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PE 6007
Manufacturing Automation & Robotics
Introduction to
Lecture Notes: Manufacturing
Joyjeet Ghose Automation
Associate Professor,
Department of Production Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Course Objectives
This course enables the students:
To recognize the meaning of automation, NC, CNC, DNC, and
1. AC machining and their applications
To develop skill in part programming and acquire knowledge
2. about controllers, transfer lines, and feeding mechanism
Apply concepts for the planning, design, analysis and
3. implementation of flexible manufacturing systems.
To study about robot and planning implementation and economic
4. rationalization of robotized projects.
Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Course Outcomes
After completion of the course, the learners will be able to:
1. Know the various aspects of automation in manufacturing.

Recognize the fundamentals of NC, CNC, DNC, and adaptive
2. control machining
Capable of part programming and knowledge about various
3. control systems, and transfer lines.
Implement FMS concept in a manufacturing environment and
4. product development through automation.
Select and operate robots and how to plan effective
5. implementation and application of robotic automation.

Syllabus
• MODULE – I: Manufacturing automation, components and types of automation,
automation scenario and factory configuration, role of mechatronics in factory
automation.
• MODULE – II: Basic ideas, classification and structure of NC systems, NC-
coordinate system, Constructional features and feedback devices for CNC
machine tools, part programming and related languages, DNC and adaptive
control.
• MODULE – III: Electric and servo control in machine tools, stepper motor,
PLC, transfer mechanism, buffer storage and control functions for transfer
devices, feeding mechanism definition and concept, flexible automation.
• MODULE – IV: Computer integrated manufacturing, Flexible manufacturing
systems: concept, need, structure & operation, objectives and benefits.
• MODULE – V: Robot technology: basic elements, classification, physical
configuration, basic robot motions, robot’s specifications, end effector /grippers.
• MODULE – VI: Robot applications: application characteristics and areas such
as material handling, welding, assembly, inspection, processing operation, spray
painting etc
• MODULE – VII: Planning and implementation of robotized and FMS projects
Manufacturing Defined -Technological Definition
• “Application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting
material to make parts or products”
• Manufacturing also includes the joining of multiple parts to make
assembled products
• Accomplished by a combination of machinery, tools, power, and
manual labor.
• Almost always carried out as a sequence of operations

Manufacturing Defined - ECONOMIC Definition
• “Transformation of materials into items of greater value by means
of one or more processing and/or assembly operations”
• Manufacturing adds value to the material
• Examples:
•  Converting iron ore to steel adds value
•  Transforming sand into glass adds value
•  Refining petroleum into plastic adds value

Process Industries and Discrete Manufacturing Industries

Classification of manufacturing processes

Automation of manufacturing Processes
*Based on information from Groover, 2001. Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing.

The Production System
Manufacturing
support systems
Manufacturing facilities: factory,

equipment

Discrete Manufacturing

Material Handling Complexity

Job shop
Batch Production
Variety
Mass Production
Quantity
Automation
Specialization
Skills

• Mass production*
– Automation easily justified
– Objectives: (1) reduce operation cycle time, (2) increase
system reliability
– Line is rarely changed - setup time not critical
– Inflexible: not suitable for products with many options or
limited production runs
* Check the textbook on the two types: quantity and flow line

• Job shop production
– Products produced in small volume
– Automation difficult to justify unless products are too complex
to be produced manually
– Objectives: (1) reduce setup time, (2) reduce processing time,
(3) reduce WIP
– Most flexible of production strategies

• Batch production
– Products produced in batches, lots or groups
– Trade-off between job shop and mass production
– Single setup for each batch
– Increase batch size, but increase in waiting time, WIP and
inventory result
– Objectives are same as job shop

Facility layout
Four types of layouts:
Fixed Position: suitable for large products
Process: suitable for job shop
Cellular: suitable when products are similar in batch production and
sometimes in job shop
Product flow: suitable for mass production

Facility layout
Fixed position layout
– Product must remain stationary throughout production sequence
– Machines are brought to the product
– Higher expense due to robustness and accuracy of equipment

Facility layout
Process layout
– For small, discrete-parts manufacturing
– Machines are grouped into departments according to type of
operation
– Advantages: work schedule more flexible
– Disadvantages: WIP is large (cost in inventory and storage
space), high material handling cost, larger batches are made than
are required (to justify setup), difficulty in maintaining control
of parts, highest skill level required from operators

Facility layout
• Group technology (cellular) layout
– Several different types of machines are grouped together to form
a cell - each cell is designed to produce a family of parts
– Suitable for small to mid-volume production of parts
– Advantages: setup time is reduced, lead time is reduced, WIP is
reduced, finished inventory is reduced, improved quality (group
of workers responsible for a cell)
– Disadvantages: parts must be grouped into families, layout is
less flexible than process layout, batches from same family
cannot be run simultaneously, higher skill level required from
operators

Facility layout
Product flow layout
– Suited for high volume production
– Advantages: minimized material handling, easy to automate
material handling, less WIP, easier to control
– Disadvantages: inefficient to alter the sequence of operations,
breakdown on one machine can stop the entire line

Facility Layout/Production Level

Manufacturing Support Systems

Automated Manufacturing Systems
• Machines
• Transfer lines
• Assembly
• Material Handling
• Inspection (coordinate measuring machines, CMM)

Types of Automation
• Fixed Automation (transfer lines)
– Hard automation, automation for mass production
– Produces large numbers of nearly identical parts
– High initial investment for custom engineered equipment
– Product design must be stable over its life
– Advantages: equipment fine tuned to application - decreased
cycle time, infrequent setups, automated material handling -
fast and efficient movement of parts, very little WIP
– Disadvantage: inflexible

Types of Automation
Programmable Automation (NC, CNC, robots- e.g., chess)
– Sequence controlled by a program
– High investment in general purpose equipment
– Lower production rates
– Flexibility to deal with variation
– Suitable for batch production
– Smaller volumes (than fixed) of many different parts
– More flexible than fixed automation
– Major disadvantage: setup prior to each new part
– Large batch size (due to setups)
– Speed sacrificed for flexibility

Types of Automation
• Flexible Automation (e.g., piston head)
– Extension of programmable automation
– No time lost for change over
– High investment in custom-engineered systems
– Production of product mix
– Flexibility to deal with design variations
– Low to medium quantities
– Compromise between fixed and programmable automation in
speed and flexibility
– Advantage: programming and setup performed off-line
– More expensive - size and tool change capabilities
– Small batch sizes are justified - reduced WIP and lead time
– Typical parts are expensive, large and require some complex
machining

Types of Automation

Reasons for Automating
• Increase production rate eliminate portions of process that directly
increase production time machine processing time, handling time,
setup times (SMED)
• Remove humans from hazardous environments
exposure to chemicals, fumes, temperature or radiation
robotic applications: L/UL furnaces, spray painting, welding
• Remove humans from processes that require extremely clean
environments: e.g., semiconductors, drugs
• Reduce number of defective products
• Reduce direct labor one worker monitors a larger number of
machines

• Reduce work-in-process parts being processed, part waiting to be
processed large WIP: longer time to fill orders, more storage
space, value of unfinished goods that could be invested
elsewhere reduced WIP: better control and scheduling
• Reduce manufacturing lead time processing time, setup time,
waiting time setup time: flexible automation, common fixtures
and tooling processing time: combining or eliminating
operations, increase speed (work measurement principles)
• Increase quality repeatable operations through every cycle -
tighter control limits, easier detection when process is out of
control status of manufacturing operations

• Increase productivity
• Reduce labor cost
• Address labor shortages
• Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical
tasks
• Health and Safety
• May be the only option
• Stay up-to-date (avoid cost of catching up)

Manual Labor in Automated Systems
• Strengths of Humans
– Sense unexpected stimuli
– Develop new solutions to problems
– Cope with abstract problems
– Adapt to change
– Generalize from observations
– Learn from experience
– Make difficult decisions based on incomplete data

• Strengths of (computer-based) machines
– Perform repetitive tasks consistently
– Store large amounts of data
– Retrieve data from memory reliably
– Perform multiple tasks simultaneously
– Apply high forces and power
– Perform computations quickly

Even if all of the manufacturing systems in the factory are automated,
there will still be a need for the following kinds of work to be
performed:
•Equipment maintenance. Maintain and repair, improve the reliability,
of automated systems.
•Programming and computer operation.
•Engineering project work. Upgrades, design tooling, continuous
improvement.
•Plant management.

AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES
USA Principle:
1. Understand the existing process
2. Simplify the process
3. Automate the process (if needed)

Ten Strategies for Automation
1. Specialization of operations.
2. Combined operations.
3. Simultaneous operations.
4. Integration of operations.
5. Increased flexibility.
6. Improved material handling and storage.
7. On line inspection.
8. Process control and optimization.
9. Plant operations control.
10. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM).

Automation is a higher degree of mechanization in
which human participation is replaced by
mechanical or electrical technologies capable of
doing physical and mental work as in NC or
adaptive control machines.
To most of the situations, automation or higher
degree mechanization must be meaningful to the
basic premise of cost reduction in large scale
production technology.

Advantages of automation include:
• Increase in productivity both qualitative and quantitative
• Decrease in unit cost
• Improved accuracy
• Better safety
• Less wastage through automatic controls
• More resource utilization
• Stimulates, intellectual activities.
The disadvantages of automation include:
•Skill displacement requiring rehabilitation of obsolete skills
•Initial cost is high for including additional features for
mechanization of drives and controls
•Higher maintenance cost
•Higher organizational cost due to higher managerial to
worker ratio
•Indirect cost for research, development and programming, etc.

Development in the History of Automation of Manufacturing Processes
Date Development
1500–1600 Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips.
1600–1700 Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator.
1700–1800 Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press.
1800–1900 Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators.
1808 Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms.
1863 Automatic piano player (Pianola).
1900–1920 Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottlemaking machine.
1920 First use of the word robot.
1920–1940 Transfer machines; mass production.
1940 First electronic computing machine.
1943 First digital electronic computer.
1945 First use of the word automation.
1948 Invention of the transistor.
1952 First prototype numerical-control machine tool.
1954 Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control.
1957 Commercially available NC machine tools.
1959 Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology.
1960s Industrial robots.
1965 Large-scale integrated circuits.
1968 Programmable logic controllers.
1970 First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots.
1970s Microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing systems; group technology.
1980s Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells,
1990s Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing
networks; fuzzy logic devices; artificial neural networks; Internet tools.

Goals of automation
• Automation has the following primary goals:
• Integrate various aspects of manufacturing operations so as to
improve the product quality and uniformity, minimize cycle times
and effort involved, and thus reduce labour costs.
• Improve productivity by reducing the manufacturing costs through
better control of production: Raw materials and parts are loaded,
fed, and unloaded on machines faster and more efficiently;
machines are used more effectively; and production is organized
more effectively.
• Improved quality by improving the repeatability of manufacturing
processes.
• Reduced human involvement.
• Economize on floor space by arranging machines, materials
movement and auxiliary equipment more efficiently.
• Raise the level of safety.
Automation and production quantity
• Production quantity is crucial in determining the type of machinery
and the level of automation required to produce parts economically.
• Piece-part production usually involves very small quantities and
is suitable for job shops. The majority of piece part production is in
the lot size of 50 or less. Quantities for small batch production
typically ranges from 10 to 100, using general purpose machines
and machining centers with various computer controls.
• Batch production involves lot sizes between 100 to 5000; it
utilizes machinery similar to that used for small batch production,
but with specially designed fixtures for higher production rates.
• Mass production often involves quantities over 100000; it requires
special purpose machinery and automated equipment for
transferring materials and parts. Labour skills required and labor
costs are less in this type of automation. However this type of
automation lack flexibility.

Approximate Annual Volume of Production
Type of Number Typical products

production produced
Experimental or 1–10 All
prototype
Piece or small 10–5000 Aircraft, special machinery, dies,
batch jewelry, orthopedic implants, missiles.
Batch or high 5000–100,000 Trucks, agricultural machinery, jet
volume engines, diesel engines; computer
components, sporting goods.
Mass production 100,000 and Automobiles, appliances, fasteners,
over food and beverage containers.

Flexibility and Productivity of Manufacturing Systems
Figure : Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap
between the systems; it is due to the various levels of automation and computer control that
are possible in each group. Source: U. Rembold, et al., Computer Integrated Manufacturing
and Engineering. Addison-Wesley, 1993.

Characteristics of Production Methods
Figure : General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop,

batch, and mass production.

Application of automation
• Automation can be applied to the manufacture of all types of goods,
from raw materials to finished products, and in all types of
production, from job shops to large manufacturing facilities. The
decision to automate new or existing facility requires that the
following additional considerations be taken into account:
• Type and variety of products manufactured;
• Quantity and rate of production required; (automation is preferred
for higher the quantity and rate)
• Particular phase of the manufacturing operation to be automated;
(i.e. total or selective automation)
• Level of skill in the available work force; (Higher the level of skill
lesser is the need for automation)
• Reliability and maintenance problems that may be associated with
automated systems;
• Economics.
Level of Automation
Reference: Bright J.R.

'Automation and
management, Plimpton
Press'

Types of automation
• Automation can be of two types, hard automation and soft automation.
• In hard automation, also called fixed position automation, the
production machines are designed to produce a standard product, such
as engine block, a valve, a gear, or a spindle. Although product size
and processing parameters can be changed, these machines are
specialized and thus lack flexibility. They cannot be modified to any
significant extent to accommodate variety of products with different
shapes and dimensions. Because these machines are expensive to
design and construct, their economical use requires the production of
parts in very large quantities.
• Soft automation are also called flexible automation and programmable
automation, has greater flexibility through the use of computer control
of machine and its functions by various programs. The machine can be
easily reprogrammed to produce another part of different shape or
dimensions. Advances in flexible automation have led to the
development of flexible manufacturing systems.
Route to mechanization/automation

Automation Defined
• “Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance”
• Basic elements of an automated system:
– 1. Power - to accomplish the process and operate the automated
system
– 2. Program of instructions – to direct the process
– 3. Control system – to actuate the instructions
• It is implemented using a Program of Instructions combined with a
Control System that executes the instructions.

Power to Accomplish the Automated Process
• Power for the process
– To drive the process itself
– To load and unload the work unit
– Transport between operations
• Power for automation
– Controller unit
– Power to actuate the control signals
– Data acquisition and information processing

Electricity - The Principal Power Source
• Widely available at moderate cost
• Can be readily converted to alternative forms, e.g., mechanical, thermal, light,
etc.
• Low level power can be used for signal transmission, data processing, and
communication
• Can be stored in long-life batteries

Program of Instructions
• “Set of commands that specify the sequence of steps in the
work cycle and the details of each step”
• Example: CNC part program
• During each step, there are one or more activities
involving changes in one or more process parameters
– Examples:
• Temperature setting of a furnace
• Axis position in a positioning system
• Motor on or off

Decision-Making in a Programmed Work Cycle
• The following are examples of automated work cycles in
which decision making is required:
– Operator interaction
• Automated teller machine system
– Different part or product styles processed by the
system
• Robot welding cycle for two-door vs. four door car
models
– Variations in the starting work units
• Additional machining pass for oversized sand
casting

Features of a Work Cycle Program
• Number of steps in the work cycle
• Manual participation in the work cycle (e.g., loading and
unloading workparts)
• Process parameters - how many must be controlled?
• Operator interaction - does the operator enter processing
data?
• Variations in part or product styles
• Variations in starting work units - some adjustments in
process parameters may be required to compensate for
differences in starting units

Control System – Two Types
• Closed-loop (feedback) control system – a system in
which the output variable is compared with an input
parameter, and any difference between the two is used to
drive the output into agreement with the input
• Open-loop control system – operates without the feedback
loop
– Simpler and less expensive
– Risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect
– E.g. Car parking sensors

(a) Feedback Control System and (b) Open-Loop Control System
(a)
(b)

Positioning System Using Feedback Control
• A one-axis position control system consisting of a
leadscrew driven by a dc servomotor and using an optical
encoder as the feedback sensor

When to Use an Open-Loop Control System
• Actions performed by the control system are simple
• Actuating function is very reliable
• Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small
enough as to have no effect on the actuation
• If these conditions do not apply, then a closed-loop
control system should be used

Advanced Automation Functions
• 1. Safety monitoring
• 2. Maintenance and repair diagnostics
• 3. Error detection and recovery

Safety Monitoring
• “Use of sensors to track the system's operation and
identify conditions that are unsafe or potentially unsafe”
• Reasons for safety monitoring
– To protect workers and equipment
• Possible responses to hazards:
– Complete stoppage of the system
– Sounding an alarm
– Reducing operating speed of process
– Taking corrective action to recover from the safety
violation

Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics
• Status monitoring
– Monitors and records status of key sensors and
parameters during system operation
• Failure diagnostics
– Invoked when a malfunction occurs
– Purpose: analyze recorded values so the cause of the
malfunction can be identified
• Recommendation of repair procedure
– Provides recommended procedure for the repair crew
to effect repairs

Errors
• Random errors occur as a result of the normal stochastic
nature of the process
• Systematic errors are those that result from some
assignable cause such as a change in raw material
properties
• Aberrations (disorders) result from either an equipment
failure or a human mistake

Error Detection and Recovery
• Error detection – functions:
– Use the system’s available sensors to determine when a
deviation or malfunction has occurred
– Correctly interpret the sensor signal
– Classify the error
• Error recovery – possible strategies:
– Make adjustments at end of work cycle
– Make adjustments during current work cycle
– Stop the process to invoke corrective action
– Stop the process and call for help

Levels of Automation
• 1. Device level – actuators, sensors, and other hardware
components to form individual control loops for the next
level
• 2. Machine level – CNC machine tools and similar
production equipment, industrial robots, material handling
equipment
• 3. Cell or system level – manufacturing cell or system
• 4. Plant level – factory or production systems level
• 5. Enterprise level – corporate information system

Levels of Automation

QUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by automation? What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
2. How can you classify automation?

Numerical Control (NC)
Numerical Control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in
which the mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data. The
alphanumeric data represent relative positions between a workhead
and a workpart, the process parameters as well as other instructions
needed to operate the machine. The workhead is a cutting tool or other
processing apparatus, and the workpart is the object being processed.
Numerical Control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The
application may be divided into two categories:
1. Machine tool applications such as drilling, milling, turning and
other metal working applications
2. Non machine tool applications like assembly and inspection

History of Numeric Control
1949: US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically controlled"
machine.
1952: Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input)
1980: CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller)
1990: DNC: external computer “drip feeds” control programmer to
machine tool controller.

Motivation & Objectives
• To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely
expensive by mechanical means (which usually would require complex jigs to
control the cutter motions)
• Increased production
• Reduced labor costs
• Make production more economical
• Machining components with repeatable accuracy
• Unmanned machining operations

• The parts that are subjected to frequent design change can be manufactured by
NC machine tools
• Parts that that require a long series of operation can be can be made with
minimal accumulated error.
• • NC M/T can operate in hostile and hazardous environments.

Numerically Controlled Machine Tools
Functionally the same as a conventional machine tool. The
difference is in the way in which the various machine
functions and slide movements are controlled.
The functions and motions such as;
– turning the spindle on and off
– setting cutting speeds
– setting feed rate
– turning coolant on and off
– moving tool with respect to work part
are performed by Machine Control Unit (MCU) in NC machine
tools.

