local deities and beliefs. Srittirrur
calls this ,vertical
solidarity' andit contrasts with 'horizontal solidarity' which members
ofa single
caste orvarnahave. onthe otherhand, there mayaiso be
culturaldifferences in
the same caste or varna. Some ofthe Brahmins like the K"rh-";,
;;;;,
Bengali are non-vegetarians, while some of the tsrahmins are "*i
more Sanskritized
than the others. Moreover, there is considerable occupational
diversitybetween
Brahmins. For instance, Brahmins ofpunjab and parts ofwestem
liftlre1t uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan have a row secular status and
several Brahmins t" G"rr;t
Bengal and Mysore are considered ritually low.
However, it can be said that tlre Ksharriya, Vaishya and shudra
Varnas
draw more from their culture and from rocal areas oiru" *o,",r,. groh- . There
Sell:Instructionql Material 101
Patterns of Social Change are profound cuhural and ritual differences btween castes claiming to be Kshatriyas
in India
andVaishyas invarious parts ofthe country K.N. Pannikar rejected the idea of a
Kshatriya caste and believed that the Nandas were the last 'true' Kshatriyas who
disappeared in the 5th century ec and since then every known family had come
NOTES fr om a non-Kshatriya caste.
The variationinthe varna modelbecomes more explicit whenwe look at

the Shudras. At one extreme are the dominant peasant landowning castes which
wield power and authority over other castes, whereas at the other extreme we
find the poor, near-untouchable groups living just above the poverty line. This
category includes artisans and serving castes. Again, some shudras have a highly
Sanskritized life while others have a less Sanskritized one. However, the dominant
caste always provides models for imitation irrespective ofwhether or not it is
Sanskritized.
5.6.3 The Role of the Dominant Caste
Srinivas observed that dominant castes have always facilitated the process of
Sanskritization. The concept ofdominant caste was introducedby Srinivas and
refers to those caste groups who occupy a dominant position in a local area or
village due to certain factors. The factors ofestablishing dominance in a village are
ownership of cultivable land, strength in numbers, and a high position in local
hierarchy. Srinivas discr:veredthat occasionallythere maybe one donrinant caste
inavillage competingwithanotherforthe highest status-whichwas afeature in
pre-British India.
The new factors for establishing dominance, as noted by Srinivas, were
modem educatioq jobs in administration andurban sources ofincome. The advent
ofmeans ofcommunicatiorl Panchayati Raj, introduction ofuniversal adult franchise,
etc., also had an impact. Nowadays, the concept ofvillage dominance is tending
to be substitutedby the idea ofdominance ofa caste.
InruralIndia, landowning has always been a crucial factor in establishing
dominance. The power andprestige whichlandowning castes command, affects
their relations with other castes, including those that may be ritually higher. In
Punjab, the landowning Jats look upon the Brahmins as their servants, and
Madhopur village in eastern UP is an example ofthis. This inconsistency in the
caste society due to the existence ofdominant castes is stressed by Biedelman. A
prominent feature ofcaste hierarchy is the occasional difference between secular
and ritual rank. If only secular criteria is considered, a Brahmin may occupy a
very low position. Howeveg he is still a Brahmin and hence entitled to respect in
the ritual context. For instance, a millionaire Gujarati bania may not enter the
kitchen where his tsrahrnin cook works, for this would pollute the Brahmin and the
cooking utensils.
The growth of the various models of sanskritization are mediated or
channelledthroughthe local dominant castes, stressing the irrportance ofthe latter
in the process ofcultural transmission Thus, ifa local dominant caste is a Brahmin
or Lingalat it will tend to transmit a Brahminical model of Sanskritization
a
on the Patterns of Social Change
other hand, ifit is a Rajput or Bania, it will transmit tkre Kshatriya in India
or vaishya
model.
TWo distinct tendencies are implicit in the caste system
as noted by Srinivas.
The first is an acceptance ofthe existence ofmultiple
..rlt*.r, including moral and
religious nolrrls' in any local society. This acceptance also NOTES
gives rise tJthe feeling
that some customs, beliefs and traditions are prerdominant
iria specific group whii
others are not. The other tendencywhichprevails within the
Laste system is the
imitation ofthe ways of the higher castes. pocock is essbntially
right when he
observes one local section of a caste imitating another local
section. The
Sanskritization ofthe Patidars, for instance, owes much to great
traditions such as
the pilgrimages to religious places and the influence
oritre Vallabhachari and
Swaminarayan sects.
Srinivas even found that the elders ofthe dominant caste

in a village were
the watchdogs ofpiuralistic culture and the value
slatem The role ofthe dominant
caste is also to stimulate in the lower castes, a desire
to imitate the dominant
caste's ownprestigious style ofiife. However, the influence
ofdominant castes
seerns to extend to all areas ofsocial life, including
the principle
ofdescent and
affiliation. Thus, twopartilinealtrading castes, the Tarakans
and Mannadiyars,
gradually changed in about T2a b 150 years frompatrilinyto
matriliny.
CrmcxYoun Pnocnnss
1. Differentiate betweenprogress and evolution.
2. Who coinedthe term Sanskritization?

3. What does Sanskritization represent?
4. How can Sanskritization take place?
5. what was considered the traditional way to become a Hindu?
6. why did Srinivas discard the term Brahminization for Sanskritization?
7 . who did K.N. Pannikar consider the last 'true' Kshatriya caste?
8. Which factors establish dominance in a village?
9. What were the new factors for establishing dominance?
5.7 WESTERNIZATIOI{
M. N. Srinivas used the term 'westernization'to ind.iiate the
changes wluchrtook
qlale in India durmg the British Rule in the 19th and early 2}thcentsry. Srinivas
defined the termWestemization to characterize the changes
brought about in Indian
societyandculture as aresult of 150 years ofBritishrule,
urrajn termincludes
changes occurring at different revers, including technology,
institutions, ideology,
Self-lnstructional Materiql 103
Patterns of Social Change and values. (Srinivas, 1966). He considers such changes as important in the
in India
context ofchangesthat anon-Westerncountryundergoes as aresult ofits contact
with a Westem country. S/esternization is therefore a process of cultural change.
There is however much difference between Westernization and similar
NOTES
processes like industrialization. There is evidence ofthe existence ofcities in the
pre-industriaiworld- ThoughWbstenrization is more prevalent in large cities, keeping
in r,'iew the complex nature of Indian society some people in nrrai areas are also
Westernized" Westernizationleadsto the induction ofnew institutions (suchas
newspapers, elections, Ckistianmissions, etc.) and also brings about necessary
changes in older institutions. There are certain vahre preferences like hununitarianism
and rationaiisrn implicit in Westernization. Such values became instrumental in
bringrrg about many changes and reforms in Indian society. According to Srinivas,
the increase in Westemization does not retard the process of Sanskritization. In
fact, both go on simuhaneously and to some extent, an increase in Westemization
accelerates tlre process of Sanskritization.
5.7.1 Westernization and N{odernization
There has been lot of debate regarding appiication ofthe term 'modernization' to
' Westernization' . Daniel Lerner used the term' mo dernization' in his bo ak Th e
Passing of Traditional Socie\', Modernising the Middle-East (L958), to the