Basic Elements of a NC System
PROGRAM OF
INSTRUCTION
(NC CODE)
MACHINE CONTROL
UNIT (MCU)
MANUFACTURING
OPERATOR
Drive Control
PROCESSED
PART
PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

• An NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a program of
instruction, (2) a machine control unit, and (3) processing
equipment.
• The programme of instructions is the detailed step-by-step
commands that direct the action of the processing equipment. In
machine tool application the program of instructions is called a part
program. In these application the individual commands refer to
position of a cutting tool relative to the work table on which the
work part is fixtured. Additional instructions are usually included
such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection and other
functions. The programme is coded on a suitable medium to the
machine control unit. For many years the common medium was 1
inch wide punch tape.

• In modern NC technology the machine control unit consists of a
microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program
of instruction and executes it by converting each command into
mechanical actions of the processing equipments, one command at
a time. The related hardware of the MCU includes components to
interface with the processing equipments and feedback control
elements. The MCU also included one or more reading devices for
entering part programs into memory. The type of readers depends
on the storage media used for part programs. The MCU also
includes control system software, calculation algorithms, and
translation software to convert the NC part programs into a useable
format for MCU.
• The Processing equipment accomplishes the processing steps to
transform the workpiece into a completed part. Its operation is
directed by MCU, which in driven by instruction contained in the
part program.
Basic Components of NC System (1. Program of Instructions)
• This is detailed step by step set of directions which will tell the m/c tool what to do.
• The most common input medium used is 1 inch wide punched tape. Other input
mediums are punched cards, magnetic tape
Punched tape
Punched
card
Magnetic tape: plastic

film with magnetic
coating
Basic Elements of a NC Machine tool
Figure : Schematic illustration of the major components of a numerical-control machine tool.

Basic Elements of a NC Machine tool

NC Coordinate Systems
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts:
• Milling and drilling operations
• Conventional Cartesian coordinate system
• Rotational axes about each linear axis
For rotational parts:

• Turning operations
• Only x- and z-axes

NC Coordinate Systems
The programmer must determine position of tool relative to origin
(zero point) of coordinate system. NC machines have two methods
for specifying zero point:
Fixed Zero: In this case the origin is always located at the same
position on m/c table. Usually this is the southwest corner of
table and all tool locations will be defined by positive x & y
coordinates.
Floating Zero: The second and more common feature on modern

NC machines allows the m/c operator to set zero point at any
position on m/c table.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Designating the Axes: First axis to be identified is the Z-axis. This
is followed by the X and Y axes respectively.
• Z-Axis and Motion
• Location: The Z-axis motion is either along the spindle axis or
parallel to the spindle axis.
• Direction: The tool moving away from the work holding surface
towards the cutting tool is designated as the positive Z direction.
Right hand co-ordinate systems

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• X-Axis: Location: It is perpendicular to the Z-axis and should be
horizontal and parallel to the workholding surface wherever
possible.
• Direction: When looking from the principal spindle to the column,
the positive (+) X is to the RIGHT.
• Y-Axis: It is perpendicular to both X- and Z- axes and the direction
is identified by the right hand Cartesian co-ordinate system.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Rotary Motions
• A, B and C define the primary rotary
motions.
• Location: These motions are located
about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z
respectively.
• Direction: Positive A,B and C are in
the directions which advance right
hand screws in the positive X, Y,
and Z directions respectively.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS

COORDINATE SYSTEMS

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Using a vertical mill machining center as an example, there are
typically three linear axes of motion. Each is given an alphabetic
designation or address. The machine table motion side to side is
called the “X” axis. Table movement in and out is the “Y” axis,
while head movement up and down the column is the “Z” axis.

NC machines
Motion control is done by: servo-controlled motors
Table
Leadscrew
Encoder A/C Motor
~
Servo Controller
Counter Comparator
Input (converted from analog to digital value)

CNC terminology
BLU: basic length unit  smallest programmable move of each axis.
Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU) 

Electronic and computerized interface between operator and m/c
Controller components:
1. Data Processing Unit (DPU)
2. Control-Loops Unit (CLU)

Controller components
Data Processing Unit:
 Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched Tape
Reader]
 Data Reading Circuits and Parity Checking Circuits
 Decoders to distribute data to the axes controllers.
Control Loops Unit:
 Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands between
data points
 Position control loop hardware for each axis of motion

NC MACHINE CLASSIFICATIONS
• Based on Motion Type:
– Point-to-Point or Continuous path
• Based on Control Loops:

– Open loop or Closed loop
• Based on Power Supply:

– Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic
• Based on Positioning System

• Incremental or Absolute

Motion control systems
•Motion control systems for NC can be divided into two types: (i) point-to-point,
and (ii) continuous path.
•Point-to-point systems , also called positioning systems, move the work table to
a programmed location without regard for the path taken to get to that location.
The machine moves initially at maximum velocity in order to reduce non
productive time, but decelerates as the tool approaches its numerically defined
position. Once the move has been completed some processing action is
accomplished by the workhead at the location, such as drilling or punching a
hole. Thus the program consists of a series of point locations at which
operations are performed.
•Continuous path systems generally refer to systems that are capable of
continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes. This provided control of
the tool trajectory relative to the work part. In this case, the tool performs the
process while the work table is moving, thus enabling the system to generate
angular surfaces, 2D curves, or an turning operations. When continuous path
control is utilized to move the tool parallel to only one of the major axes of the
machine tool work table, this is straight-cut NC. When continuous path control
is used for simultaneous control of two or more axes in machining operations,
the term contouring is used.
Figure: Movement of tools in numerical-control machining. (a) Point-to-point, in which the

drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is retracted and moved to position 2, and so on. (b)
Continuous path by a milling cutter. Note that the cutter path is compensated for by the cutter
radius. This path can also be compensated for cutter wear.


Motion control systems and Interpolation
One of the important aspects of contouring is interpolation. The paths that a
contouring type NC system is required to generate often consists of circular arcs and
other smooth nonlinear shapes. The fundamental problem generates these shapes
using NC equipments is that they are continuous whereas NC is digital. To cut along a
circular path, the circle must be divided into a series of straight line segments that
approximate the curve. The tool is commanded to machine each line segments in
succession of that the machined surface closely matches the desired shape. The
maximum error between the nominal (desired) surface and the actual (machined)
surface can be controlled by the lengths of the individual line segments.
The various types of interpolation methods available are: (1) Linear interpolation, (2)
Circular interpolation, (3) Helical interpolation, (4) parabolic interpolation, and (5)
Cubic interpolation
Figure: Types of interpolation in numerical control: (a) linear, (b) continuous path
approximated by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular.
Circular interpolation

Point-to-Point and Contour Maching
(a) (b)
Figure 38.12 (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling with
various paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a 5-axis numerical
control machine. Source: The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.

• Another aspect of motion control is concerned with whether positions are
defined relative to origin of the coordinate system or relative to previous
location of the tool. The two cases are called absolute positioning and
incremental positioning. In absolute positioning the workhead locations
are always defined with respect to the origin of the axis system. In
incremental positioning, the next workhead position is defined relative to
present location.
Figure: Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown:
(a) absolute dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b)
incremental dimensioning, made sequentially form one hole to another; and (c) mixed
dimensioning, a combination of both methods.
Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning
• Absolute positioning
– Move is: x = 40, y = 50
• Incremental positioning
– Move is: x = 20, y = 30.

Types of control circuits
In the open-loop system, the signals are sent to the servomotor by the
controller, but the movements and final positions of the worktable are
not checked for accuracy. In contrast, the closed-loop system is
equipped with various transducers, sensors, and counters that
accurately measures the position of the worktable. Through feedback
control, the position of the worktable is compared with signal; table
movement terminate when proper coordinates are reached. The closed-
loop system is more complicated than open-loop system.
Figure: Schematic
illustration of the
components of (a) an
open-loop and (b) a
closed-loop control
system for a
numerical-control
machine.

Types of control circuits
• Open-loop system: This type of control system is used with step
motors. Motor is driven by electric pulses. Every pulse rotates
the motor spindle through a certain amount. Therefore, by counting
the pulses, the amount of motion can be controlled.
• No feedback signal for error correction, therefore lower positioning
accuracy.
• The torque that step motors generate are usually lower than that of
DC or AC motors. Therefore, not suitable for large size machine
tools.
• Closed-Loop Control: This type of control systems are used with
DC or AC motors. Position transducers are used to generate
position feedback signals for error correction, rotary encoder, and
linear scales. Therefore, with closed loop control system, better
accuracy can be achieved compare to open loop control systems but
it is more expensive and suitable for large size machine tools.

Direct and Indirect Measurements for control circuits
Precision measurements in NC can be accomplished through direct
and indirect methods. In direct measuring systems, a sensing device
reads a graduated scale on the machine table or slide for linear
movement. This system is more accurate than those used in indirect
methods. In indirect measuring systems, rotary encoders or resolvers
convert rotary movements to translation movement.
Figure (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool work table. (b)
and (c) Indirect measurement methods.
Advantages of NC
• Parts can be produced in less time and therefore are likely to be less
expensive.
• Parts can be produced more accurately even for smaller batches.
• The operator involvement in part manufacture is reduced to a
minimum and as a result less scrap is generated due to operator
errors.
• Since the part program takes care of the geometry generated, the
need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced or eliminated,
depending upon the part geometry.
• Inspection time is reduced, since all the parts in a batch would be
identical provided proper care is taken about the tool compensations
and tool wear in part program preparation and operation.
• The need for certain types of form tools is completely eliminated in
NC machines.

Advantages of NC
• Lead times needed before the job can be put on the machine tool
can be reduced to a great extent depending upon the complexity of
the job.
• CNC machining centres can perform a variety of machining
operations that have to be carried out on several conventional
machine tools, thus reducing the number of machine tools on the
shop floor.
• Many a times the setup times are reduced, since the setup involves
simple location of the datum surface and position.
• Machining times and costs are predictable to a greater accuracy,
since all the elements involved in manufacturing would have to be
thoroughly analyzed before a part program is prepared.
• Operator fatigue does not come into picture in the manufacturing of
a part. The NC machine tool can be utilized continuously since
these are more rigid than the conventional machine tools.
Advantages of NC
• Tools can be utilized at optimum feeds and speeds that can be
programmed.
• The modification to part design can be very easily translated into
manufacture by the simple changes in part programs without
expensive and time consuming changes in jigs, fixtures and tooling.
• The capability (metal removal) of NC machines is generally high
because of the very rigid construction employed in machine tool
design compared to the conventional machine tools.

Limitations of NC
• The cost of NC machine tool is much high compared to an
equivalent conventional machine tool.
• Cost and skill of the people required to operate a NC machine is
generally high in view of the complex and sophisticated technology
involved.
• Special training needed to the personnel manning the NC machine
tools.
• As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires
higher investments for maintenance in terms of wages of highly
skilled personnel and expensive spares.
• The automatic operation of NC machines implies relatively higher
running costs.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
• CNC was first introduced in 1970 by replacing the hardwired
MCU of a conventional NC system by a microcomputer which
accomplishes all the functions of an MCU with its software.
• What is new?
– Feed rate control, buffering, position loop control
– Ability to edit and store programs
– Ability to produce punched (or magnetic) tapes diskettes etc.
– Expanded tool offsets
– Expanded control of machine sequence operations
– Digitizing
– Circular and more advanced (NURBS etc.) interpolation
– Parametric programming
– Do loops
– Roughening to a defined shape
– Subroutines
– Diagnostic capability
– On-screen geometric programming



Basic Elements of a CNC System
DEFINE GEOMETRY
COMPUTER
CREATE TOOL PATH
POST PROCESS TO CREATE CODE

MACHINE
CONTROL UNIT
READ CODE TO CONTROLLER
INTERPOLATE CODE INTO DRIVE

MACHINE
FINISHED PART
TOOL

Features of a CNC System
• Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is
feasible with conventional hard-wired NC. These features are
described below:
• Storage of more than one part program: With improvements in
computer storage technology, newer CNC controllers have
sufficient capacity to store multiple programs.
• Various forms of program input: Whereas conventional MCUs
are limited to punched tape as the input medium for entering part
programs, CNC controllers generally possess multiple data entry
capabilities, such as punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy diskette,
RS-232 communications with external computers, and manual data
input.
• Program editing at the machine tool: CNC permits a part
program to be edited while it resides in MCU computer memory.
The process of testing and correcting a program can be done
entirely at the machine site.
• Fixed cycles and programming subroutines: The increased
capacity and the ability to program the control computer provide
the opportunity to store frequently stored machining cycles as
micros that can be called by the part program. Instead of writing
the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program, a
call statement is included in the part program to indicate that the
micro cycle should be executed. These cycles often require that
certain parameters be defined; for example, a bolt hole circle, in
which the diameter of the bolt circle, the spacing of the bolt holes
and other parameters must be specified.
• Interpolation: Some of the interpolation schemes are normally
executed only on a CNC system because of the computational
requirements. Linear and circular interpolation are some times
hardwired into the control unit, but helical, parabolic, and cubic
interpolations are usually executed in a stored program algorithm.

• Positioning features for setup: Setting up the machine tool for a
given work part involves installing and aligning a fixture on the
machine tool table. This must be accomplished so that the machine
axes are established with respect to the work part. The alignment
task can be facilitated using certain features made possible by
software options in a CNC system. Position set is one of these
features. With position set, the operator is not required to locate the
fixture on the machine table with extreme accuracy. Instead, the
machine tool axes are referenced to the location of the fixture by
using a target point or set of target points on the work or fixture.
• Diagnostics: Many modern CNC systems possess an online
diagnostics capability that monitors certain aspects of the machine
tool to detect malfunctions or signs of impending malfunctions or to
diagnose system break downs.

• Cutter length and size compensation: In older style controls,
cutter dimension had to be set very precisely to agree with the tool
path defined in the part program. Alternative methods for ensuring
accurate tool path definition have been incorporated into CNC
controls. One method involves manually entering the actual tool
dimensions into the MCU. These actual dimension may differ
from those originally programmed. Compensations are then
automatically made in the computed tool path. Another method
involves use of a tool length sensor built into the machine. In
these technique the cutter is mounted in the spindle and the sensor
measures its length. This measured value is then used to correct
the programmed tool path.

• Acceleration and deceleration calculations: These feature is
applicable when the cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed
to avoid tool marks on the work surface that would be generated
due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path changes
abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in
anticipation of a tool path change and then accelerated back up to
the programmed feed rate after the direction change.
• Communication interface: With the trend toward interfacing and
networking in plants today, most modern CNC controllers are
equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communication
interface to allow the machine to be linked to other computers and
computer-driven devices. This is useful for various applications
such as ; (1) downloading part program from a central data file as
in distributed NC; (2) collecting operational data such as
workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine utilization; and (3)
interfacing with peripheral equipments, such as robots.
The MCU for CNC
• The MCU is the heard-ware that distinguishes CNC from
conventional NC. The MCU consists of the following components
and sub-systems: (1) central processing unit, (2) memory, (3)I/O
interface, (4) controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed, and
(5) sequence controls for other machine tool functions.
• These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.
Memory: I/O interface :

Central Processing Unit
•ROM- operating system •Operator panel
(CPU)
•Ram – part programs •Tape reader
System bus
Machine tool Controls: Sequence controls:

•Position control •Coolant
•Spindle speed control •Fixture clamping
•Tool changer

The MCU for CNC
• Central processing unit: the Central processing unit (CPU)
manages the other components in MCU based on software content
in the main memory. The CPU can be divided into three sections:
(1) control section, (2) arithmetic-logic unit and (3) immediate
access memory. The control section, retrieves command and data
from memory and generates signals to activates other components
in the MCU. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the
circuitry to perform various calculation, counting, and logical
functions required by software residing in memory. The immediate
access memory provides a temporary storage for data being
processed by the CPU. It is connected to main memory by means of
system data bus.

The MCU for CNC
• Memory: CNC memory can be divided into two categories: (1)
main memory and (2) secondary memory. Main memory also
known as primary storage consists of ROM and RAM devices.
Operating system software and machine interface programmes are
generally stored in ROM. NC part programmes are stored in RAM
devices. Secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage) devices
are used to store large programme and data file, which are
transferred to main memory as needed. Common among the
secondary devices are floppy diskettes and hard disks.

The MCU for CNC
• The I/O interface: The I/O interface provides communication
between the various components of the CNC systems, other
computer systems and the machine operator. The I/O interface
transmits and receives data and signals to and from external
devices. The operator control panel is basic interface by which the
machine operator communicates to the CNC system. The I/O
interface also includes a display (CRT or LED) for communication
of data and information from the MCU to the machine operator.
• Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed: these are hard-
ware components that controls the position and velocity of each
machine axes as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool
spindle. The control system generated by MCU must be converted
to a form and power level suited to the particular position control
system used to drive machine axes.

The MCU for CNC
• Sequence control for other machine tool function: these ordinary
functions are generally on/off actuations, interlocks, and discrete
numerical data. Some of the auxiliary functions are given below:
CNC auxiliary function Type or classification
Coolant control. On/off output from MCU to pump.
Tool changer and tool storage unit. Discrete numerical data.
Fixture clamping device. On/off output form MCU to clamp actuator.
Emergency warning or stop. On/off input to MCU from sensor; On/off

output to display and alarm.
Robot for part loading and Interlock to sequence loading and unloading
unloading. operation; I/O signals between MCU and
robot.

CNC Software
• The Computer in CNC operates by means of software. There are
three types of software programs used in CNC systems: (i)
operating system software, (ii) machine interface software, and (iii)
application software.
• The principle function of the operating system software is to interpret the
NC part programs and generate the corresponding control signals to drive
the machine tool axes. It is installed by the computer manufacturer and
stored in ROM in the MCU. The operating system software consists of
the following: (i) an editor, which permits the machine operator to input
and edit NC part programs and perform other file management functions;
(ii) a control program which decoded the part program instructions,
performs interpolation and acceleration/deceleration calculations, and
accomplishes other related functions to produce the coordinate control
signals for each axis; (iii) an executive program, which manages the
execution of the CNC software as well as the I/O operation of the MCU.
The operating system software also includes the diagnostics routines that
are available in the CNC system.
CNC Software
• The machine interface software is used to operate the
communication link between the CPU and the machine tool to
accomplish the CNC auxiliary functions. As previously indicated
I/O signals associated with the auxiliary functions are sometimes
implemented by means of a programmable logic controller
interfaced to the MCU, and so the machine interface software is
often written in the form of ladder logic diagrams.
• Finally the application software consists of the NC part programs
that are written for machining applications in the user’s plant.

Advantages of a CNC System
 Reduces time for delivery of part Reduces scrap rate of material
 Reduces tooling costs
 Reduces layout time
 Increases machine and tool life
 Reduces storage problems
 Less setup time
 Reduces actual machining time Allows rapid design changes in
part Less jigs and fixtures are needed

Limitations of a CNC System
o High initial investment
Machine tools cost very high
o High maintenance requirements
Maintenance personnel must have both mechanical and electronics
expertise
o Not cost-effective for low-level production on simple parts
As geometric complexity or volume increases CNC becomes more
economical

Industries Most Affected by Numerical Control
o Aerospace
o Machinery
o Electrical
o Fabrication
o Automotive
o Instrumentation
o Mold making

Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
• Direct Numerical Control involved the control of a number of
machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer through direct
connection and in real time.
• Instead of using a punched type reader to enter the part program
into the MCU, the program was transmitted to the MCU directly
from the computer, one block of instructions at a time. This mode
of operation was referred to by the name Behind the tape reader
(BTR).
• The DNC computer provided instruction blocks to the machine tool
on demand; when a machine needed control commands, they were
communicated to it immediately.
• As each block was executed by the machine, the next block was
transmitted. As far as the machine tool was concerned, the
operation was no different from that of a conventional NC
controller.

• The general configuration of a DNC system is depicted in figure.
The system consisted of four components: (1) central computer, (2)
bulk memory at the central computer site, (3) set of controlled
machines, and (4) telecommunications lines to connect the
machines to the central computer. In operation the computer called
the required part program from the bulk memory and sent it (one
block at a time) to the designated machine tool. This procedure was
replicated from all machine tools under direct control of the
computer.
• In addition to transmitting data to the machines the central
computer also received data back from the machines to indicate
operating performance in the shop (example number of machining
cycles completed, machine utilization, and breakdowns). Thus, a
central objective of DNC was to achieve two way communication
between the machine and the central computer.

Bulk Memory
Central computer NC Programs
Telecommunication lines
Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool
(MCU) (MCU) (MCU) (MCU)

• Advantages of DNC:
• High reliability of the central computer compared with
individual hardwired MCU’s.
• Elimination of the tape and tape reader, which were unreliable
and error prone.
• Control of multiple machines by one computer.
• Improved computational capability for circular interpolation.
• Part program stored magnetically in bulk memory in a central
location.
• Computer located in an environmentally agreeable location.

Distributive Numerical Control
• Distributed NC is known by the same acronym as Direct Numerical
Control (DNC). The configuration of the new DNC is very similar
to that of Direct NC except that the central computer is connected
to MCU’s, which are themselves computers. This permits complete
part programs to be sent to the machine tool, rather than one block
at a time. It also permits easier and less costly installation of the
overall system, because the individual CNC machines can be put
into service and the distributed NC can be added later. Redundant
computers improve system reliability compared with the original
DNC. The new DNC permits two way communication of data
between the shop floor and the central computer, which was one of
the important features included in the old DNC. However
improvements in data collection device as well as advances in
computer and communication technologies have expanded the
range and flexibility of the information that can be gathered and
disseminated .
• Distributed NC systems can take on a variety of physical
configurations, depending on the number of machine tools
included, job complexity, security requirements, and equipment
availability and preferences.
• There are several ways to configure a DNC system: (a) switching
network, and (b) LAN. Each type has several possible variations.
• The switching network is the simplest DNC system to configure. It
uses a data switching box to make a connection from the central
computer to a given CNC machine for downloading part programs
or uploading data.
• Transmission of programs to the MCU is accomplished through a
RS-232-C connection.
• Use of a switching box limited the number of machines that can be
included in the DNC system.

Machine tool Machine tool
DNC computer
(MCU)
(MCU)
Data Switching
Machine tool Box Machine tool
(MCU)
(MCU)
Machine tool
(MCU)
Switching network configuration of DNC

• Local area networks have been used for DNC since the early
1980’s.
• Various network structures are used in DNC systems, among which
is the centralized structure.
• In this arrangement, the computer system is organized as a
hierarchy, with the central or host computer coordinating several
satellite computers that are each responsible for a number of CNC
machines.
• Alternative LAN structures are possible, each with its relative
advantages and disadvantages.

DNC computer
Satellite computer Satellite computer
Machine tool
Machine tool Machine tool Machine tool
(MCU) (MCU) (MCU) (MCU)
LAN configuration of DNC

Because CNC machine tools have the ability to run multiple
programs without being attached to a centralized computer this
enables a centralized computer to perform many different tasks.
– Line balancing
– Scheduling
– Monitoring
– Quality

Manual Part Programming
• The term part program is used to describe a set of instructions that, when entered
into a machine control unit, will cause the machine to function in the manner
necessary to produce a particular component or part. Manual part programming is
the term used to describe the preparation of a part program without recourse to
computing facilities to determine cutter paths, profile intersecting points, speeds
and feeds, etc.
• The program may be prepared manually and expressed in a coded language that
is applicable to the machine controller being used. Alternatively, it may be
written in another language or compiled by the use of computer graphics. The
result is then postprocessed, or translated, to suit the machine controller.
• Included in the part program will be the necessary dimensional data relating to
the features of the component itself, together with control data that will result in
the machine making the slide movements required to produce the component.
These data will be supplemented by instruction data that will activate and control
the appropriate supporting functions.
• Programs as entered into machine control units involve either of two
programming concepts:
– (a) Word address.
– (b) Conversational manual data input (MDI).
• Word Address Programming
• Word address programming is largely based on an International
Standards Organization (ISO) and Electronic Industries Association
(EIA) code that requires the program to be compiled using codes
identified by letters, in particular G and M. Each code addresses, or
directs, the item of data it precedes to perform a certain function
within the control system.
• The ISO and EIA Standards provided for 99G codes and an
identical number of M codes, each being expressed by the address
letter followed by two digits.
• The G codes, or preparatory functions, are used to set up the
machine control unit modes of operation required for the machining
that is to be carried out whether movement is to be in a straight
line/linear or radially/circular, for example. In general they relate to
slide motion control.

Basics of NC Part Programming
• It is always assumed that the tool moves relative to the work piece
no matter what the real situation is. The position of the tool is
described by using a Cartesian coordinate system. If (0,0,0)
position can be described by the operator, then it is called floating
zero.
• Modal commands: Commands issued in the NC program that will
stay in effect until it is changed by some other command, like, feed
rate selection, coolant selection, etc.
• Nonmodal commands: Commands that are effective only when
issued and whose effects are lost for subsequent commands, like, a
dwell command which instructs the tool to remain in a given
configuration for a given amount of time.

• Figure: NC part programming flow chart

• Preparatory functions: which unit, which interpolator, absolute or
incremental programming, which circular interpolation plane, cutter
compensation, etc.
• Coordinates: three translational, and three rotational axes.
• Machining parameters: feed, and speed.
• Tool control: tool diameter, next tool number, tool change.
• Cycle functions: drill cycle, ream cycle, bore cycle, mill cycle,
clearance plane.
• Coolant control: coolant on/off, flood, mist.
• Miscellaneous control: spindle on/off, tape rewind, spindle rotation
direction, pallet change, clamps control, etc.
• Interpolators: linear, circular interpolation

• 'Word Address Format' in which each of the information or data to
be input in the form of numerical digits is preceded by a word
address in the form of an English alphabet.
• N115 G81 X120.5 Y55.0 Z-12.0 R2.0 F150 M3
• Commonly Used Word Addresses
Addresses Meaning
F Feed rate command
G Preparatory function
M Miscellaneous command
N Sequence number
R Arc radius
S Spindle speed
T Tool number
X x-axis data
Y y-axis data
Z z-axis data

• Co-ordinate function
• As discussed above, the co-ordinates of the tool tip are programmed
for generating a given component geometry. The co-ordinate values
are specified using the word address such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J,
K, etc.
• X123.405 Y-34.450
• Feed function: Generally the feed is designated in velocity units
using the F word address. For example, F150 means that the feed
rate is specified as 150 mm per minute. By using an appropriate G
code, it is also possible to change the feed rate units from mm per
minute to mm per revolution or vice versa.

• Speed function
• Most of the CNC machines would have the capability for the step
less variation spindle speeds, which is programmed using spindle
speed word S. The speed can be set directly in the revolutions per
minute or RPM mode using the S word address as follows:S1500
means, that spindle speed is to be set at 1500 rpm.
• Tool function
• The tool function is normally indicated by the word address T. This
may have 2 or more digits depending upon the tool magazine
capacity. Most general is 2 digits such as T15.
• Preparatory functions
• This is denoted by 'G'. It is a pre-set function associated with the
movement of machine axes and the associated geometry. As
discusses earlier, it has two digits, e.g. G01, G42, and G90 as per
ISO specifications.
Example: A Milling Operation
NC CODE (Word Address Format)
N50 G00 X15 Y12.5 Z0 F0 SPINDLE

N55 M03 S2000 STOP !
N60 G01 Z-2.5 F500 M08 SPINDLE
N65 G01 X50 STARTED !
N70 G01 Y45
N75 G01 X15
N80 G01 Y12.5
N85 G00 Z0 M09
N90 G79 M04
Z Y
X
(0,0,0)

Manual Part Programming: Preparatory Function Codes
Code Functions Code Functions
G00 Point-to-point positioning, rapid G10 Linear interpolation for
traverse dimensions>10inches
G0l Line interpolation G11 Linear interpolation for dimensions
<10 inches
G02 Circular interpolation, clockwise G13- Axis designation
(CW) G16
G03 Circular interpolation, anti-clockwise G 17 XY plane designation
(CCW)
G04 Dwell G18 ZX plane designation
G05 Hold/Delay G19 YZ plane designation
G06 Parabolic interpolation G20 Circular interpolation, CW for "long
dimensions"
G07 Unassigned G2l Circular interpolation, CW for
"short dimensions"
G08 Acceleration of feed rate G30 Circular interpolation, CCW for
long dimensions
G09 Deceleration of feed rate G3l Circular interpolation, CCW for
short dimensions

G33 Thread cutting, constant lead G52 Local coordinate system
G34 Thread cutting, linearly increasing G53 Deletion of zero offset-M/c
lead Coordinate sys option
G35 Thread cutting, linearly decreasing G54- Datum point/zero shift(Work
lead G59 coordinates)
G40 Cutter compensation-cancels to zero G60 Target value, positioning tolerance 1
G41 Cutter radius compensation-offset left G61 Target value, positioning tolerance
2or loop cycle
G42 Cutter radius compensation-offset G62 Rapid traverse positioning
right
G43 Tool length compensation-positive G63 Tapping cycle
G44 Tool length compensation-negative G64 Change in feed rate or speed
G45 Tool Offset increase G65 Macro call
G46 Tool offset decrease G66 Macro call A
G49 Tool offset cancel G67 Macro call cancel

G70 Dimensioning in inch units G86 Boring with spl stop & traverse return
G71 Dimensioning in metric units G87 back bore cycle
G73 Peck drilling G89 Canned drilling and boring cycles
G74 Left hand tap cycle G90 Absolute input dimensions
G76 Fine Bore Cycle G91 Incremental input dimensions
G80 Canned cycle cancelled G92 Programmed reference point shift
G81 Drill cycle G93 Inverse time feed rate programming
G82 Drill cycle with dwell (Spot facing) G94 Feed rate inch/min (combined with
G70)
G83 Deep Hole drilling G95 Feed rate mm/rev (combined with
G71)
G84 Tapping cycle G96 Spindle feed rate for constant surface
feed
G85 Boring w/ feed rate return G97 Spindle speed in revolutions per
minute

Manual part programming: Miscellaneous codes
M00 Program stop, spindle and M11 Unclamp
coolant of
M0l Optional programmable stop Ml3 Spindle on, CW + coolant on
M02 End of program-often inter Ml4 Spindle on, CCW + coolant on
changeable with M30
M03 Spindle on, CW M 15 Rapid traverse in + direction
M04 Spindle on, CCW M 16 Rapid traverse in -direction
M05 Spindle stop M 19 Spindle stop at specified angular
position
M06 Tool change M30 Program stop at end tape + tape
rewind
M07 Coolant supply No. I on M31 Interlock by-pass
M08 Coolant supply No.2 on M32- 35 Constant cutting velocity
M09 Coolant off M40- 45 Gear changes; otherwise
unassigned
M10 Clamp M50 Coolant supply No.3 on

Manual part programming: Miscellaneous codes
M51 Coolant supply No.4 on M68 Clamp piece part
M55 Linear cutter offset No. I shift M69 Unclamp piece part
M56 Linear cutter offset No.2 shift M71 Angular piece part shift, location I
M60 Piece part change M72 Angular piece part shift, location 2
M61 Linear piece part shift, location I M78 Clamp non-activated machine bed-
ways
M62 Linear piece part shift, location 2 M79 Unclamp non-activated machine
bed-ways

• Rapid Positioning, G00
• G00 is a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a
specified location. This function is used only to control the final position of the
tool and is not concerned with the path that is followed in arriving at the final
axes destination. For this reason, motion with this function is also referred to as
positioning mode.
• This is used for moving the tool at a rapid rate (normally the maximum available
feed rate such as 8000 or 20 000 mm/min) along the axes involved for achieving
the position programmed. It is not important for this code, the path taken by the
tool to reach the programmed point.
• Example:
• N105 G90 G00 X150.0 Y30.0

Rapid Positioning, G00

• Linear or Straight line Interpolation, G01
• G01 is another preparatory function to specify that the tool should
be moved to a specified location along a straight line path. It is
referred to as linear interpolation. This function is typically used to
specify machining of straight features such as turning a cylindrical
surface in turning, cutting a slot in milling, etc.
• Example:
• N115 G01 X110.0 Y30.0 F250

Linear or Straight line Interpolation, G01

• Circular Interpolation, G02 / G03
• G02/G03 is also a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved
to a specified location along a circular path in a clockwise direction. In order to
specify the path to the MCU, the end point of the arc and the location of the
center of the arc should be specified. Within the block in which the G02/G03
code is programmed, the center of the arc is given by specifying its location
relative to the start of the arc.
• Examples:
– N125 G02 X65.0 Y60.0 I35.0 J-10.0 F250
• But, if the motion were from G to F, then it would be
– N130 G03 X15.0 Y30.0 I-15.0 J-40.0 F250

• Circular interpolation
• Two basic methods
• I. J. K. Method
• (G02,G03) Xx Yy Ii Jj Ff (on the XY plane)
• Radius method
• (G02,G03) Xx Yy Rr Ff (on the XY plane)
• IJK Method
• The I, J, K addresses are used to specify the distances from the start
of the arc to the arc center coordinates in XYZ directions.
• Radius Method
• Requires two entry parameters in the command the XYZ end point
of the arc and the radius R
• G02/G03 Xx Yy Zz Rr



G32 – Threading motion
• A threading motion is a motion along a straight line, but is NOT a
linear interpolation motion. The tool motion does not start
immediately when the command is encountered. It is coordinated
with the rotation of the spindle - the tool starts moving when an
index pulse is received from the spindle encoder. This pulse occurs
at a specific angular position of the spindle, once in each spindle
rotation. This ensures that each thread starts at the same angular
position, and each cut follows the path of the earlier cut. The Lead
is the axial distance the nut advances in one revolution of the screw,
while the pitch is the distance between adjacent threads. Lead =
Pitch x No. of starts. In a single start thread the lead is equal to the
pitch. When cutting a thread, for every revolution of the part the
tool moves axially by a distance equal to the Lead of the thread.


Code This with radius method



• Dwell, G04
• This is to give a delay in the program. When the G04 code is
encountered, the controller stops at that particular point for a
specified time mentioned in the block.
• N045 G04 X3.0This calls for a stoppage of the control for a period
of 3 seconds.

• Plane Selection: Determines the plane that machining will take
place
• G17 XY plane selection
• G18 ZX plane selection
• G19 YZ plane selection

• Positioning Systems
• G90 (modal)
• Use to specify the absolute positioning system
• All coordinates are based off a single origin in the work
coordinates system
• G91 (modal)
• Use to specify the incremental positioning system
• The current tool position is taken as a reference point in the tool
moves the incremental distance given in the command

• Units
• G70: Used to specify inches as the unit of measurement
• G71: Use to specify millimeters as the unit of measurement
• These cannot be used in the same part program
• Absolute Zero Setting
• G92: Sets the absolute zero for the coordinates system
• G92 X Y Z
• Does not cause any tool motion
• Specifies the distance of the cutter in XYZ to the origin
• Ties the coordinates of the machine tool to the coordinates of the
program

G92 Example

• Stop and End Functions
• M00 unconditional stop shuts down all drive motors until re-
started by the machinist
• M01 optional stop will stop the program if the optional stop
button is pressed
• M02/M30 end of program statement



• Canned Cycles: Fixed or canned G code cycles (G81-G89) were developed,
as stated, to simplify the programming of hole making operations with
repetitive motions at each hole location. These codes are normally modal and
must be cancelled with a G80 code (linear rapid transverse mode) before
other program movements are commanded. The normal action of the canned
cycles mode is to position the programmed non spindle (tool penetration)
axes, including the rotary table axes on milling machines, with the (Z)
coordinate axis remaining stationary. The tool will then rapid the Z axis to
the R or tool-clearance plane preceding the part surface and feed at the
programmed rate to Z depth. After feeding the tool to depth, the tool will be
retracted from the hole automatically as required by the cycle. Note: different
codes will cause various forms of retraction (refer to your programming
manual for specific retraction action). Once all of the necessary modal
information is programmed (G code, depth, clearance position, spindle speed,
feed, and spindle direction), additional holes can be produced by
programming new axis or axes positions until the canned cycle is cancelled.
Most canned cycles will pick up the last programmed spindle speed/direction
and feed rate if they are not initiated in the canned cycle block of
information.
•
• Perhaps the most widely used machining sequence is that of drilling a
hole, and there are few controls that fail to cater to this requirement by
including a canned cycle. Indeed, with word address programming, early
attempt~ were made to standardize a drill cycle. That this was quite
successful is evident by the fact that the use of G81 for the purpose is as
common as the use of GOO and GO1 for linear movement control and
G02 and G03 for circular interpolation. There are a number of machining
variations necessary in the production of drilled holes, One of the most
commonly used is the basic drilling movement, catered for by the drilling
cycle illustrated in Fig. This involves a drill movement to the required
depth at a controlled feed rate, followed by rapid withdrawal.
• Also widely used is the intermittent or "peck" drill cycle for deep holes
illustrated in Fig.. This illustration shows a complete withdrawal to the Z
axis clearance plane after each peck, but variations of this cycle provide
for a smaller withdrawal that conveniently breaks the chip but does not
give total retraction for chip clearance. The peck depth is established with
an additional Z axis command word, which many times are a "K" value.