changes brought about in non-western countries by contact, direct or indirect,
with a Western country. The term'Westernization', unlike 'rnodernization', is
'good
ethically neutral i. e., it does not carry an implication of or bad. \\iesternization,
however, is an inclusive and many-layered concept. It covers a wide range, from
westerntechnoiogyat one end, to the experimentalmethod ofnrodern science
and modem historiography at the other. Its incredible complexity is seen in the fact
that diFerent aspectsofWestemizationsornetimesconrbine to strengthenaparticular
process, sometimes work at cross-pury)oses, and are occasionaliymutually discrete.
(Srinivas, 1966). For instance, Indians used to eat their meals sitting on the floor
and observed a number of restriotions within the entire process from cooking the
food to serving it. However, intoday's day and age, educatecl and westernized
people prefer to eat at tables.
The concept of modenrization is plagued with a rulmber of difficulties.
Modernization is a comprehensive process oftransformation ofthe traditional
society, involving frr reaching changes in all aspects ofindividual life. It sytnboLizes
rational attitudes towards issues and their evolution from a universalistic (and not
particularistic) viewpoint. In contcmporary India, both modernization and
Westemization exist and are easily observed. \Vhile modernization refers to a
complete transformation in attitudes, including value pattems, Westernization on
the otherhand, maynot lead to transforniation. e.g., Westernization in behaviour
patterns does not mean Westernization ofvatue preferences and a scientific outlook
In this regard" Srinivas has given an appropriate exanple ofa govemrnent bulldozer
driver in Ramputa village in Mysore-While on one hand, he drove the bulldozcr,
104 Self-lnstructional Marenal

on the other hand he also practiced black magic. In fact
there was no inconsistency Patterns of Social Change
between driving a bulldozer for his livelihood and indulging in India
inblack magic for
pleasure. Thus the utilization ofwestem technology
do., nit mean that people
have become more rational and scientific.
Hence, Srinivas prefers to use the termWestemization to modernization, NOTES

whereas other scholars like Lerner and others prefer modernization.
Srinivas
believes that modernizationpresupposes rationalityofgoals
whichinthe ultimate
ana$sis cannot be taken for granted, since human ends are based
on value
prelerences and rationalitycould onlybe expected
ofthe means, andnot the ends,
ofsocial action. (Srinivas, 1966)
5.7.2 Westernization and Socio-Cultural Changes

westernization in India took place in difterent forms, and with sub-regional
variations. The various changes due to westernization are as follows:
Educational field
with westemization, English education became popular. The Brahmins,
and other
castes with traditional education methods, shifted to secular
education with English
as a medium of instruction. School education was open
to everyone, inespective
of caste, creed or colour. English education motivated the youth to take
up
occupations in the govemment sector and other commercial concerns.
Moreover,
westemeducationbrought about a changeinthe outlookandperceptionofpeople.
values like equality and humanitarianism were internalized,
and this promoted a
secular outlook. While traditional education promoted uncritical
acceptance of
ancient works, Western education promoted rationalism and
a criticaioutlook
towards events and problems. (Kuppusw amy,l 993)
Lifestyle
westernization implied and led to changes inthe style of life, dress
habits, food
mafflers, etc. The westernized groups adopted a western style ofliving
and gave
up their inhibitions for various tlpes offood. For instance, Bralmins
were forbidden
from eating meat but such inhibitions were given up later. westem
music, dance
and dress were adopted bylndians who were Westernized.
Political and cultural field

westernization resulted in not only nationalism, but also to other thoughts
and
behaviours suchasrevivalism, communalism, casteisrrl heightenedawareness
of
linguistics, andregionalism. Evenrevivalist movementsusedwestem-type
schools
and colleges, as well as books, pamphlets and journals to propagate their
ideas.
The process ofwestemization intensified when India became
independent. The
extension ofagriculture and trading frontiers broke the centuries
old isolation of
groups that inhabited the forested mountains, and provided
them with new contacts
and opportunities. The development ofcommunication
and the removal ofinternal
customs barriers, integrated the economy ofthe various regions
in the country into