Fig.: Drilling cycle Fig.: Peck Dril cycle


• Facing operation for 1 mm depth
Sequence no Code Remarks

N101 G21 G98 Metric and feed in mm/min
N102 G28 U0 W0 Go to machine home position
N103 M06 T 01 Select tool
N104 M03 S1200 Spindle on 1200 rpm
N105 G00 X26.5 Z -0.5 Rapid move to
N106 G01 X-0.5 F200 Linear interpolation to
N107 G00 Z1
N108 G00 X26.6
N109 G00 Z -1
N1010 G01 X-0.5
N1011 G00 Z1
N1012 G28 U0 W0 Go to home position
N1013 M05 Spindle stop
N1014 M30 Program stop
• Step turning operation
N105 G00 X24.5 Z1 Rapid move to
N106 G01 Z-30 F200 Linear interpolation to
N107 G01 X25
N108 G00 Z1
N109 G00 X23.6
N1010 G01 Z-30 F200
N1011 G01 X25
N1012 G00 Z1
N1013 G00 X22.7
N1014 G01 Z-30 F200
N1015 G01 X25
N1016 G00 Z1
N1017 G00 X21.8
N1018 G01 Z-30 F200
N1019 G01 X25
N1020 G00 Z1
N1021 G00 X20.9
N1022 G01 Z-30 F200
N1023 G01 X25
N1024 G00 Z1
N1025 G00 X20
N1026 G01 Z-30 F200
N1027 G01 X25
N1028 G00 Z1

N106 G90 X24.4 Z-20 F200 Box turning cycle
N107 X23.4
N108 X22.4
N109 X21.4
N1010 X20.4
N1011 G00 X 25.4 Z-20
N1012 G90 X 25.4 Z-40 R0 F200 Box taper cycle
N1013 X25.4 R-0.5
N1014 X25.4 R-1
N1015 X25.4 R-1.5
N1016 X25.4 R-2
N1017 X25.4 R-2.5
N1018 G00 X20.4 Z1
N1019 M06 T0202
N1020 M03 S1000
N1021 G92 X20.4 Z-10 F1.75 Box threading cycle
N1022 X20
N1023 X19.6
N1024 X19.2
N1025 X18.8
N1026 X18.4
N1027 X18
N1028 X17.6
N1029 X17.352
N1030 G00 X25.4 Z1

N106 G01 Z-40 F200 Linear interpolation to
N107 G01 X25
N108 G00 Z1
N109 G00 X23.6
N1010 G01 Z-40 F200
N1011 G01 X25
N1012 G00 Z1
N1013 G00 X22.7
N1014 G01 Z-40 F200
N1015 G01 X25
N1016 G00 Z1
N1017 G00 X21.8
N1018 G01 Z-40 F200
N1019 G01 X25
N1020 G00 Z1
N1021 G00 X20.9
N1022 G01 Z-40 F200
N1023 G01 X25
N1024 G00 Z1
N1025 G00 X20
N1026 G01 Z-40 F200
N1027 G01 X25
N1028 G00 Z1
N1029 G00 X 19 Z0
N1030 G01 X20 Z-30 F200 Taper cut
N1031 G00 Z-40
N1032 G03 X25.4 Z-45.4 R5.4 F200 Circular interpolation CCW

Manual Part Programming (Milling)

Sequence Code Remarks
no
N102 Go to machine home position z0 in
G91 G28 Z0
incremental mode
N103 G28 XO YO Go to machine home position x0y0
N104 M06 T1 Select tool
N106 G90 G00 X-20 Y-30 Z5 Rapid move to in absolute mode
N107 G01 Z-1 F300
N108 G01 X-30 Y -20
N109 G01 Y20
N1010 G01 X-20 Y30
N1011 G01 X20
N1012 G02 X30 Y20 R10
N1013 G01 Y-20
N1014 G03 X20 Y -30 R 10
N1015 G01 X-20
N1016 G00 Z5
N1017 G91 G28 XO YO
N1018 M05
N1019 M30

Manual Part Programming (Milling-Mirroring)
N102 Go to machine home position
G91 G28 Z0
z0 in incremental mode
G28 XO YO
x0y0
N106 Rapid move to….. in absolute
G90 G00 X0 Y0 Z5
mode
N107 Call subroutine program 5555,
M98 P0015555
machine pocket 1
N108 M71 Mirror about X axis
M98 P0015555
machine pocket 2
N1010 M81 Cancel X mirror
N1011 M70 Mirror about Y axis
M98 P0015555
machine pocket 3
N1013 M80 Cancel Y mirror
N1014 M71 Mirror about X axis
N1015 M70 Mirror about Y axis
M98 P0015555
machine pocket 4
N1017 M81 Cancel X mirror
N1018 M80 Cancel Y mirror
N1019 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Go to machine home position
N1021 M30 Program end
N1022 :5555 Sub routine program
N1023 G00 X10 Y10 Z5
N1024 G01 Z-1 F200
N1025 G01 Y30
N1026 G01 X30 Y10
N1027 G01 X10
N1028 G00 Z5
N1029 G00 X0 Y0
N1030 M99 Subroutine end

G91 G28 Z0
z0 in incremental mode
G28 XO YO
x0y0
N106 Rapid move to in absolute
G90 G00 X10 Y-10 Z5
mode
N107 G01 Z -5 F200
N108 G01 Y10
N109 G01 X-10
N1010 G01 Y -10
N1011 G01 X10
N1012 G00 X8 Y-8
N1013 G01 Y8
N1014 G01 X-8
N1015 G01 Y-8
N1016 G01 X8
N1017 G00 X0 Y-8
N1018 G01 Y4
N1019 M05
N1020 G91 G28 X0 Y0
N1021 M30

• QUESTIONS
• What is a preparatory function and how is it designated in word
address programming?
• What is a miscellaneous function and how is it designated in word
address programming?
• Name and describe the three types of positioning control used on
computer numerically controlled machine tools.
• Explain, with the aid of a simple sketch, the difference between
absolute and incremental dimension definition.
• Describe what happens during a peck drill cycle.
• What is meant by the term "modal"?

Computer Aided Part Programming
• NC program preparation may be tedious and difficult if the part to be machined
has a complex geometry. The main difficulty is to find out the cutter locations
during the machining.
• Computers may be used to assist the programmers in preparing the NC codes.
• Advantages of applying computer-aided part programming include the following:
• It reduces the manual calculations involves in determining the geometric
characteristics of the part.
• It provides the cutter path simulation.
• It provides tool collision checking.
• It shortens the program preparation time.
• It makes the program preparation easier.
• The Aerospace Industries Association sponsored the work that led to the first part
• programming language, developed in MIT in 1955. This was called:
Automatically Programmed Tools (APT). APT is English like simple
programming language which basically produces the Cutter Location (CL) data.
Using the cutter location data, the program can generate the actual NC codes by
using a postprocessor

CAD/CAM Based Part Programming
• The output of any CAD package include the geometric data of the
part to be machined.
• Therefore, many CAD/CAM package can produce cutter location
(CL) data to be used for NC code generation.
• There is still to be a process planning module for a workable NC
code generation.
• Some of the CAD/CAM packages that have the NC code generation
capabilities are Computervision, CATIA, CADAM, ProEngineer,
MechanicalDesktop (Auto Desk).

• Concept of CAP

• The various functions that can be attributed to the postprocessor are:
• Converting the CLDATA to the machine tool co-ordinate system.
• Converting the CLDATA to the control unit understandable NC blocks
taking care of the following machine tool functions:
• Maximum table or spindle traverses,
• Available feeds and speeds,
• Available preparatory, miscellaneous and other functions,
• Straight line and circular interpolations,
• Acceleration and decelerations of slides taking care of the
• overshoot of corners, and
• Other machine tool control unit system requirements such as tape
• reader time, servo setting time, etc.
• Provide output
• Required control tape.
• Diagnostic listing on line printer, and
• Other operator/programmer instructions.
Automatically Programmed Tools (APT) Programming
• APT Language Structure
• Letters ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• Numerals 0123456789
• Punctuation marks / , =
• Words: The words to be used in the statements are built up from one to
six letters or numerals with the first one being a letter. No special
character is allowed in the words.
• Key words: There are certain reserved names called key words in the
language, which have a fixed meaning.
• Symbols: Symbols are the words used as substitutes for geometrical
definitions and numerical values, where the first character must be a
letter.
• Labels: Label names are used to reference a statement so that control can
be transferred to that statement changing the usual linear execution
sequence.
• Numbers: Numbers have their usual meaning as in algebra and are often
referred to as scalars.
• APT program
• The complete APT part program consists of the following four
types of statements: • Geometry • Motion • Post processor •
Compilation control
• Geometry Commands
• These are POINT, LINE, CIRCLE, PLANE, VECTOR, PATERN,
SPHERE, TABCYL, etc.
• There are four basic types of statements in the APT language:
1. Geometry statements, also called definition statements; are used to
define the geometry elements that comprise the part.
2. Motion commands; are used to specify the tool path.
3. Postprocessor statements; control the machine tool operation, for
example, to specify speeds and feeds, set tolerance values for
circular interpolation, and actuate other capabilities of the machine
tool.
4. Auxiliary statements; a group of miscellaneous statements used to
name the part program, insert comments in the program and
accomplish similar functions.
• APT vocabulary words consist of six or fewer characters. The
characters are almost always letters of the alphabet.

• POINT: The point has three co-ordinates along X, Y and Z-axes. The Z
coordinate when not specified is taken as either zero or the prevailing Z surface
definition.

• Points: Specification of a point can be accomplished by
the following:
• Designating its x-, y-, and z-coordinates;
– P1 = POINT/15.0, 10.0, 25.0
• As the intersection of two intersecting lines;
• P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
• L1 and L2 are two previously defined lines.

Point (POINT)
PTA = POINT/ 3,4,5
y
(3, 4, 5)
PTA

Point (POINT)
PTB = POINT/ INTOF, LIN1, LIN2
LIN2
PTB
LIN1

Point (POINT)
y
PTD = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTD = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1 PTC
PTC = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1

LIN3
C1
PTD

Point (POINT)
y
PTE = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2
PTE = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2

C1
PTE
PTF = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2
PTF = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2
PTF C2

Point (POINT)
PT7 = POINT/ CENTER, C6
C6
PT7

Point (POINT)
PT11 = POINT/ P63, RADIUS, 7.3, ATANGLE, 27
PT11
7.3
27°
P63 = 3.1, 6.7

• LINE: Lines are considered to be of infinite length and do not have a direction.
Lines must not be perpendicular to the XY plane. Lines are considered planes
perpendicular to the XY plane.

• Lines: A line in APT is considered to be of infinite length
in both directions. Specification of a line can be
accomplished by the following:
• Two points through which it passes;
– L1 = LINE/P3, P4
– P3 and P4 are two previously defined points.
• Passes through point (P5) and parallel to another line (L3)

that has been previously defined;
– L2 = LINE/P5, PARLEL, L3

Line (LINE)
LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
P2
P1
LIN1

Line (LINE)
LIN4 = LINE/ PT6, 15, -30, 3
PT6
L4 (15, -30, 3)

Line (LINE)
LIN10 = LINE/ 20, 3.5, 0.2, 31, 6.2, 1.3
y
(31, 6.2, 1.3)
(20, 3.5, 0.2)

L10
x
Line (LINE)
L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS

L14 = LINE/ PT1, ATANGL, 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
y
PT3 L14
40°
PT1 L12
L16
PT4
40° 20°
15° x
L15
(32, -3, 2)
Line (LINE)
LIN = LINE/ POINT, ATANGL, ANGLE (in degrees), LINE
y
LINE2
P1
30° LINE1
LINE2 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL, 30, LINE1

Line (LINE)
LIN = LINE/ SLOPE, SLOPE VALUE, INTERC, MODIFIER, d

where the slope value is y/x. The modifier options are [XAXIS,
YAXIS], and d is the corresponding intercept value on the selected
axis (i.e., modifier).
LINE1
LINE1 = LINE/ SLOPE, 1, INTERC, XAXIS, 6
x
(6,0) Point of X-Intercept

Line (LINE)
LIN = LINE/ ATANGL, DEGREES, INTERC, MODIFIER, d

The modifier options are [XAXIS, YAXIS], and d is the
corresponding intercept value on the selected axis (i.e., modifier).
LINE1
LINE1 = LINE/ ATANGL, 30, INTERC, XAXIS ,d

 = 30°
x
d

Line (LINE)
The LEFT & RIGHT modifier indicates whether the line

is at the left or right tangent point, depending on how
one looks at the circle from the point.
L1 = LINE/ PT51, LEFT, TANTO, C11
L1
C11
PT51

Line (LINE)
L2 = LINE/ PT51, RIGHT, TANTO, C11

L3 Right
PT40
L1
Left
Left L4
PT51
Right L2

Line (LINE)
L6 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4
L6
Right
C4
Left
C3
Right
Left
L8 L9
L7

Line (LINE)
L7 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, RIGHT, TANTO, C4

L7 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C4, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
L6
Right
C4
Lef
C3 t
Right
Left
L8 L
9
L7

Line (LINE)
L8 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4
L6
Right
C4
Left
C3
Right
Left
L8 L9
L7

Line (LINE)
L9 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C3, RIGHT, TANTO, C4

L6
Right
C4
Left
C3
Right
Left
L8 L9
L7

Line (LINE)
LN3 = LINE/ PNT6, PARLEL, LN15

LN4 = LINE/ PNT5, PERPTO, LN13
y
PNT6 PNT5
LN3
LN4
LN15
LN13

• Planes: In APT, a plane extends indefinitely. A plane can
be defined by the following:
• Three points through which it passes;
– PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3
– P1, P2 and P3 must be non-collinear.
• Passes through point (P2) and parallel to another plane
(PL1) that has been previously defined;
– PL2 = PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1

• CIRCLE: A circle is always considered as a circular cylinder perpendicular to
the XY plane of infinite length. The radius value when specified must not be
negative.

• Circles: In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical
surface that is perpendicular to the x-y plane and extends
to infinity in the z-direction. A circle can be defined by
the following:
• Its center and radius;
– C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 25.0
• Three points through which it passes;
– C2 = CIRCLE/P4, P5, P6
– The three points must not be collinear.

Plane (PLANE)
LN5 = LINE/ INTOF, PLAN1, PLAN2
LN5
PLAN1
PLAN2

Plane (PLANE)
PLAN10 = PLANE/ PT6, PT12, PT15
PLAN10
PT15
PT6 PT12
y 3.0
PT4
z
PLAN14
x
Plane (PLANE)
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PT4, PARLEL, PLAN10

PLAN14 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PLAN10, YSMALL, 3.0
PLAN10
PT15
y PT6 PT12
3.0
PT4
z
PLAN14
x
Circle (CIRCLE)
C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT3, RADIUS, 4.3
y
C1
4.3
PT3
(3,6,5)
x
Circle (CIRCLE)
C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT6, TANTO, LN4

C7 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT8, PT5
y y
LN4
PT5
PT6 PT8
C3 C7
x x
Circle (CIRCLE)
C3 = CIRCLE/ YLARGE, LN6, XLARGE, LN4, RADIUS, 2.0

C3 = CIRCLE/ XLARGE, LN6, YSMALL, LN4, RADIUS, 2.0
C1
y
3.0
C3
C2
2.0 YSMALL
1.5
YLARGE
LN4 LN6
XLARGE x

Circle (CIRCLE)
C1 = CIRCLE/ YLARGE, LN6, YLARGE, LN4, RADIUS, 3.0
y C1
3.0
C3
C2
1.5 2.0 YSMALL
YLARGE
LN4
LN6
XLARGE
x

Circle (CIRCLE)
C2 = CIRCLE/ XSMALL, LN6, XSMALL, LN4, RADIUS, 1.5

C2 = CIRCLE/ YLARGE, LN4, YSMALL, LN6, RADIUS, 1.5
C1
y
3.0
C3
C2
1.5 2.0 YSMALL
YLARGE
LN4 LN6
XLARGE
x

• Motion commands: • Set-up commands, • Point-to-point motion commands,
and • Continuous path motion commands.
• Set-up commands: These commands are used to identify the initial
conditions for machining are specified.
• FROM/ point
• FROM/PTARG (PTARG is the symbol assigned to the starting point)
• CUTTER/ dia, radius
• INTOL/ dsval, psval, cs1val, cs2val
• OUTTOL/ dsval, psval, cs1val, cs2val
• TOLER/ dsval, psval, cs1val, cs2val
• Point-to-point motion commands: These are used to specify the
positioning commands used for point to point applications such as drilling
operation.
• GODLTA/ dx, dy, dz
• GOTO/ x, y, z
• GOTO/ point
• GOTO/
Lecture notes on PE 6007patern
Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose
Point-to-point motion commands
• There are two commands; GOTO and GODLTA.
• * The GOTO statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location
specified in the descriptive data. Two examples are:
• GOTO/P2
• GOTO/25.0, 40.0, 0
• * The GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool. To
illustrate, the following statement instruct the tool to move from its present
position by a distance of 50 mm in x-direction, 120 mm in y-direction, and 40
mm in z-direction;
• GODLTA/50.0, 120.0, 40.0
• * The GODLTA statement is useful in drilling and related machining operations.
The tool can be directed to go to a given hole location; then the GODLTA
command can be used to drill the hole, as in the following sequence;
• GOTO/P2
• GODLTA/0, 0, -50.0
• GODLTA/0, 0, 50.0

• Continuous path motion commands: These surfaces are
designated as drive surface (ds), part surface (ps) and check surface
(cs) which are specified in that order in the motion statement.
• GO/ TO, ds, TO, ps, TO, cs Start-up command for continuous path
• The modifier TO can be replace by either ON, PAST or TANTO depending
upon the cutter relationship with the respective surface.
• GOLFT/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go to left
• GORGT/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go to right
• GOFWD/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go forward
• GOBACK/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go back
• GOUP/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go up
• GODOWN/ ds, TO, cs Contour Motion command Go down

Contouring motions

Contouring motions
• These are more complicated
than PTP commands are
because the tool’s position
must be continuously
controlled throughout the
move.
• The tool is directed along
two intersecting surfaces
until it reaches a third
surface, as shown in the
following Figure;
• 1. Drive surface; this is the
surface that guides the side
of the cutter. It is pictured as
a plane in our Figure.

Contouring motions
• 2. Part surface; this is the
surface, again pictured as a
plane, on which the bottom or
nose of the tool is guided.
• 3. Check surface; this is the
surface that stops the forward
motion of the tool in the
execution of the current
command. One might say that
this surface “checks” the
advance of the tool.

Contouring motions

Contouring motions

Contouring motions
• Initialization of APT contouring motion sequence: With reference to the Figure,
the sequence takes the following form:
• FROM/PTARG
• GO/TO, PL1, TO, PL2, TO, PL3
• - The three surfaces included in the GO statement must be specified in the order;
(1) drive surface, (2) part surface, and (3) check surface.
• - Note that GO/TO is not the same as the GOTO command. GOTO is used only
for PTP motions. The GO/ command is used to initialize a sequence of
contouring motions and may take alternative forms such as GO/ON, GO/TO, or
GO/PAST.
• It is not necessary to redefine the part surface in every motion command after it
has been initially defined as long as it remains the same in subsequent
commands;
• GORGT/PL3, PAST, PL4

• Post Processor Commands
COOLNT/ ON To specify the cutting fluid requirement
OFF
MIST
FLOOD
TAPKUL
FEDRAT/ IPM, feed
MMPM
IPR
MMPR
LOADTL/ toolno, magpos
REWIND
SPINDL/ RPM, n, CLW
SFM CCLW
SMM
• Compilation Control Commands
PARTNO/ <literal string>
• The FINI statement is the physical end of a part program and
should always be present at the end of any part program.
MACHIN/name, <parameters>
NOPOST
REMARK/GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS
• Repetitive Programming
Looping:
JUMPTO unconditional transfer
IF conditional transfer
The usage is
JUMPTO/ lbl1
IF (< expression>) lb11, lb12, lb13

GOFWD/ L3, PAST, L2
P4 GOFWD/ L3, ON, L2

GOFWD/ L3, TO, L2
L2
L3
P3 C1
P1 L1 P2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4
P4
3
L2
L3
2
P3 C1
1
P1 L1 P2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P0
Figure 3. APT Geometry and Tool Path for Workpiece

APT Program Listing
PARTNO EXAMPLE labels the program “EXAMPLE”

MACHIN/MILL, 1 selects the target machine and controller type
CUTTER/0.5000 specifies the cutter diameter
P0 = POINT/0, -1.0, 0
P1 = POINT/0, 0, 0
P2 = POINT/6.0, 0, 0
P3 = POINT/6.0, 1.0, 0
P4 = POINT/2.0, 4.0, 0 geometry statements to specify the
L1 = LINE/P1, P2 pertinent surfaces of the part
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 1.0
L2 = LINE/P4, LEFT, TANTO, C1
L3 = LINE/P1, P4
PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3
SPINDL/573 sets the spindle speed to 573 rpm
FEDRAT/5.39 sets the feed rate to 5.39 ipm
COOLNT/ON turns the coolant on
FROM/P0 gives the starting position for the tool
GO/PAST, L3, TO, PL1, TO, L1 initializes contouring motion; drive, part, and check surfaces
GOUP/L3, PAST, L2
GORGT/L2, TANTO, C1 motion statements to contour the part
GOFWD/C1, ON, P2 in a clockwise direction
GOFWD/L1, PAST, L3
RAPID move rapidly once cutting is done
GOTO/P0 return to the tool home position
COOLNT/OFF turn the coolant off
FINI end program

• Write the APT program to:
• Drill the shown holes (Example 1).
• Mill the shown shape (Example 2).

• Solution:



Cylinder (CYLNDR)
<Symbol> = CYLNDR/ <axis modifier>, TANTO, <1st

plane>, <axis modifier>, TANTO, <2nd plane>,
RADIUS, <radius value>
The axis modifier depends on the relationship of the

cylinder center point to the tangent point of the plane the
modifier precedes.