Patterns of Social Change a single one. (Srinivas, 1966). Thepoliticalandadministrative integrationoflndia,
in India
along with development oftransport and communication, increased social and
spatial mobility for the elite as well as the masses. This created the grounds for
nationwide Westemization.
NOTES
5.7.3 Relation between Sanskritization and Westernization
Thus, it becomes evident that Sanskritization and Westertrization are both processes
ofcultural change. Even Srinivas'reiterated the tbct that social changes occrfiring
inmodemlndiainterms ofsanslffitizationandWestemization, areprimari$changes
in cultural terms and not in structuraltenns. We will now analyse the relationship
betweenthetwo terms.
Sanskritization and Westernization, in the logical sense, are truth-asserting
concepts, which osciilate between the logrcs ofideal-typical and norninal definitions
ofphenomena . (Zettaberg,l965). Hence their connotationis oftenvague, especially
as one rno\es fromone ievel ofculturairealityto another.
While Sanskritization or Brahminization puts a taboo on meat-eating and
alchoholcorsunptioqWestemizaticrnis supportive ofmeat-eating andconsrrrption
of alchohol. T'he highlyWbsternized Brahmins shed their inhibitions about these
two issues.
The Sanskritization process promotes the sacred outlook, whiie

Westernizationpromotes the secular outlook. The conflict, however' is removed
by the constitution which is secular in outlook and emphasis, though the sacred
outlook continues to be dominant among the elite as well as the masses.
Sanskritization and westernization are founded upon empiricai observations
and offer objective instght into various aqpects ofcultural change. Difficulties arise
from the complexity ofthe contextual ltame.
Yogendra Singh maintains that there are theoretical loopholes in these
concepts. He makes a reference to E.B. Harper who treats Sanskritization as a
flrnctionai conr:ept, which is distinct from the historical concept of change.
5.8 TRADITIOI{ AND MODERNITY IN INDIA