Cylinder (CYLNDR)
CYL3 = CYLNDR/ XLARGE, TANTO, PLAN5, YSMALL, TANTO, PLAN10, RADIUS, 2.0
z
PLAN5
2.0
y PLAN10
CYL3
x
Geometry Example
Top view
5.0 in.
The top view of a plate is Tangent point
shown in the following 0.4 in.
figure. The outer shape of 0.7 in.

1.25 in.
this plate is to be milled & 0.7 in.
the grid holes drilled. It is 4.0 in.

12 0.375
in. holes
1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 in.
therefore necessary to
define the geometry of the
Tangent point
part, i.e. its outer shape &
the location of the holes.
0.5 in.
Side view
Geometry Example
PT1 = POINT/ 4, 5, 0 PT1 = (4,5,0)
PT2 = POINT/ 5, 4.6, 0 L1
PT3 = POINT/ 8, 4.6, 0 PT2 PT3
PT4 = POINT/ 8, 3.2, 0 1.25 in.

PT5 = POINT/ 9, 3.75, 0
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT5, RADIUS, 1.25 L3 PT5
PT6 = POINT/ 4, 1, 0 PT4

L3 = LINE/ PT1, PT6 y L2
PLAN1 = PLANE/ PT1, PT2, PT3 PT6 = (4,1,0)
PLAN2 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PLAN1, ZSMALL, 0.5 x
Z=0
PTN1 = PATERN/ LINEAR, PT2, PT3, 4
z
PTN2 = PATERN/ LINEAR, PT3, PT4, 3 0.5 in.
PTN3 = PATERN/ COPY, PTN2, UNLIKE, ON, PTN1
x

The Machining Plan
Point- to- point: refers to operations requiring fast

movement (straight- line motions) to a point followed by
a manufacturing operation at that point.
FROM/ <point location>: denotes that the point location is a starting

point for the tool, with the end of the tool at that point.
GOTO/ <point location>: refers to a rapid, straight- line move to the
point location indicated.
GODELTA/ <coordinate increments>: commands the tool to move
incremental distance from the current position.

The Machining Plan
P0 = (0,4,0.1)
1.0 in. 1.0 in.

P1 = POINT/ 1.0, 2.7, 0.1
1.3 in.
P2 = POINT/ 2.0, 2.7, 0.1 P1 P2
P3 = POINT/ 1.0, 2.0, 0.1

0.7 in.
P3
Z = 0.0
0.6 in.

The Machining Plan
FROM/ PO P0 = (0,4,0.1)
GOTO/ P1
1.0 in. 1.0 in.
GODELTA/ 0, 0, -0.8
1.3 in.
GODELTA/ 0, 0, 0.8 P1 P2
GOTO/ P2
GODELTA/ 0, 0, -0.8 0.7 in.
P3
GODELTA/ 0, 0, 0.8
GOTO/ P3
GODELTA/ 0, 0, -0.8
GODELTA/ 0, 0, 0.8 Z = 0.0
GOTO/ PO
0.6 in.

The Machining Plan
MACROS: A macro is a single computer instruction that

stands for a given sequence of instructions.
<name> = MACRO/ <possible parameters><sequence of instructions>
TERMAC
The macro can be used any time in the APT program by
CALL macro name (, list of parameters)

The Machining Plan
P0 = (0,4,0.1)
PO = POINT/ 0, 4, 0.1
DELTA = MACRO/ DX, DY
1.0 in. 1.0 in.
GOTO/ DX, DY, ________
1.3 in. P1 P2
GODELTA/ _______, ________, ________
GODELTA/ _______, ________, ________
TERMAC 0.7 in. P3
FROM/ PO
CALL DELTA/ DX = _______, DY = _______
CALL DELTA/ DX = _______, DY = _______
CALL DELTA/ DX = _______, DY = _______ Z = 0.0
GOTO/ PO
0.8 in.

The Machining Plan:
Contouring:
Part surface: the surface on which the end of the tool is
riding.
Drive surface: the surface against which the edge of the
tool rides.
Check surface: a surface at which the current tool motion
is to stop.

The Machining Plan
z
Drive surface Check surface
Direction of
cutter cutter motion
Part surface

The Machining Plan
CS CS CS
DS DS DS
TO ON PAST

The Machining Plan
TANTO :
A: GO/ TO, L1, TO, PL2, TANTO, C1
B: GO/ PAST, L1, TO, PL2, TANTO, C1
A (TO, L1)
Start point
C1
y
Check surface
L1 B (PAST, L1)
Drive surface
x
The Machining Plan
Motion commands:
GOLFT/ : Move left along the drive surface
GORGT/ : Move right along the drive surface
GOUP/ : Move up along the drive surface
GODOWN/ : Move down along the drive surface
GOFWD/ : Move forward from a tangent position
GOBACK/ : Move backward from a tangent position

The Machining Plan
GORGT/ <drive surface>, <check surface>

Start  A B  C  D  E  Start
z
FROM/ START
y
GO/ TO, L1, TO, PL1, ON, L3
GORGT/ L1, TANTO, C1
x
GOFWD/ C1, TANTO, L2 C
D
GOFWD/ L2, PAST, L3
L2
GOLFT/ L3, PAST, L1
L3 C1
GOTO/ START
L1
E
B
A Start
Machining Specifications
Postprocessor commands for a particular machine tool are:

MACHIN/ : used to specify the machine tool and call the
postprocessor for that tool:
MACHIN/ DRILL, 3
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off:
COOLNT/ MIST
COOLNT/ FLOOD
COOLNT/ OFF

FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the
part surface in inches per minute:
FEDRAT/ 4.5
SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per
minute:
SPINDL/ 850
TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic
tool changer:
TURRET/ 11

TOLERANCE SETTING: Nonlinear motion is accomplished in

straight-line segments, and INTOL/ and OUTTOL/ statements
dictate the number of straight-line segments to be generated.
INTOL/ 0.0015
OUTTOL/ 0.001

Specified
Specified path
path
OUTTOL
INTOL

PARTNO: identifies the part program and is inserted at the start of

the program.
CLPRINT: indicates that a cutter location printout is desired.
CUTTER: specifies a cutter diameter for offset (rough versus finish
cutting). If a milling cutter is 0.5 in. in diameter and we have
CUTTER/ 0.6
then the tool will be offset from the finish cut by 0.05 in.

APT Contouring Example
PARTNO P1534
MACHIN/ MILL, 4 L4 P2
CLPRINT C2 L3
OUTTOL/ 0.0015 P3
P0 = POINT/ 0, 0, 1.1 P5
P1 = POINT/ 1, 1, 0.5
L5 L2
P2 = POINT/ 4, 3.5, 0.5
P3 = POINT/ 5.85, 2.85, 0.5 P4
PL1 = PLANE/ P1, P2, P3 y
PL2 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PL1, ZSMALL, 0.5
P1 = (1,1,0.5) C1
P4 = POINT/ 5, 1.85, 0.5
P5 = POINT/ 2, 2.5, 0.5 L1
x
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P4, RADIUS, 0.85
L1 = LINE/ P1, RIGHT, TANTO, C1 Z = 0.5
L2 = LINE/ P3, LEFT, TANTO, C1
L3 = LINE/ P2, P3
Z=0
L4 = LINE/ P2, RIGHT, TANTO, C2
L5 = LINE/ P1, LEFT, TANTO, C2 z
MILLS = MACRO/ CUT, SSP, FRT, CLT
CUTTER/ CUT
x
APT Program
P0 = POINT/ 0, -2, 0
P1 = POINT/ 0.312, 0.312, 0
P2 = POINT/ 4, 1, 0
C2 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 1
L2 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C2, RIGHT, TANTO, C1
PL1 = PLANE/ P0, P1, P2
FROM/ P0
L2
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, C2
P2
GOLFT/ L1, TANTO, C1
P1
GOFWD/ C1, PAST, L2 C1 C2
GOFWD/ L2, TANTO, C2
L1
GOFWD/ C2, PAST, L1
GOTO/ P0
P0

Geometric Statements of APT Program
P0 = POINT/ -1, -1,3
P1 = POINT/ 0, 0 y
P2 = POINT/ 3, 0
P3 = POINT/ 4, 0 C2
P4 = POINT/ 6.5, 5.5 L5
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 1 P4

C3
L0 = LINE/ P1, P2
L1 = LINE/ (POINT/ 5, 1), LEFT, TANTO, C1 L6 L3
L2 = LINE/ (POINT/ 7, 1), PERPTO, L1
L2
L3 = LINE/ (POINT/ 7, 1), RIGHT, TANTO, C2
P1 L1
L4 = LINE/ (POINT/ 5, 6), LEFT, TANTO, C2 L0 P2 P3
C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, (POINT/ 4, 6), (POINT/ 3, 6) x
C1
L5 = LINE/ (POINT/ 0, 6), (POINT/ 3, 6)
L6 = LINE/ P1, PERPTO, L5 P0
PL1 = PLANE/ P1, P2, P3

Motion Statements of APT Program
FROM/ P0 y
GO/ TO, L0, TO, PL1, TO, L6
C2
GODLTA/ 0,0,-1
L5 L4
GORGT/ L0, TO, C1 P4
C3
GORGT/ C1, TANTO, L1
GOFWD/ L1, TO, L2 L6 L3
GORGT/ L2, PAST, L3
GOLFT/ L3, TANTO, C2
L2
GOFWD/ C2, TANTO, L4 L1
P1 L0 P2 P3
GOFWD/ L4, PAST, C3
x
GOLFT/ C3, PAST, L5 C1
GOLFT/ L5, PAST, L6 P0

GOLFT/ L6, PAST, L0
GODLTA/ 0,0,1 Thickness= 1inch.
GOTO/ P0
APT Program
MACHIN/ MILL
P0 = POINT/ 0, 0, 3
P1 = POINT/ 1, 0
L1 = LINE/ P1, SLOPE, 0
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L1, YLARGE, 2
L4 = LINE/ (POINT/ 4, 2), SLOPE, 1, L3
L5 = LINE/ (POINT/ 6, 4), ATANGL, 270, L4 P3
L6 = LINE/ (POINT/ 10, 0), PEPTO, L3 L4 L5
P2 = POINT/ INTOF, L3, L4 P2 P4
L3 L3
P3 = POINT/ INTOF, L4, L5
L2 L6
P4 = POINT/ INTOF, L5, L3
P1 L1
PL = PLANE/ P1, P2, P3
CUTTER/ 60
TOLER/ 0.1
SPINDL/ 200 P0
COOLNT/ ON
FEDRAT/ 20

APT Program
MACHIN/ MILL
P0 = POINT/ 0, 0, 3
P1 = POINT/ 1, 0
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L1, YLARGE, 2
L4 = LINE/ (POINT/ 4, 2), SLOPE, 1, L3
L5 = LINE/ (POINT/ 6, 4), ATANGL, 270, L4 L4
L5
L6 = LINE/ (POINT/ 10, 0), PEPTO, L3
P2 = POINT/ INTOF, L3, L4 L3
P3 = POINT/ INTOF, L4, L5 L6 L2
P4 = POINT/ INTOF, L5, L3 L1
PL = PLANE/ P1, P2, P3
CUTTER/ 60
TOLER/ 0.1 P0
SPINDL/ 200
COOLNT/ ON
FEDRAT/ 20

APT Program
FROM/ P0
GOTO/ L1, TO, PL, TO, L2
Assignment L4
P3
L5
L3 P2 P4 L3
L2 L6
P1 L1
P0

APT Program

APT Program
http://www.archivist.info/apt/aptos/apt360/doc/manual/index.html
Adaptive Control
• Adaptive control is a logical extension of computer numerical control
systems. The part programmer sets the processing parameters, based
on the existing knowledge of the workpiece material and various data
on the particular manufacturing process. In CNC machines, these
parameters are held constant during a particular process cycle.
• In AC, on the other hand, the system is capable of automatic
adjustments during processing, through closed loop feed back control.
• In manufacturing engineering, the purposes of adaptive control are the
following:
– Optimize production rate.
– Optimize product quality.
– Minimize costs.
• Application AC in manufacturing is particularly important in
situations where workpiece dimensions and quality are not uniform,
such as poor casting or an improperly heat treated part.

Adaptive Control
• For AC system to be effective in manufacturing operations,
quantitative relationships must be established and stored in the
computer software as mathematical models.
• Determination of the operating conditions of the process, including
measures of performance. This information is typically obtained by
using sensors that measure process parameters, such as force,
torque, vibration, and temperature.
• For example if the tool wear rate in a machining operation is
excessive, the computer must be able to decide how much of a
change in speed or feed is necessary ( and whether to increase it or
decrease it) in order to reduce the wear rate to an acceptable level.
• The system should also be able to compensate for dimensional
changes in the workpiece due such causes as tool wear and
temperature rise.

Adaptive Control
Figure: Schematic illustration of the application of adaptive control (AC) for a turning
operation. The system monitors such parameters as cutting foce, torque, and vibrations; if they
are excessive, it modifies process variables such as feed and depth of cut to bring them back to
acceptable levels.
ADAPTIVE CONTROL MACHINING
Adaptive control possesses attributes of both feedback control and
optimal control. Like a feedback system measurements are taken on
certain process variables. Like an optimal system, an overall measure of
performance is used. In adaptive control, this measure is called the index
of performance (IP). The feature that distinguishes adaptive control from
other two types is that an adaptive system is designed to operate in a time
varying environment. It is not usual for a system to exist in environments
that change over the course of time. An adaptive control system is
designed to operate for the changing environment by monitoring its
performance and altering accordingly, some aspects of its control
mechanism to achieve optimal or near optimal routine. The feedback and
optimal systems operate in a known or deterministic environment. If the
environment changes significantly, these systems might not respond in
the manner intended by the designer. On the other hand, the AC system
evaluates the environment, more accurately. It evaluates its performance
within the environment and makes the necessary changes in its control
characteristics or if possible, to optimize its performance.
• FUNCTIONS OF ADAPTIVE CONTROL
• The three functions of adaptive control are:
– Identification function.
– Decision function.
– Modification function.
• IDENTIFICATION FUNCTIONS
• This involves determining the current performance of the process or
system. Normally, the performance quality of the system is defined
by some relevant index of performance. The identification function
is concerned with determining the current value of this performance
measure by making use of the feedback data from the process.
Since the environment will change overtime, the performance of the
system will also change. Accordingly the identification is one that
must proceed over time or less continuously. Identification of the
system may involve a number of possible measurements activities.
• DECISION FUNCTION
• The decision procedure is carried out by means of a pre-
programmed logic provided by the designer. Depending upon the
logic the decision may be to change one or more of the controllable
process.
• MODIFICATION FUNCTION
• While the decision function is a logic function, modification is
concerned with a physical or mechanical change in the system. It is
a hardware function rather than a software function. The
modification involves changing the system parameters or variables
so as to drive the process towards a more optimal state. The
adaptive system first identifies the current performance by taking
measurements of inputs and outputs. Depending on current
performance, a decision procedure is carried out to determine what
changes are needed to improve system performance. Actual
changes to the system are made in the modification function.
WHERE TO USE ADAPTIVE CONTROL
• One of the principal reasons for using NC is that it reduces the non-
productive time in a machining operation. This time saving is
achieved by reducing such elements as work piece handling time,
set up for job, tool changes and other sources of operator and
machine delay.
• Adaptive control is not suitable for every machining situation. In
general, the following characteristics can be used to identify
situations where adaptive control can be beneficially applied. The
in-process time consumes a significant portion of the machining
cycle time.
– There are significant sources of variability in the job for which
AC can compensate.
– The cost of operating the machine tool is high.
– The typical jobs involve steels, titanium and high strength
alloys.
SOURCES OF VARIABILITY
The following are the typical sources of variability in machining
where AC can be most advantageously applied.
• Variable geometry of cut in the form of changing depth or width of
cut: In these cases, feed rate is usually adjusted to compensate for the
variability.
• Variable work piece hardness and Variable machinability: When hard
spots or other areas of difficulty are encountered in a work piece,
either speed or feed is reduced to avoid premature failure of tool,
• Variable work piece rigidity: if the work piece deflect as a result of
insufficient rigidity in set up, the feed rate must be reduced to
maintain accuracy in the process.
• Tool wear: It has been observed in research that as the tool begins to
dull, the cutting force increases. The adaptive controller will
typically respond to tool dulling by reducing feed rate.
• These are the sources of variability present themselves as time
varying and for most part, unpredictable changes in the machining
process
• In practice the AC system of machine tools can be classified into two types: AC
with optimization (ACO) and AC with constrains (ACC)
• ACO refers to systems in which the performance is optimized according to a
prescribed IP, sometimes called the figure of merit. The IP is usually an
economic function such as maximum production rate or minimum machining
cost.
• ACC are systems in which machining conditions such as spindle speed or feed
rate are maximized within the prescribed limits of machines and tool constrains
such as maximum torque, force or horse power. It has been shown in cases where
part configuration is not simple; the NC has many economic advantages over
conventional machining process. Similarly the use of AC systems is mostly
justified when extremely hard materials such as titanium and stainless steel have
to be machined. A further saving of time is achieved in the programming stage.
In selecting feeds and speeds, the programmer must accommodate the worst
cutting conditions. In AC system the correct feed and speed are automatically
found and it is not necessary to spend efforts on calculations of optimum feeds
and speeds. By increasing tool life simultaneously with time saving, the adaptive
control system contribute to lower operating costs, which justifies the extra price
of adding AC to a conventional NC machine.
ACO

ACO system for milling machine
The adaptive controller contains a data reduction subsystem (DRS) fed
by the sensor measurements as well as by the calculated feed rate and
spindle speed and a set of constraints. The DRS produces two signals:
a metal removal rate (MMR) and a tool wear rate (TWR). The MRR is
the product of the milling width (w), the depth of cut (a), and the
milling feedrate (V) in inches per minute:
MRR = waV
The MRR is used in the calculation of the TWR value:
where  is the tool temperature, dT/dt is the time rate of change of the
cutting torque, and K1, K2, and K3 are constants which depend on the
tool and workpiece material.
The TWR and MRR signals are fed into a performance computer
which calculates the performance index  as follows
ACO system for milling machine
The calculated index  is fed into an optimization computer unit which

contains the strategy according to which the optimization is performed. The
objective of this unit is to continually maintain the value of  at the highest
possible value without causing any constraint violations. Examples of
constraints are maximum and minimum spindle speed, maximum torque,
maximum feed, maximum temperature, and maximum vibration amplitude.
Adaptive Control in Milling (ACC)
Figure : An example of adaptive control in milling. As the depth of cut or the width of cut
increases the cutting forces and the torque increase. The system senses this increase and
automatically reduces the feed to avoid excessive forces or tool breakage, in order to maintain
cutting efficiency. Source: Y. Koren.

ACC
The objective of most ACC types of systems is to increase the MRR during
rough cutting operations. This is achieved by maximizing one or more
machining variables within a prescribed region bounded by process and system
constraints. One useful approach, for example, is to maximize the machining
feedrate while maintaining a constant load on the cutter, despite variations in
width and depth of cut. This is illustrated in Fig for a slab milling operation. In a
normal CNC system, the feedrate is programmed to accommodate the largest
width and depth in a particular cut, and this small feed rate is maintained along
the entire cut. As a result the machining rate is reduced. By contrast, with the
ACC system, the maximum allowable load (e.g., cutting force) on the cutter is
programmed. As a result, when the width or depth of cut are small the feedrate
is high; when either the width or depth of cut (or both) are increased, the
feedrate is automatically reduced, and consequently the allowable load on the
cutter is not exceeded. The result is, the average feed with ACC is much larger
than its programmed counterpart. Likewise, when the tool moves through air
gaps in the workpiece, the feedrate reaches its maximum allowable value.
Operating at the maximum allowable feedrate, maximizes the MRR. The ACC
system guarantees maximum productivity while minimizing the probability of
cutting tool breakage.
Basic structure of ACC system

Basic structure of ACC system
A typical computerized ACC system, which applies the concepts
introduced in this section, is described for turning on a CNC lathe with a
constant cutting force constraint. The ACC system shown in Fig., is
basically a feedback loop where the feed adapts itself to the actual cutting
force and varies according to changes in work conditions as cutting
proceeds. The CNC computer executes the original control program and
an additional AC routine, which is linked to the feedrate routine
contained in the control program. The AC loop functions in a sampled-
data mode. The actual main cutting force F is sampled every T seconds
(typically T = 0.1 s), then converted to a digital signal Fc, and sent to the
computer. The actual force representation Fc is immediately compared in
the computer with a predetermined allowable reference force Fr. The
difference between Fr and F,. which is the force error E (E = Fr -Fc) is
used as the input to the AC controller. The latter sends a correction signal
to the feedrate routine, which, in turn, produces the feedrate command
nal. A positive error increases the feedrate and consequently increases the
actual force, thereby decreasing the error E, and vice versa.
Workpiece Inspection for Adaptive Control
Figure: In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a turning operation. The system

automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting tool in order to produce the correct
diameter.
Transfer machines
A transfer machine is an automated flow line. Work pieces are automatically
transferred from station to station, from one machine to another. Operations are
performed sequentially. Ideally, work stations perform the operation(s)
simultaneously on separate work pieces, with the number of parts equal to the
number of stations. Each time the machine cycles, a part is completed.
Transferring usually is accomplished by one or more of four methods.
Frequently, the work is pulled along supporting rails by means of an endless
chain that moves intermittently as required. In another method the work is
pushed along continuous rails by air or hydraulic pistons. A third method,
restricted to lighter workpieces, is to move them by an overhead chain conveyor,
which may lift and deposit the work at the machining stations. A fourth method
often is employed when a relatively small number of operations, usually three to
ten, are to be performed. The machining heads are arranged radially around a
rotary indexing table, which contains fixtures in which the workpieces are
mounted. The table movement may be continuous or intermittent. Such circular
configurations have the advantage of being compact and of permitting the
workpieces to be loaded and unloaded at a single station without having to
interrupt the machining.

Transfer Lines
An automated production line or transfer line, thus consists of multiple
workstations that are linked together by a work handling system that
transfers parts from one station to the next. A raw work part, enters
one end of the line, and the processing steps are performed
sequentially as the part progresses forward. The line may include
inspection stations to perform intermediate quality checks. Also,
manual stations may also be located along the line to perform certain
operations that are difficult or uneconomical to automate. Each station
performs a different operation, so that the sum total of all the
operations is required to complete one unit of work. Multiple parts are
processed simultaneously on the line, one part at each workstation. In
the simplest form of production line, the number of parts on the line at
any moment is equal to the number of workstations. In more
complicated lines, provision is made for temporary parts storage
between stations, in which case there is on average more than one part
per station.
Transfer Lines
An automated production line operates in cycles, similar to a manual
assembly line. Each cycle consists of processing time plus the time to
transfer parts to their respective next workstations. The slowest
workstation on the line sets the pace of the line.
Depending on work part geometry, a transfer line may utilize pallet
fixtures for part handling. A pallet fixture is a work holding device that
is designed to:
Fixture the part in a precise location relative to its base and Be
moved, located, and accurately clamped in position at successive
workstations by the transfer system.
The term “palletized transfer line” is sometimes used to identify a
transfer line that uses pallet fixtures or similar work holding devices.
The alternative method of work part location is to simply index the
parts themselves from station-to-station. This is called a “free transfer
line”, whose obvious benefit is that it avoids the cost of the pallet
fixtures.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
The work flow can actually take several different forms. We classify them as
follows:
• In-line
• Segmented in-line, and
• Rotary.
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of stations in a straight line
alignment. This configuration is common for machining big workpieces, such as
automotive engine blocks, engine heads, and transmission cases. Because these parts
require a large number of operations, a production line with many stations is needed.
The in-line configuration can accommodate a large number of stations. Inline
systems can also be designed with integrated storage buffers along the flow path.
The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line transfer

sections, where the segments are usually perpendicular to each other. There are a
number of reasons for designing a production line in these configurations rather than
in a pure straight line, including:
Available floor space may limit the length of the line

It allows reorientation of work to present different faces for machining
It provides for the return of work holding fixtures for reuse.
Transfer Mechanisms
Figure : Two types of transfer mechanisms: (a) In-line and (b) Rotary.
In the rotary configuration, the work parts are attached to fixtures around the
periphery of a circular work table and the table is indexed (rotated in fixed angular
amounts) to present the parts to workstations for processing. The worktable is often
referred to as a dial, and the equipment is called a dial indexing machine, or simply,
indexing machine. Compared with the in-line and segmented in-line configurations,
rotary indexing systems are commonly limited to smaller work parts and fewer
workstations; and they cannot readily accommodate buffer storage capacity. On the
positive side, the rotary system usually involves a less expensive piece of equipment
and typically requires less floor space.
Transfer Mechanisms
Fig: Possible layouts in

segmented in-line
configuration

Transfer Line
Figure : A large transfer line for producing engine blocks and cylinder heads.
Source: Ford Motor Company.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSFER LINE
The advantages of transfer machines include:
• Higher productivity
• Lesser number of machine tools
• Lower required floor space
• Lower no. be operators for machining
• Better quality of product
• Cost of in-process inventory is reduced.
The limitations include:

• Time for blank preparation
• Higher initial expense
• Change in product design requires a costly and time consuming change of
set-up
• More skill required
• Breakdown at any point may idle the whole system
• All operations may not be feasible to be incorporated.
However, a well designed transfer machine with properly chosen fixtures, handling
devices, etc. may result in higher production efficiency.

Automated Production Lines
Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Automated Production Lines
2. Applications of Automated Production Lines
3. Analysis of Transfer Lines
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated

Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
Automated Production Lines
• High production of parts requiring multiple processing
operations
• Fixed automation
• Applications:
– Transfer lines used for machining
– Robotic spot welding lines in automotive final
assembly
– Sheet metal stamping
– Electroplating of metals

Where to Use Automated Production Lines
• High product demand
– Requires large production quantities
• Stable product design
– Difficult to change the sequence and content of
processing operations once the line is built
• Long product life
– At least several years
• Multiple operations required on product
– The different operations are assigned to different
workstations in the line

Benefits of Automated Production Lines
• Low direct labor content
• Low product cost
• High production rates
• Production lead time and work-in-process are minimized
• Factory floor space is minimized

Automated Production Line - Defined
Fixed-routing manufacturing system that consists of
multiple workstations linked together by a material handling
system to transfer parts from one station to the next
• Slowest workstation sets the pace of the line
• Workpart transfer:
– Palletized transfer line
• Uses pallet fixtures to hold and move workparts
between stations
– Free transfer line
• Part geometry allows transfer without pallet fixtures

Automated Production Line
General configuration of an automated production line consisting of n

automated workstations that perform processing operations

System Configurations
• In-line - straight line arrangement of workstations
• Segmented in-line – two or more straight line segments, usually
perpendicular to each other
• Rotary indexing machine (e.g., dial indexing machine)

Segmented In-Line Configurations
L-shaped layout
U-shaped layout
Rectangular configuration

Two Machining Transfer Lines

Rotary Indexing Machine

Drum type transfer machine
• It is similar in concept but different in configuration to the rotary
table type machine
• In these machines, the work fixtures are fastened to the outer
periphery of a drum
• The arrangement enables the workpieces to transfer around a
circular path to work stations placed radially at equal distances
• The main limitation of this method is, the machining is horizontally
from sides only and the lower station always remains idle as it is
practically not possible to arrange a machining head to operate in
the limited space under the drum

Workpart Transfer Mechanisms
• Linear transfer systems:
– Continuous motion – not common for automated
systems
– Synchronous motion – intermittent motion, all parts
move simultaneously
– Asynchronous motion – intermittent motion, parts
move independently
• Rotary indexing mechanisms:
– Geneva mechanism
– Others

Belt-Driven Linear Transfer System
Side view of chain or steel belt-driven conveyor (over and under type) for
linear transfer using work carriers

Walking Beam Transfer System

Geneva Mechanism with Six Slots

Geneva Mechanism with Six Slots

Cam Mechanism to Drive Dial Indexing Table

Storage Buffers in Production Lines
A location in the sequence of workstations where parts can
be collected and temporarily stored before proceeding to
subsequent downstream stations
• Reasons for using storage buffers:
– To reduce effect of station breakdowns
– To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
– To provide a place to put the output of the line
– To allow curing time or other required delay
– To smooth cycle time variations
– To store parts between stages with different production
rates

Storage Buffer
Storage buffer between two stages of a production line

Control Functions in an Automated Production Line
• Sequence control
– To coordinate the sequence of actions of the transfer
system and workstations
• Safety monitoring
– To avoid hazardous operation for workers and
equipment
• Quality control
– To detect and possibly reject defective work units
produced on the line

Applications of Automated Production Lines
• Transfer lines for machining
– Synchronous or asynchronous workpart transport
– Transport with or without pallet fixtures, depending on
part geometry
– Various monitoring and control features available
• Rotary transfer machines for machining
– Variations include center column machine and trunnion
machine

System Design Considerations
• Building block approach: machine tool companies
specialize in transfer lines and indexing machines
– User contracts for custom-engineered line
– Standard modules such as workheads, feed units,
transfer mechanisms, and bases
– Called a unitized production line
• Link line: uses standard machine tools connected by
specialized handling system
• Specialized processes often engineered by the user
company

Standard Feed Units used with In-Line or Rotary Transfer Machines
(a) Horizontal feed drive unit, (b) angular feed drive unit, and (c) vertical
column feed drive unit

Standard Milling Head
Milling head unit that attaches to one of the feed drive units in the previous slide

Rotary Transfer Machine (Plan View)

Center Column Machine (Plan View )

Analysis of Transfer Lines
• Three problem areas must be considered:
1. Line balancing
• To divide the total work load among workstations
as evenly as possible
2. Processing technology
• Theory and principles about the manufacturing or
assembly processes used on the line
3. System reliability - two cases:
• Transfer lines with no internal parts storage
• Transfer lines with internal storage buffers

What the Equations Tell Us – Lines with No Storage Buffers
• As the number of workstations increases
– Line efficiency and production rate are adversely
affected
• As reliability of individual workstations decreases
– Line efficiency and production rate are adversely
affected

What the Equations Tell Us – Lines with Storage Buffers
• If E0 and E are nearly equal
– Then little advantage is gained by adding a storage
buffer
• If E is much greater than E0
– Then adding a storage buffer may improve line
performance significantly
• Storage buffers should be located so that production rates
of the stages are about equal
• During operation, if any buffers are always empty or
always full, then the buffer is serving little purpose

What the Equations Tell Us – Lines with Storage Buffers
• The maximum possible efficiency is achieved by:
– Setting the number of stages = number of stations
– Using large buffer capacities
• The “law of diminishing returns” operates in multi-stage
automated lines:
– As the number of storage buffers is increased, line
efficiency improves at an ever-decreasing rate
– As storage buffer capacity is increased, line efficiency
improves at an ever-decreasing rate

Automated Assembly Systems
Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Automated Assembly Systems
2. Quantitative Analysis of Assembly Systems

Automated Assembly - Defined
The use of mechanized and automated devices to
perform the various assembly tasks in an assembly
line or cell
• Fixed automation usually
– Most automated assembly systems are designed to
perform a fixed sequence of assembly steps on a
specific product that is produced in very large
quantities
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. For the exclusive use of adopters of
the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Automated Assembly - Application Characteristics
• Where is automated assembly appropriate:
– High product demand
– Stable product design
– The assembly consists of no more than a limited
number of components
– The product is designed for automated assembly

Typical Products
Alarm clocks Light bulbs
Ball bearings Locks
Ball point pens Mechanical pencils
Cigarette lighters PCB assemblies
Door mechanisms Small electric motors
Gear boxes Wrist watches

Assembly Processes in Automated Assembly
Adhesive bonding Snap fitting
Insertion of components Soldering
Placement of components Spot welding
Riveting Stapling
Screw fastening Stitching

System Configurations
1. In-line assembly machine

2. Dial indexing machine
3. Carousel assembly system
4. Single-station assembly cell

In-Line Assembly Machine
A series of automatic workstations located along and in-line
transfer system
• Either synchronous or asynchronous work transfer used

Dial Indexing Machine
Base parts are loaded onto
fixtures or nests attached
to a circular dial table, and
components are added at
workstations located
around the periphery of
the dial as it indexes from
station to station

Dial Indexing Machine
Dial indexing
assembly machine
(Bodine Corp.)

Carousel Assembly System
A hybrid between circular work flow of dial indexing machine and
straight work flow of in-line system

Single-Station Assembly Cell
Assembly operations are performed on a base part at a single location
• A robot is sometimes used as the assembly machine

Multi-Station vs. Single-Station
• Multi-station assembly machine or line
– Faster cycle rate
– High production quantities
– More operations possible
– More components per assembly
• Single-station assembly cell
– Suited to robotic assembly
– Intended for lower production quantities

Parts Delivery at Workstations
• Typical parts delivery system at a workstation consists of
the following hardware components:
1. Hopper - container for parts
2. Parts feeder - removes parts from hopper
3. Selector and/or orientor - to assure part is in proper
orientation for assembly at workhead
4. Feed track - moves parts to assembly workhead
5. Escapement and placement device - removes parts
from feed track and places them at station

Parts Delivery System at Station

Vibratory Bowl Feeder
• Most versatile of hopper feeders for small parts
• Consists of bowl and helical track
– Parts are poured into bowl
– Helical track moves part from bottom of bowl to outlet
• Vibration applied by electromagnetic base
– Oscillation of bowl is constrained so that parts climb
upward along helical track


Photo courtesy
Syntron Inc.

Selector and/or Orientor
• Purpose - to establish the proper orientation of the components for
the assembly workhead
• Selector
– Acts as a filter
– Only parts in proper orientation are allowed to pass through to
feed track
• Orientor
– Allows properly oriented parts to pass
– Reorients parts that are not properly oriented

Parts Selection and Orientation
(a) Selector
(b) Orientor

Feed Track
• Moves parts from hopper to assembly workhead
• Categories:
1. Gravity - hopper and feeder are located at higher
elevation than workhead
2. Powered - uses air or vibration to move parts toward
workhead

Escapement and Placement Devices
• Escapement device
– Removes parts from feed track at time intervals that are
consistent with the cycle time of the assembly workhead
• Placement device
– Physically places the parts in the correct location at the assembly
workstation
• Escapement and placement devices are sometimes the same device,
sometimes different devices

(a) Horizontal and (b) vertical devices for placement of parts onto dial-
indexing table

Escapement of rivet-shaped parts actuated by work carriers

Two types of pick-and-place mechanisms for transferring base parts

from feeders to work carriers

Quantitative Analysis of Assembly Systems
1. Parts delivery system at workstations
2. Multi-station assembly machines
3. Single-station assembly cells
4. Partial automation

What the Equations Tell Us
• The parts delivery system at each station must deliver
components to the assembly operation at a net rate that is
greater than or equal to the cycle rate of the assembly
workhead
– Otherwise, assembly system performance is limited by
the parts delivery system rather than the assembly
process technology
• Component quality has an important effect on system
performance - poor quality means
– Jams at stations that stop the entire assembly system
– Assembly of defective components in the product

• As the number of stations increases, uptime efficiency and
production rate are adversely affected due to parts quality
and station reliability effects
• The cycle time of a multi-station assembly system is
determined by its slowest station
• By comparison with a multi-station assembly system, a
single-station assembly cell with the same number of
assembly tasks has a lower production rate but a higher
uptime efficiency

• Multi-station assembly systems are appropriate for high
production applications and long production runs
• By comparison, single-station assembly cells have a
longer cycle time and are more appropriate for mid-range
quantities
• Storage buffers should be used on partially automated
production lines to isolate the manual stations from
breakdowns at the automated stations
• An automated station should be substituted for a manual
station only if it has the effect of reducing cycle time
sufficiently to offset negative effects of lower reliability

Computer Integrated Manufacturing
FIGURE: A schematic
illustration of a computer-
integrated manufacturing
system. Source: U. Rembold et
al., Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing and
Engineering, Addison-Wesley,
1993.

• Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) technology concerns the
developing field of automated manufacturing and materials handling. The
use of computers applied to design, machining and manufacturing of
products, as well as in quality and process control, is emphasized.
• CIM is defined differently by different users, and can be implemented in
varying an increasing degree of complexity. For many companies,
improving shop-floor communications is the primary goal. Others extend
the degree of integration to encompass communication between
engineering and manufacturing functions.
• The ultimate benefit of CIM is the improvement of communication and
control of information flow to all aspects of an enterprise. Integrating
information and organizations will decrease the logistical size of a
company, making it appear to be small again-at least from the
management, administration, and information-sharing viewpoints. The
goal of CIM is to provide the computer applications and communications
needed to bring about the integration (with matching organization
changes) that will allow a company to take advantage of these new
capabilities.
• CIM the Enterprise Wide Solution
• In any manufacturing enterprise there is a unique set of business
processes that is performed in order to design, produce, and market
the enterprise’s products.. But no matter how unique an enterprise
or its set of processes, every enterprise shares the same set of high-
level objectives.
• This is to:
• Manage manufacturing finance and accounting
• Develop enterprise directives and financial plans
• Develop and design products and manufacturing processes
• Conduct manufacturing operations
• Manage external demands

• Computer Integrated Manufacturing harnesses information system
technology to integrate these manufacturing and business
objectives. When implemented properly, CIM can deliver increased
productivity, cost-efficiency and responsiveness throughout the
enterprise. CIM accomplishes this by addressing each of the major
functional areas of the manufacturing enterprise:
• Marketing, • Engineering and Research, • Production Planning
• Plant Operations, • Physical Distribution, • Business Management
• Integrating these functions and their resources requires the ability to
share and exchange information about the many events that occur
during the various phases of production; manufacturing systems
must be able to communicate with the other information systems
throughout the enterprise. There must also be the means to capture
data close to its source, and then integrate this data at a division or
corporate level, as well as with external suppliers, sub-contractors
and even customer.
Enterprise Functions
• The CIM advantage translates into a wide range of benefits. When
Computer Integrated Manufacturing is implemented in an
enterprise, the benefits can be felt far beyond the plant floor and its
manufacturing process. They extend into each of the functional
areas of the manufacturing enterprise.
• In Marketing, CIM helps manage customer satisfaction by allowing
electronic order entry from customers, through faster response to
customer inquiries and changes, and with more accurate sales
projections.
• In Engineering and Research, CIM benefits include quicker design,
development, prototyping and testing, faster access to current and
historical product information, and a method for paperless release
of products, processes and engineering changes to manufacturing.
• In Production Planning CIM offers more accurate, realistic
production scheduling...while it requires less expediting, canceling
and rescheduling of production and purchase orders.
• Within Plant Operations, CIM provides the means to assist the
manufacturing operations in controlling processes, optimizing
inventory, improving yields, managing changes to products and
processes, reducing scrap and rework. CIM also helps utilize people
and equipment more effectively and reduces crisis production
demands as well as lead times and product costs.
• In Physical Distribution, where external demands are satisfied with
products shipped to the customer, CIM helps plan requirements,
manage the flow of products, improve efficiency of shipping,
vehicle and service scheduling, allocate supply to distribution
centers, and expedite processing of returned goods.
• For Business Management activities such as managing
manufacturing finance and accounting, and developing enterprise
directives and financial plans. CIM offers better product’ cost
tracking, more accuracy in financial projections, and improved cash
flow.
• For the enterprise as a whole, these advantages add up to faster
release of new products, shorter delivery times, optimized finished
goods inventory, shorter production planning and development
cycles.. .reduced production lead times, improved product quality,
reliability and serviceability, increased responsiveness and greater
competitiveness. In effect, CIM replaces an enterprise’s short-term
tactical improvements with a long-term strategic solution.
• Of course, the advantages of CIM aren’t just contained within the
four walls of a enterprise. It can also deliver real productivity gains
to those outside a enterprise. For example, suppliers will be able to
plan production, schedule deliveries and track shipments more
efficiently. And customers will benefit from shorter order-to-
delivery times; on time deliveries; and less expensive higher-quality
products.
• The integration and productivity gains made possible by CIM are key to
maintaining a competitive edge in today’s manufacturing environment.
• CIM Benefits
• Improvement labor productivity - More effective use of design,
manufacturing, producibility and quality engineers through concurrent
engineering practice and elimination of organizational barriers. CIM tools
also reduce the number of drafting, model or prototype shop personnel
required to accomplished the equivalent output of work with higher quality
results.
• Improvement Equipment productivity- Better utilization of machines and
work cells is achieved through improved monitoring, control and diagnostics;
the application of group technology to increase batch size and reduce set-up
time. Assist the manufacturing operations in controlling processes,
optimization inventory, improving yields, managing changes to products and
processes.
• Lower the cost of the product- Design product for producibility, faster release
of new products, shorter delivery times, shorter production planning and
development cycles improve quality control. Reliability and serviceability,
improve product quality, resulting in reduction of scrap, rework and warranty
cost due to better engineering analysis.
• Some of the benefits as experienced by IBM (1989) can be
summarized as follows;
• It helps to manage customer satisfaction by allowing electronic
order entry from customers through faster response to customer
inquires and changes with more accurate sales projections.
• More accurate, realistic production scheduling while it requires less
expediting, canceling and rescheduling of production.
• For business management activities such as managing
manufacturing finance and accounting and developing enterprise
directives and financial plans, CIM offers better product cost
tracking, more accuracy in financial projections and improved cash
flow.