The concept of tradition has always occupied an important place in Indian
sociological thought. Indian sociologists have often ventured to acquire deeper
knowledge of social phenomena prevailing in the country. According to D.P.
I\{ukherji, there is no getting away from tradition for Indian sociologists. This is so,
especiallybecause their role is to studythe principles that govern social life in
India, cofitmon living, conlmon sharing of social heritage and the continuity of
social stnrcture, in order to guide the future corirse ofthe countrywhose culture is
' etemal'. (Majumdar, 1 96 I )
The concept of tradition has been defined by many sociologists, social
anthropologists and indologists; however, none have defined it clearly. D'P.
106 SeU:lnsrructionql.Moteriql
Mukherji however, pleads for a philosophical approach in order to improve the Pqtterns oJ'Social Change
understanding of society. Yogendra Singh contends that tradition means value, i. e. in Indi.a
,
themes encompassing the entire social systern of Indian society, prior to the
beginning ofmodemization, were organized on the principles ofhierarchy, holisrn,
continuity and transcendence. These four value-themes were deeply interlocked NOTES
with other elements oflndian sociatr struchre. Hierarchy was evident in the caste
s}atem with caste and sub-caste stratifications and also in Hindu concepts ofhurnan
nature, occupational life cycles (ashramas) and moral duties (.Dharma).
(Singh,1986)
Holism meant a relationship between individuals and groups in which the
former was encompassedbythe latter inrespect ofduties andrights. The collective
aspect always occupied an important place inthe life ofthe individrial. The collective
life was reinforced in the traditional social structure oflndia in terms of family,
caste, village community, etc. The traditionalvalues were never challenged at the
cost ofrationaliby derived fromnon-sacred principles ofevaluation. D.P. Mukherji's
concept oflndian society is a derivative ofwhat he calls 'the philosophy oflndian
history' which remained unrecorded. But it has a history ofideas exenpiified in the
daily conduct of its peoptre. Indian culture. essentially being social, has a history
expressed in Indian society. The history economics and philosophy oflndia had
always centred on social groups. (D.P. Mukhe{i, 1 95 8)
The concept oftradition has different connotations for Indian sociologists.
RamKrishnaMukheqji regards tradition as 'the schematic point in organism' (in
the context oflndiansociety) whichcanbeusedas a comparativeframe ofreference
for measuring social change in India. He further stated that Indian traditions provide
fow dimensions ofintegration in our people. Social change is almost a variation on
this intra-India static four dimensional model: the place where an Indian is bom,
where he is brought up and dies, the kin group to which a person belongs, the
caste to which he is affiliated, and finally the linguistic region with which he is
integrated. (R.K. Mukhe{i, 1 965)
Moreover, RK Mukherji quoted D.P. Mukhe4ito emphasize the economic
aspect of structural change which can have a significant impact and bring about an
alteration, 'Traditions have great power ofresistance and absorption'.Unless the
influence is very powerful (which is possible only when modes ofproduction are
changed), traditions survivetlrrough adjustments. The capacityto adjust is ameasure
of the vitality of tradition. Indian sociologists should precede the socialist
interpretations ofchanges in the Indian tradition in terms of economic forces. (R.K.
Mukhe{i,1965)
Yogendra singh, has however come out with aparadigmatic concept of
tradition inhis book, Modernization of Indian tradition He refers to traditions
as evolving from primordial tradition to modernization with a pattern of change in
quality. His concept oflndiantraOition, contraryto the meta-sociolrri.*r, is analytical
as indicated in a unified worldview, ritual styles and belief systems. He does not
delineate tradition as entity or substance, but as a variable identified under the
Pqtterns of Social Change
components oflittle and great traditions, contributing extensivelyto the process of
in India
transformation and synthesis. Y. Singh refers to two kinds of changes
'orthogenetic changes'(primary) and'heterogenetic changes' (secondary).While -
orthogenetic changes refer to those changes within the cultural tradition of India
NOTES itse$ heterogenetic changes refer to changes brought about due to contact with
othertraditions.
The evolutionaryprocess ofmodernization is a smooth one, andthere is no
serious breakdown in the slstem caused by institutionaluation ofmodernizing
changes. Caste, as an institution however, has the potential for negotiating with
modemizing trends and adapting to modem institutions. Yogendra Singh is concemed
about the constant coordination ofmodemization with conciliation as an assumed
pre-requisite for democratic modemization in India.
Modemization, in its initial stages in India, according to Eisenstadt did not
lead to any serious system breakdown because of the pecutar structural
characteristics ofthe Indian sociery Here, the cultural system was fairly independent
ofthe political system. Modernity in India developed as a sub-structure and sub-
culture without subsequent expansion in all sectors oflife. However, Y. Singh's
main concem was with structural changes which would take place due to
modernization. Inconsistencies have arisen due to structural changes that India has
undergone during the post-colonialphase ofmodemization. Micro-structures like
caste, fimily and village community have retained their traditional character. Caste
per se has shownunexpected elasticityand latent potential foradaptationwith
modern institutions, such as democratic participation, political parfy orgarnzation
and trade unionism. This is even thoughjoint fatoily and particularistic nonns
continue to prevail. These contradictions are magnified at the level of macro-
structures such as the political system, bureaucracy, elite strucfure, industry and
economy.
In fact, the major potential sources of breakdown in the process of
modemrzation in India can be attributed to structural inconsistencies such as
democratisationwithout spread ofcivic culture (education), bureaucrattzation
without cornrnitment to universalistic norms, rise inmediaparlicipation and aspiration
without proportionate increase in resources and distributive justice, verbalization
of a welfare ideology without diffi.rsion into the social structure.(Eisenstadt ,1966)
At the outset, it must be said that there has been considerable mo demaatton
oflndian traditions and constant adaptation with the process ofrnodemuation.
There has been no breakdown in the traditional value systems, rather it can be
said that there has been a discontinuity between expectation and performance.
Y. Singh would deny a policy ofcontrolled suppression in favour ofa 'series of
conciliatory steps through a forceful strategyofmobrTization' . This would lead him
to accept that the chances ofinstitutionalbreakdown are minimal onthe Indian
scene. (Y. Singh, 1 986). There is in fact a rational coordination instead of complete
reliance on modernization.
108 Self-lnsrructional Material