• Major Problem Sources
• While CIM programs have reported large gains for manufacturing
firms, CIM can be costly and difficult to implement. CIM
implementation in many organization is hindered because of the
difficulties in understanding the technology and organizational
impediments.
• The most serious problems reported include lack of direction and
cost justification indicating that support for CIM programs by top
level management is necessary to improve the success of CIM
programs.

CIM Facilities
Definition of CIM
Functions and Information Flows in CIM

CIM Activities
CIM Information Flow

The Enterprise Model

• CIM ARCHITECTURE
• To develop a comprehensive CIM strategy and solutions, an
enterprise must begin with a solid foundations such as CIM
architecture. A CIM architecture is an information systems structure
that enables industrial enterprises integrate information and
business processes It accomplishes this first by establishing the
direction integration will take; and second, by defining the
interfaces between the users and the providers of this integration
function.

Figure: CIM Architecture Elements

• Three key building blocks
• The information environment of an industrial enterprise is subject
to frequent changes in systems configuration and technologies. A
CIM architecture can offer a flexible structure that enables it to
react to these changes. This structure relies on a number of modular
elements that allow systems to change more easily to grow along
with enterprise needs. And as you can see from the chart on the
facing page, the modular elements that give a CIM architecture its
flexible structure are based on three key building blocks:
• Communications—the communication and distribution of data.
• Data management—the definition, storage and use of data
• Presentation—the presentation of this data to people and
devices throughout the enterprise

• Communications in the CIM environment
• Communications or the delivery of enterprise data to people, systems and
devices is a critical aspect of a CIM architecture. This is because today’s
industrial environment brings together a wide range of computer systems,
technologies, system architectures, operating systems and applications.
This range makes it increasingly difficult for people and machines to
communicate with each other especially when they describe and format
data differently.
• In the CIM environment communications must be integrated. It must
expand beyond individual areas, throughout the entire enterprise, and
beyond—to customers...to vendors...and to sub-contractors.
• Communications in the CIM environment will involve a wide range of
data transfer, from large batches of engineering or planning data to single-
bit messages from a plant floor device. Many connectivity types and proto
cols must be supported to enable the enterprise’s people, systems and
devices to communicate. This is especially true in cases where response
time is critical, such as during process alerts.
Figure : Communications in the CIM

environment

Figure : Plant Floor Communications

• Managing data in the CIM environment
• The second building block of a CIM architecture is data management. This
includes how data is defined, how different data elements are related, where data
is stored, and who has access to that data. Data management is particularly
critical in today’s industrial environment, since there are so many different data
bases, formats, and storage and access techniques.
• Data management defines and records the location of the data created and used
by the enterprise’s business functions. Data management also means enabling
users to get the data they need—with out having to know where this data is
located. Relationships among several data elements must be known if data is to
be shared by users and applications. In addition, other data attributes are
important when sharing data. These include the type of data (text, graphics,
image), its business status (working. review, completed), and the source of this
data (person, application, or machine). In a CIM architecture, data management
can be accomplished through three individual storage functions:
• • The data repository
• • The enterprise data store
• • The local data files

Figure: Managing Data in

CIM Environment

• Presentation in the CIM environment means providing data to and
accepting data from people and devices. Of course, this data must
assume appropriate data definitions and screen formats to be usable.
• For example, the same manufactured part may be referred to as a
part number in a bill of material application in Production Planning,
as a drawing in Engineering’s CAD application, and as a routing in
a paperless shop order application from Plant Operations.
• As data is shared across the enterprise, it must be transformed into
definitions and formats that support the needs of each individual
user and application. And applications must be able to access
shared data, collect the required information, and then format that
information for delivery.

Figure: Presentation in the CIM

Environment

Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Sections:
1. What is a Flexible Manufacturing System?
2. FMS Components
3. FMS Applications and Benefits
4. FMS Planning and Implementation Issues
5. Quantitative Analysis of Flexible Manufacturing Systems
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they
currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the
exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

Where to Apply FMS Technology
• The plant presently either:
– Produces parts in batches or
– Uses manned GT cells and management wants to
automate the cells
• It must be possible to group a portion of the parts made in
the plant into part families
– The part similarities allow them to be processed on the
FMS workstations
• Parts and products are in the mid-volume, mid-variety
production range

Flexible Manufacturing System - Defined
A highly automated GT machine cell, consisting of a group
of processing stations (usually CNC machine tools),
interconnected by an automated material handling and
storage system, and controlled by an integrated computer
system
• The FMS relies on the principles of GT
– No manufacturing system can produce an unlimited
range of products
– An FMS is capable of producing a single part family or
a limited range of part families

Flexibility Tests in an Automated Manufacturing System
To qualify as being flexible, a manufacturing system should
satisfy the following criteria (“yes” answer for each
question):
1. Can it process different part styles in a non-batch
mode?
2. Can it accept changes in production schedule?
3. Can it respond gracefully to equipment malfunctions
and breakdowns?
4. Can it accommodate introduction of new part
designs?

Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Automated Manufacturing Cell
Automated manufacturing cell with two machine tools and robot. Is it

a flexible cell?

Is the Robotic Work Cell Flexible?
1. Part variety test
– Can it machine different part configurations in a mix
rather than in batches?
2. Schedule change test
– Can production schedule and part mix be changed?

Is the Robotic Work Cell Flexible?
3. Error recovery test
– Can it operate if one machine breaks down?
• Example: while repairs are being made on the
broken machine, can its work be temporarily
reassigned to the other machine?
4. New part test
– As new part designs are developed, can NC part
programs be written off-line and then downloaded to
the system for execution?

Manufacturing Flexibility
• The flexibility of a manufacturing system indicates its capability to
respond to the changing circumstances and/or to the instability
caused by the environment



Types of FMS
• Kinds of operations
– Processing vs. assembly
– Type of processing
• If machining, rotational vs. non-rotational
• Number of machines (workstations):
1. Single machine cell (n = 1)
2. Flexible manufacturing cell (n = 2 or 3)
3. Flexible manufacturing system (n = 4 or more)

Single-Machine Manufacturing Cell

A single-machine CNC machining cell (photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)

Flexible Manufacturing Cell

A two-machine flexible manufacturing cell for machining (photo courtesy of Cincinnati
Milacron)

A five-machine flexible manufacturing system for machining (photo courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron)

Features of the Three Categories

FMS Types: Level of Flexibility
1. Dedicated FMS
– Designed to produce a limited variety of part styles
– The complete universe of parts to be made on the
system is known in advance
– Part family likely based on product commonality
rather than geometric similarity
2. Random-order FMS
– Appropriate for large part families
– New part designs will be introduced
– Production schedule is subject to daily changes

Dedicated vs. Random-Order FMSs

FMS Components
1. Workstations
2. Material handling and storage system
3. Computer control system
4. Human labor

Workstations
• Load and unload station(s)
– Factory interface with FMS
– Manual or automated
– Includes communication interface with worker to
specify parts to load, fixtures needed, etc.
• CNC machine tools in a machining type system
– CNC machining centers
– Milling machine modules
– Turning modules
• Assembly machines

Material Handling and Storage
• Functions:
– Random, independent movement of parts between
stations
– Capability to handle a variety of part styles
• Standard pallet fixture base
• Workholding fixture can be adapted
– Temporary storage
– Convenient access for loading and unloading
– Compatibility with computer control

Material Handling Equipment
• Primary handling system establishes basic FMS layout
• Secondary handling system - functions:
– Transfers work from primary handling system to workstations
– Position and locate part with sufficient accuracy and
repeatability for the operation
– Reorient part to present correct surface for processing
– Buffer storage to maximize machine utilization

Five Types of FMS Layouts
• The layout of the FMS is established by the material
handling system
• Five basic types of FMS layouts
1. In-line
2. Loop
3. Ladder
4. Open field
5. Robot-centered cell

FMS In-Line Layout
• Straight line flow, well-defined processing sequence

similar for all work units
• Work flow is from left to right through the same
workstations
• No secondary handling system
FMS In-Line Layout
• Linear transfer system with secondary parts handling system at each

workstation to facilitate flow in two directions

FMS Loop Layout
• One direction flow, but variations in processing sequence possible

for different part types
• Secondary handling system at each workstation

FMS Rectangular Layout
• Rectangular layout allows recirculation of pallets back to the first

station in the sequence after unloading at the final station

FMS Ladder Layout
• Loop with rungs to allow
greater variation in processing
sequence

FMS Open Field Layout
• Multiple loops and

ladders, suitable for
large part families

Robot-Centered Cell
• Suited to the handling of

rotational parts and
turning operations

FMS Computer Functions
1. Workstation control
– Individual stations require controls, usually computerized
2. Distribution of control instructions to workstations
– Central intelligence required to coordinate processing at
individual stations
3. Production control
– Product mix, machine scheduling, and other planning functions
4. Traffic control
– Management of the primary handling system to move parts
between workstations
5. Shuttle control
– Coordination of secondary handling system with primary
handling system
6. Workpiece monitoring: Monitoring the status of each part in the
system
FMS Computer Functions
7. Tool control
– Tool location
• Keeping track of each tool in the system
– Tool life monitoring
• Monitoring usage of each cutting tool and
determining when to replace worn tools
8. Performance monitoring and reporting
– Availability, utilization, production piece counts, etc.
9. Diagnostics
– Diagnose malfunction causes and recommend repairs

Duties Performed by Human Labor
• Loading and unloading parts from the system
• Changing and setting cutting tools
• Maintenance and repair of equipment
• NC part programming
• Programming and operating the computer system
• Overall management of the system

FMS Applications
• Machining – most common application of FMS
technology
• Assembly
• Inspection
• Sheet metal processing (punching, shearing, bending, and
forming)
• Forging

FMS at Chance-Vought Aircraft (courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)

FMS for Sheet Metal Fabrication

An example of a simple and modern manufacturing
Swarf
disposal
Universal Machining Center
Raw
Materials
AGV transport system 2 Area
AGV transport system 1
Host
computer
Universal Machining Center

Head Coordinate
1 2
Indexing Measuring
Machines Machine
Piecepart
Wash Buffer
Machine Area
Assembly Finish
Cells Machine
1&2 Cell

FMS Example
One Design + One Assembly Process = Multiple Models
When different models are designed to be assembled in the same sequence they can be built in
the same plant.
This maximizes efficiency and allows the company to respond quickly to changing customer

FMS Example
Through the use of reprogrammable tooling in the body shop, standardized equipment in the
paint shop and common build sequence in final assembly, Ford can build multiple models on
one or more platforms in one plant.
Body Shop Paint Shop Final Assembly
In the body shop, where In the paint shop, flexibility In the final assembly
the sheet metal comes means robotic applicators area, flexibility means
together to form the are programmed to cover the build sequence is the
vehicle’s body, flexibility various body styles – as same among multiple
means more than 80 they move through the models on one or more
percent of the tooling is paint booth – with equal platforms allowing for
not specific to one model. precision. This results in efficient utilization of
It can be reprogrammed to minimizing waste and people and equipment.
weld a car or a truck or a environmental impact
crossover of similar size. while maximizing quality.
FMS Benefits
• Increased machine utilization
– Reasons:
• 24 hour operation likely to justify investment
• Automatic tool changing
• Automatic pallet changing at stations
• Queues of parts at stations to maximize utilization
• Dynamic scheduling of production to account for
changes in demand
• Fewer machines required
• Reduction in factory floor space required

FMS Benefits
• Greater responsiveness to change
• Reduced inventory requirements
– Different parts produced continuously rather than in
batches
• Lower manufacturing lead times
• Reduced labor requirements
• Higher productivity
• Opportunity for unattended production
– Machines run overnight ("lights out operation")

Disadvantage of using FMS
• Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product mix
(ex:machines are of limited capacity and the tooling necessary for
products, even of the same family, is not always feasible in a given
FMS)
• Substantial pre-planning activity
• Expensive, costing millions of dollars
• Technological problems of exact component positioning and
precise timing necessary to process a component
• Sophisticated manufacturing systems

FMS Planning Issues
• Part family considerations
– Defining the part family of families to be processed
• Based on part similarity
• Based on product commonality
• Processing requirements
– Determine types of processing equipment required
• Physical characteristics of workparts
– Size and weight determine size of processing
equipment and material handling equipment
• Production volume
– Annual quantities determined number of machines
required
FMS Design Issues
• Types of workstations
• Variations in process routings
• Work-in-process and storage capacity
• Tooling
• Pallet fixtures

FMS Operational Issues
• Scheduling and dispatching
– Launching parts into the system at appropriate times
• Machine loading
– Deciding what operations and associated tooling at
each workstation
• Part routing
– Selecting routes to be followed by each part

FMS Operational Issues
• Part grouping
– Which parts should be on the system at one time
• Tool management
– When to change tools
• Pallet and fixture allocation
– Limits on fixture types may limit part types that can be
processed

Quantitative Analysis of Flexible Manufacturing Systems
• FMS analysis techniques:
1. Deterministic models
2. Queueing models
3. Discrete event simulation
4. Other approaches, including heuristics
• Deterministic models
1. Bottleneck model - estimates of production rate,
utilization, and other measures for a given product
mix
2. Extended bottleneck model - adds work-in-process
feature to basic model

Bottleneck Model
Important aspects of FMS performance can be mathematically
described by a deterministic model called the bottleneck model,
developed by Solberg [5]. Although it has the limitations of a
deterministic approach, the bottleneck model is simple and intuitive. It
can be used to provide starting estimates of FMS design parameters
such as production rate, number of workstations, and similar
measures. The term bottleneck refers to the fact that the output of the
production system has an upper limit, given that the product mix
flowing through the system is fixed. The model can be applied to any
production system that possesses this bottleneck feature, for example,
a manually operated machine cell or a production job shop. It is not
limited to flexible manufacturing systems.

Bottleneck Model

Bottleneck Model
• Process routing. For each part or product, the process routing
defines the sequence of operations, the workstations where
operations are performed, and the associated processing times. The
sequence includes the loading operation at the beginning of
processing on the FMS and the unloading operation at the end of
processing. Let — the processing time, which is the total time
that a production unit occupies a given workstation server, not
counting any waiting time at the station.
• where: i – refers to the station, j – refers to the part or product, k –
refers to the sequence of operations in the process routing,
• Work handling system. The material handling system used to
transport parts or products within the FMS can be considered to be
a special case of a workstation. Let us designate it as station n + 1,
and the number of carriers in the system (e.g., conveyor carts,
AGVs, monorail vehicles, etc.) is analogous to the number of
servers in a regular workstation. Let +1 the number of carriers in
the notes
Lecture FMS handling
on PE system.
6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose
Bottleneck Model
• Transport time. Let +1the mean transport time required to move a
part from one workstation to the next station in the process routing.
This value could be computed for each individual transport based
on transport velocity and distances between stations in the FMS,
but it is more convenient to simply use an average transport time
for all moves in the FMS.
• Operation frequency. The operation frequency is defined as the
expected number of times a given operation in the process routing
is performed for each work unit. For example, an inspection might
be performed on a sampling basis, once every four units; hence, the
frequency for this operation would be 0.25. In other cases, the part
may have an operation frequency greater than 1.0, for example, for
a calibration procedure that may have to be performed more than
once on average to be completely effective.
• where: i – refers to the station, j – refers to the process plan, k –
refers to the operations frequency.
Bottleneck Model: Operational Parameters for FMS

Bottleneck Model : System Performance Measures
Important measures for assessing the performance of a flexible manufacturing
system include production rate of all parts, production rate of each part style,
utilization of the different workstations, and number of busy servers at each
workstation. These measures can be calculated under the assumption that the FMS is
producing at its maximum possible rate. This rate is constrained by the bottleneck
station in the system, which is the station with the highest workload per server. The
workload per server is simply the ratio 𝑖 / 𝑖 for each station. Thus, the bottleneck
is identified by finding the maximum value of the ratio amongst all stations. The
comparison must include the handling system, since it might be the bottleneck in the
system. Let ∗ and ∗ equal the workload and number of servers, respectively, for
the bottleneck station. The maximum production rate of all parts of the FMS can be
determined as the ratio of ∗ to ∗. Let us refer to it as the maximum production
rate, because it is limited by the capacity of the bottleneck station,
where: 𝑝 ∗ - maximum production rate of all part styles product by the system,
which is determinated by the capacity of the bottleneck station (pc/min), ∗ - number
of servers at the bottleneck station, ∗ - workload at the bottleneck station
(min/pc).



Bottleneck Model

Bottleneck Model
Example 2: Bottleneck model on a simple problem: A flexible
machining system consists of two machining workstations and a
load/unload station. Station 1 is the load/unload station. Station 2
performs milling operations and consists of two servers (two identical
CNC milling machines). Station 3 has one server that performs drilling
(one CNC drill press). The stations are connected by a part handling
system that has four work carriers. The mean transport time is 3.0 min.
The FMS produces two parts,A and B. The part mix fractions and
process routings for the two parts are presented in the table below. The
operation frequency fijk = 1.0 for all operations. Determine: (a)
maximum production rate of the FMS, (b) corresponding production
rates of each product, (c) utilization of each station, and (d) number of
busy servers at each station.

Bottleneck Model: Ex 2 contd…





Bottleneck Model: Ex 3
An FMS consists of four stations. Station 1 is a load/unload station
with one server. Station 2 performs milling operations with three
servers (three identical CNC milling machines). Station 3 performs
drilling operations with two servers (two identical CNC drill presses).
Station 4 is an inspection station with one server that performs
inspections on a sampling of the parts. The stations are connected by a
part handling system that has two work carriers and whose mean
transport time = 35 min. The FMS produces four parts. A, B, C, and
D. The part mix fractions and process routings for the four parts are
presented in the table below. Note that the operation frequency at the
inspection station (f4jk) is less than 1.0 to account for the fact that only
a fraction of the parts are inspected. Determine: (a) maximum
production rate of the FMS, (b) corresponding production rate of each
part, (e) utilization of each station in the system, and (d) the overall
FMS utilization.


Bottleneck Model: Ex 3 Solution
• (a) We first calculate the workloads at the workstations to identify
the bottleneck station
• WLI = (4 + 2)(1.0)(0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4) = 6.0 min.
• WL2 = 20(1.0)(0.1) + 25(1.0)(0.2) + 30(1.0)(0.4) = 19.0 min.
• WL3 = 15(1.0)(0.1) + 16(1.0)(0.2) + 14(1.0)(0.2) + 23(1.0)(0.3)
= 14.4 min
• WL4 = 12(0.5)(0.1) + 15(0.2)(0.2) + 8(0.5)(0.3) + 12(0.333)(0.4)
= 4.0 min.
• nt = (4.5)(0.1) + (5.2)(0.2) + (3.5)(0.3) + (3.333)(0.4) - 1 = 2.873
• WL5 = 2.873(3.5) = 10.06 min.

• The bottleneck station is identified by the largest W Li/si ratio:
• For station 1, W L1/s1 = 6.0/1 = 6.0
• For station 2, W L2/s2 = 19.0/3 = 6.333
• For station 3, W L3/s3 = 14.4/2 = 7.2
• For station 4, W L4/s4 = 4.0/1 = 4.0
• For the part handling system, WL5/s5 = 10.06/2 = 5.03
• The maximum ratio occurs at station 3, so it is the bottleneck
station that determines the maximum rate of production of the
system
• R*p = 2/14.4 = 0.1389 pc/min = 8.333 pc/hr

• To determine the production rate of each product, multiply Rp*; by
its respective part mix fraction
• R*pA = 8.333(0.1) = 0.8333pc/hr
• R*pB = 8.333(0.2) = 1.667 pc/hr
• R*pC = 8.333(0.3) = 2.500 pcjhr
• R*pD = 8.333(0.4) = 3.333 pc/hr
• (e) Utilization of each station can be computed
• U1 = (6.0/1)(0.1389) = 0.833 (83.3%)
• U2 = (19.0;3)(0.1389) = 0.879 (87.9%)
• U3 = (14.4/2)(0.1389) = 1.000 (100%)
• U4 = (4.0/1)(0.1389) = 0.555 (55.5%)
• U5 = (1O.06/2)(O.1389) = 0.699 (69.9%)

• Overall FMS utilization can be determined using a weighted
average of the above values, where the weighting is based on the
number of servers per station and the part handling system is
excluded from the average,
• Us= [ 1(0.833) + 3(0.879)+ 2(1.0) + 1(0.555) ] /7= 0.861 (86.1%)

Bottleneck Model: Ex 4 (INCOMPLETE)
From Example 3, V2 = 87.9%.Determine the production rate of part D
that will increase the utilization of station 2 to 100%.
Utilization of a workstation is calculated using Eq.16.7. For station 2:
Setting the utilization of station 2 to 1.0 (100%), we can solve for the
corresponding W Lz value.
This compares with the previous workload value of 19.0 min
computed in Example 16.8. A portion of the workload for both values
is accounted for by parts A and R This portion is

A flexible manufacturing cell consists of two machining workstations
plus a load/unload station. The load/unload station is station 1. Station
2 performs milling operations and consists of one server (one CNC
milling machine). Station 3 has one server that performs drilling (one
CNC drill press). The three stations are connected by a part handling
system that has one work carrier. The mean transport time is 2.5 min.
The FMC produces three parts A, B, and C. The part mix tractions and
process routings for the three parts arc presented in the table
below.The operation frequency, fijk = 1.0 for all operations. Determine:
(a) maximum production rate of the FMC, (b) corresponding
production rates of each product, (c) utilization of each machine in the
system, and (d) number of busy servers at each station

Part j Part mix Pj Operation k Description Station i Process Time
tijk (min)
1 Load 1 3
2 Mill 2 20
A 0.2
3 Drill 3 12
4 Unload 1 2
1 Load 1 3
2 Mill 2 15
B 0.3
3 Drill 3 30
4 Unload 1 2
1 Load 1 3
2 Mill 2 14
C 0.5
3 Drill 3 22
4 Unload 1 2

• (a) We first calculate the workloads at the workstations to identify
the bottleneck station
• WL1 = (3 + 2)(1.0)(0.2 + 0.3 + 0.5) = 5.0 min.
• WL2 = 20(1.0)(0.2) + 15(1.0)(0.3) + 14(1.0)(0.5) = 15.5 min.
• WL3 = 12(1.0)(0.2) + 30(1.0)(0.3) + 22(1.0)(0.5) = 22.4 min
• The station routing for the three parts I the same 1-2-3-1. There are
three moves, therefore, nt = 3
• WL4 = 3(2.5) (1.0) (0.2 + 0.3 + 0.5) = 7.5min.
• The bottleneck station is identified by finding the largest WLi/Si
ratio:
• For station 1, WL1/S2 = 5.0/1 = 5.0 min
• For station 2, WL2/S2 = 15.5/1 = 15.5 min
• For station 3, WL3/S3 = 22.4 /1 = 22.4 min
• For station 4, Part handling system, WL4/S4 = 7.5 /1 = 7.5 min
• The maximum ratio occurs at station 3, so it is the bottleneck
station that determines the maximum production rate of all parts
made by the system
• Rp* = 1/22.4 = 0.0445 pc/min =2.68 pc/hr
• (b) To determine the production rate of each product, multiply Rp*;
by its respective part mix fraction
• R*pA = 2.68(0.2) = 0.54 pc/hr
• R*pB = 2.68(0.3) = 0.804 pc/hr
• R*pC = 2.68(0.5) = 1.34 pc/hr
• (c) Utilization of each station can be computed
• U1 = (5.0/1 )(0.0445) = 0.2225 (22.25%)
• U2 = (15.5/1)(0.0445) = 0.689(68.9%)
• U3 = (22.4 /1)(0.0445) = 1.000 (100%)
• U4 = (7.5 /1)(0.0445) = 0.3337 (33.37%)
• (d) Mean number of busy servers at each station
• BS1 = (5.0)(0.0445) = 0.2225
• BS2 = (15.5)(0.0445) = 0.689
• BS3 = (22.4)(0.0445) = 1.000
• BS4 = (7.5)(0.0445) = 0.3337

• For a given part mix, the total production rate is
ultimately limited by the bottleneck station
• If part mix ratios can be relaxed, it may be possible to
increase total FMS production rate by increasing the
utilization of non-bottleneck stations
• As a first approximation, bottleneck model can be used to
estimate the number of servers of each type to achieve a
specified overall production rate

• The number of parts in the FMS at any one time should be
greater than the number of servers (processing machines)
in the system
– Ratio of two parts per server is probably optimum
– Parts must be distributed throughout the FMS,
especially in front of the bottleneck station
– If WIP is too low, production rate is impaired
– IF WIP is too high, MLT increases

Factory of The Future
On the basis of advances made in all aspects of manufacturing
technology and computer integration, the factory of the future may be
envisioned as a fully automated facility in which human beings will
not be directly involved with production on the shop floor (hence the
term untended factories). All manufacturing , material handling,
assembly, and inspection will be done by computer controlled
machinery and equipment. Similarly, activities such as the processing
of incoming orders, production planning and scheduling, cost
accounting, and various decision making process (usually performed
by management) will also be done automatically by computers. The
role of human beings will be confined to activities such as overall
supervision, maintenance (especially preventive maintenance), and
upgrading of machines and equipments; the shipping and receiving of
supplies and finished products; provision of security for plant
facilities; the programming, upgrading, and monitoring of computer
programs, and the monitoring, maintenance, and upgrading of
computer hardware.
Factory of The Future
The reliability of machines, equipment, control systems, power
supplies and communication networks is crucial to full factory
automation. Without rapid human intervention, a local or general
breakdown in even one of these components can cripple production.
The computer integrated factory of future must be capable of
automatically rerouting materials and the production flows to the
other machines and to the control of other computers in the case os
such emergencies.

Robotics
NAO ROBOT
Purchased by the Dept. in
association with EEE dept.,
installed in EEE Dept.

NAO ROBOT

A Pick and Place Robot

Robotics
“Robot” coined by Karel Capek in a 1921 science-fiction Czech play

Robotics
• “A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions
for the performance of a variety of tasks.” (Robot Institute
of America)
• Industrial robot: A general-purpose, programmable
machine possessing certain anthropomorphic
characteristics
MIT’s Kismet: a robot

which exhibits expressions,
e.g., happy, sad, surprise,
disgust.

Ideal Tasks
Tasks which are:
– Dangerous
• Space exploration
• chemical spill cleanup
• disarming bombs
• disaster cleanup
– Boring and/or repetitive
• Welding car frames
• part pick and place
• manufacturing parts.
– High precision or high speed
• Electronics testing
• Surgery
• precision machining.

Automation vs. robots
• Automation –Machinery designed to carry out a specific task
– Bottling machine
– Dishwasher
(These are always better than
– Paint sprayer robots, because they can be
optimally designed for a
particular task).
• Robots – machinery designed

to carry out a variety of tasks
– Pick and place arms
– Mobile robots
– Computer Numerical Control
machines

Robotics Timeline
• 1922 Czech author Karel Capek wrote a story called Rossum’s
Universal Robots and introduced the word “Rabota”(meaning
worker)
• 1954 George Devol developed the first programmable Robot.
• 1955 Denavit and Hartenberg developed the homogenous
transformation matrices
• 1962 Unimation was formed, first industrial Robots appeared.
• 1973 Cincinnati Milacron introduced the T3 model robot, which
became very popular in industry.
• 1990 Cincinnati Milacron was acquired by ABB

Types of robots
• Pick and place A SCARA robot
– Moves items between (Selective Compliant
points Articulated Robot Arm):
A pick-and-place robot
with angular
x-y-z positioning (Adept
Technology)
• Continuous path control A six-axis industrial

– Moves along a robot ($60K)(Fanuc
programmable path Robotics), but an
additional $200K is
• Sensory often spent for tooling
and programming.
– Employs sensors for
feedback
Pick and Place
• Moves items from one point
to another
• Does not need to follow a

specific path between points
• Uses include loading and

unloading machines, placing
components on circuit
boards, and moving parts off
conveyor belts.
A cartesian robot for picking and placing

circuits on circuit-boards

Continuous path control
• Moves along a specific path
• Uses include welding,

cutting, machining parts.
Robotic seam welding

Sensory
• Uses sensors for feedback.
• Closed-loop robots use sensors in

conjunction with actuators to gain
higher accuracy – servo motors.
• Uses include mobile robotics,

telepresence, search and rescue,
pick and place with machine vision.

Industrial Robot Applications
• Hazardous work environments
• Repetitive work cycle
• Consistency and accuracy
• Difficult handling task for humans
• Multishift operations
• Reprogrammable, flexible
• Interfaced to other computer systems

Robot Anatomy
• Manipulator consists of joints and links
– Joints provide relative motion
– Links are rigid members between
joints Joint3 Link3
– Various joint types: linear and rotary End of Arm
– Each joint provides a “degree-of-
freedom”
– Most robots possess five or six Link2
degrees-of-freedom Link1
• Robot manipulator consists of two

Joint2
sections:
– Body-and-arm – for positioning ofJoint1
objects in the robot's work volume Link0
– Wrist assembly – for orientation of Base
objects
Robot Anatomy
Robot manipulator - a series of joint-link combinations

DEGREES OF FREEDOM
• The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be compared
to the way in which the human body moves.
• For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
• The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the configuration.
• Each of the five basic motion configurations discuss previously
utilizes three degrees of freedom in the arm.
• Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector
all the flexibility.
• A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand
at any point in its work space.
• Although six degrees of freedom are needed for maximum
flexibility, most robot employee only three to five degrees of
freedom.
• The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the complexity of
motions encountered.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM (CONTD.)
• The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of a robotic system
are:
– The rotational reverse: is the movement of the arm assembly
about a rotary axis, such as left-and-right swivel of the robot’s
arm about a base.
– The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction of the arm or
the in-and-out motion relative to the base.
– The vertical traverse: provides the up-and-down motion of the
arm of the robotic system.
• The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist, which bear the
names of aeronautical terms, are
– Pitch or bend: is the up-and-down movement of the wrist.
– Yaw: is the right-and-left movement of the wrist.
– Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this class students will be able:
• Identify different types of Robot joint types
• Know about joint notations
• Identify robots of different configurations
• To draw the schematics of a robot of a given joint
configurations

Manipulator Joints
• Translational motion
– Linear joint (type L)
– Orthogonal joint (type O)
• Rotary motion
– Rotational joint (type R)
– Twisting joint (type T)
– Revolving joint (type V)

Joint Notation Scheme
• Uses the joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint
types used to construct robot manipulator
• Separates body-and-arm assembly from wrist assembly
using a colon (:)
• Example: TLR : TR
• Common body-and-arm configurations …

Robot Joints
Prismatic Joint: Linear, No rotation involved.
(Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder)
Revolute Joint: Rotary, (electrically driven with stepper motor, servo motor)

Robot Coordinates
 Cartesian/rectangular/gantry (3P) : 3 cylinders joint

 Cylindrical (R2P) : 2 Prismatic joint and 1 revolute joint
 Spherical (2RP) : 1 Prismatic joint and 2 revolute joint
 Articulated/anthropomorphic (3R) : All revolute(Human arm)
 Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA):
2 paralleled revolute joint and 1 additional prismatic joint
Robot Reference Frames
Fig. A robot’s World, Joint, and Tool reference frames.

Most robots may be programmed to move relative to either of these reference frames.
ARM GEOMETRY
• Robot must be able to reach a point in space within three axes by
moving forward and backward, to the left and right, and up and
down.
• Robot manipulator may be classified according to the type of
movement needed to complete the task.
• Rectangular-coordinated:
- Has three linear axes of motion.
- X representsd left and right motion
- Y describes forward and backward motion.
- Z is used to depict up-and-down motion.
The work envelope of a rectangular robot is a cube or rectangle,

so that any work performed by robot must only involve motions
inside the space.

Polar Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly
• Notation TRL:
• Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body,

which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and horizontal
axis (R joint)

SPHERICAL COORDINATED
• Has one linear motion and two rotary motions.
• The work volume is like a section of sphere.
• The first motion corresponds to a base rotation about a vertical axis.
• The second motion corresponds to an elbow rotation.
• The third motion corresponds to a radial, or in-out, translation.
• A spherical-coordinated robots provides a larger work envelope
than the rectilinear or cylindirical robot.
• Design gives weight lifting capabilities.
• Advantages and disadvantages same as cylindirical-coordinated
design.

SPHERICAL COORDINATED
• Applications:
– Die casting
– Dip coating
– Forging
– Glass handling
– Heat treating
– Injection molding
– Machine tool handling
– Material transfer
– Parts cleaning
– Press loading
– Stacking and unstacking.

Cylindrical Body-and-Arm Assembly
• Notation TLO:
• Consists of a vertical column,
relative to which an arm assembly
is moved up or down
• The arm can be moved in or out
relative to the column

CYLINDRICAL-COORDINATED
• Has two linear motions and one rotary motion.
• Robots can achieve variable motion.
• The first coordinate describe the angle theta of base rotation---
about the up-down axis.
• The second coordinate correspond to a radical or y--- in out motion
at whatever angle the robot is positioned.
• The final coordinate again corresponds to the up-down z position.
• Rotational ability gives the advantage of moving rapidly to the
point in z plane of rotation.
• Results in a larger work envelope than a rectangular robot
manipulator.
• Suited for pick-and-place operations.

• Advantage:
– Their vertical structure conserves floor space.
– Their deep horizontal reach is useful for far-reaching operations.
– Their capacity is capable of carrying large payloads.
• Disadvantage:
– Their overall mechanical rigidity is lower than that of the
rectilinear robots because their rotary axis must overcome
inertia.
– Their repeatability and accuracy are also lower in the direction
of rotary motion.
– Their configuration requires a more sophisticated control system
than the rectangular robots.

• Application:
– Assembly
– Coating applications.
– Conveyor pallet transfer.
– Die casting.
– Foundary and forging applications.
– Inspection moulding.
– Investment casting.
– Machine loading and unloading.

Cartesian Coordinate Body-and-Arm Assembly
• Notation LOO:
• Consists of three sliding joints, two

of which are orthogonal
• Other names include rectilinear robot
and x-y-z robot
O
O

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
• Advantages:
– They can obtain large work envelope because ravelling along the
x-axis, the volume region can be increased easily.
– Their linear movement allows for simpler controls.
– They have high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy, and
repeatability due o their structure.
– They can carry heavy loads because the weight-lifting capacity
does not vary at different locations withing the work envelope.
• Disadvantages:
– They makes maintenance more difficult for some models with
overhead drive mechanisms and control equipment.
– Access to the volume region by overhead crane or other
material-handling equipment may be impaired by the robot-
supporting structure.
– Their movement is limited to one direction at a time.
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
• Application:
– Pick-and-place operations.
– Adhesive applications(mostly long and straight).
– Advanced munition handling.
– Assembly and subassembly(mostly strainght).
– Automated loading cnc lathe and milling operations.
– Nuclear material handling.
– Welding.

Jointed-Arm Robot
• Notation TRR:

SCARA Robot
• Notation VRO
• SCARA stands for Selectively
Compliant Assembly Robot Arm
• Similar to jointed-arm robot
except that vertical axes are used
for shoulder and elbow joints to
be compliant in horizontal
direction for vertical insertion
tasks

Wrist Configurations
• Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm
• End effector is attached to wrist assembly
• Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
– Body-and-arm determines global position of end effector
• Two or three degrees of freedom:
– Roll
– Pitch
– Yaw
• Notation :RRT

Example
• Sketch following manipulator configurations
• (a) TRT:R, (b) TVR:TR, (c) RR:T.
Solution:
R
R
T T R
R T
R
R V
T T
(a) TRT:R (b) TVR:TR (c) RR:T

Joint Drive Systems
• Electric
– Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
– Preferred drive system in today's robots
• Hydraulic
– Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
– Noted for their high power and lift capacity
• Pneumatic
– Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material
transfer applications

POWER SOURCES
• The three power sources used in current robots are:
– Electric: all robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
• Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraullic and pneumatic
pressure.
• It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components and
peripheral devices.
• In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are
electrically powered.
• Because electric robot do not require a hydraulic power unit, they
conserve floor space and decrease factory noise.
• No energy conversion is required.
– Pneumatic: these are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators
with low load carrying capacity.
• Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple
stop-to-stop motions.
• It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating pressures are
moderate.

POWER SOURCES
– Hydraulic: are either linear position actuators or a rotary vane
configuration.
• Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a

given actuator.
• The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator

an attractive choice for moving moderate to high loads at
reasonable speeds and moderate noise level.
• Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of

energy to achieve a better performance, but they are
expensive and generally less accurate.

Measures of performance
• Working volume
– The space within which the robot
operates.
– Larger volume costs more but can
increase the capabilities of a robot
• Speed and acceleration

– Faster speed often reduces resolution
or increases cost
– Varies depending on position, load.
– Speed can be limited by the task the
robot performs (welding, cutting)
• Resolution
– Often a speed tradeoff
– The smallest step the