CrmcrYoun Pnocnnss in India
1 0. List two differences between Sanskritization and wes temaation.
11. which four dimensions do Indian traditions provide as a means to NOTES

integrate the people?
5.9 SUMMARY
o Social change is a process ofalterations, modifications and
transformation
within the social structure. Indian sociologists have always been interested
inthe issue ofsocial change since Indian societyis constantlychanging
itself
from an agricultural societyto an industrial society; from a colonial
society,
with emperors and monarchs to a republican society; and from a socieiy
based on caste and class to a societywhich aims to be casteless
and classless,
with equality of opportunity to every citizenguaranteed by the Indian
Constitution.
o sanskritization is a special social process unique to India. It represents
features ofreligious, social and cuttural change bysignalling increaslrg
social
mobility and decreasing caste rigidity. Thus, it was the centre of attention
for scholars oflndian society.
o westernization characterises the changes brought about in Indian society
and culture as a result of 150 years ofBritish rule, and includes
changes
occurring at different levels including technology, institutions, ideology,
and
r,alues.
e Even though Westernization and Sanskritization have impacted
traditional
Indian society a great deaf there is no getting away from tradition
for the
Indian sociologist. Although there has been considerable modernization
of
Indian traditions there has been no breakdown in the traditional
value
systems; rather it can be said that there has been a harmonious
co-existence
o f tradition with modernity.
5.10 KEY TERMS
o Evolution: Continuityand direction ofchange

o Progress: Change in a direction towards a final desired goal
o Sanskritization: Aprocess by which a low Hindu caste or tribe
or other
group changes its customs, ritual ideology and way oflife in the
direction of
a higher caste.
o Dominant castes: caste groups which occupy a dominant position in a
local area or village due to certain factors

Patterns af Social Change Westernization: The changes which took place in lndia during the British
in India
rule in the I 9th and early2Oth century
Modernization: A complete transformation in attitudes, including value
pattems
NOTES
Holism: Arelationship between individuals and groups in which the former
was encompassed by the latter in respect of duties and rights
5"11 ANSWERS TO 'CHECK YOUR PROGRESSO

1. Progress is change in directiontowards a final desired goalwhereas evolution
expresses continuity and direction ofchange.
2. M.N. Srinivas co ined the term' S anskrit lzatron' .
Sanskritization represents features ofreligious, social and cultural change

by signaliing increasing social mobility and decreasing caste rigidity.
4. Sanskritization takes place by adopting habits like vegetarianisnl teetotalism
and the worship of Sanskritic deities.
5. The traditional way of becoming a Hindu was by being a mernber of a

caste.
6 . Srinivas discarded the term Brahminization as a substitute for Sanskrit izatrort,

since some ofthe vedic rites are the privilege ofBrahmins and other twice-
born castes and therefore cannot be imitated by others.
7. Nandas were considered as the last 'true'Kshatriya caste by Pannikar.
8. Ownership ofcultivable land, strength innurnbers and a highposition in
local hierarchywere the factors that established dominance of a caste in the
village.
9. Modern education, jobs in administration and urban sources of income
were the modernfactors for establishing dominance.
1 0. Sanskritization discornages eating non vegetarian foo4 while Westemization
supports this. Sanskitization promotes the sacred outlook while
westernization promotes the secular outlook.
11. Place in which aperson is born, where he is brought up and dies, the caste
he is affiliatedwith and the linguistic regionwithwhichhe is integrated are
the four dimensions to integrate people.
s.12 QUESTTONS AND EXER.CISES
1. List the factors as per Morris Ginsberg that can explain social change.
2. Define Sanskritization as per M.N. Srinivas's definition.
3. write a slrort note on the dominant caste as introducedby srinivas. Patterns of Social Change
in India
4. outline what is included within the concept of westenrization.
5. Give three examples of Westernization in India.
6. Identify the changes that have taken place in Indian society due to NOT'ES
Westernization.
1. 'change and continuity.are viewed as fact and value'. Do you agree?
Discuss.
2. Elaborate on the three models of Sanskritization.
3 ' How can Weste.mization be corsidered a procpss ofcultural change? Explain.
4. Ana$se the relationship between Sanskritization and wbstemization.
5.X3 F'URTHER READTNG
Dube, s.c. 1977. India since Independence: sociar Report an India,

I 9 47-7 2. Mumbai: Mkas Pubiishing House.
Hutton, J.H. 1983. Casre in India.Muinbai: OUp.

Kapadia, K.M. 1966. Marriage and Family in Indio.Munrbai: OUp.
singh, Y. 1986. Indian sociology: social Conditioning and Emerging
C o nc ern s. Delhi: Vistaar.
Srinivas, M.N. 1962 . caste in Modern India and other Essays.Murnbai: Asia
Publishing House.
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SOCIOLOGY OF INDIAN SOCIETY

MANON MANIAM SU NDARANAR UNIVERSITY

Syllabi Mapping in Book

1. Multifacets of Indian Society Unit 1: Facets of lndian Society

2. Caste System Unit 2: Caste System

3. Rural Economy and Religion Unit 3: Rural Economy

4. Marriage and Family Unit 4: Marriage and Family

5. Patterns of Social Change in India Unit 5: Patterns of Social

UNIT 1 FACETS OF INDIAII SOCMTY 3-15

UNIT 3 RURAL ECONOMY AI\D RELIGION 35.69

UNIT 4 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY 7I.95

UNIT 5 PATTERNS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN TNDIA 97-ttl

S elf- In s truc ti o na I Materia I

UNIT FACETS OF INDIAN

1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

1.2 NATURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

1.3 A BRTEF HISTORY

1.4 DEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION

r'Excerpts from the introductory remarks in 'The

Mahatma Gandhihad said, 'India lives in its villages'. The majorityofthe

l. Name two protestant religions oflndia.

2. Which is the most populous state in India?

1.5 VARIOUS DIVERSITIES

1.5.1 Religious Composition and Diversity

Indian societyis divided into a large number ofreligious communities. Broadly

Tsble 1,1 Distribution of Dffirent Religious Communities in India

Religious Composition Population Percentuge (%)

Hindus 827,578,969 80.5

5. Which are the seven major religions in india?

8. Whichtwo groups are Muslims divided into?

1.5.2 Linguistic Diversity

Table 1.2 provides ahst of Z2languages arranged in descending order of

Tuble 1.2 scheduled Languages in Descending order ofspeakers'strength, 2001

,S/. Na Language Percentuge of Total Population

After Independence, many of the southern states in India opposed the

Slogans like 'TamilNadu forTamils', 'Maharashtra lbrMarathis'. and so

II . How many languages were officially recognized in the 8th Schedule?

1.5.3 Cultural Diversity

India is a multi-cultural society and is a fine example of diversity and unity in

From the beginning, Indian civilization has witnessed a pluralistic culture.

1.6 UNITY TN DIVBRSITY

13. What tluee symbols do Indians have in common?

14. Name an anthropologist who conducted studies on cultural diversity.

o A single constitution, a national flag, common culrency, national antherq

1.8 KEY TERMS

1 0. Bhojpuri, Rajasthani and Haryanvi

1.10 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

5. What is'inter-regional migration'?

5. How can culture be a source of diversity and unity? Elaborate.

2.I UNIT OBJECTIVES

2.2 MEANNNG OF CASTE SYSTEM

2. Who is the author of Caste in Modern India?

3. List anytwo approaches to the caste system.

2"3 CHARACTBRISTICS OF TT{E CASTE SYSTEM

(a) Segmental division of society

(c) Restrictions on commensality and social intercourse

(e) Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation

(f) Civil and religious disabilities

4. Give two characteristics of caste as descrfoed by Ketkar.

2.4 CONCEPT OF VARN.

2"5 DIF'FARENCE BETWEEN VAR]VA AI{D JATI

11. List three factors which impacted the caste system.

12. Name two changes brought about inthe caste system.

2.6 RECENT CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM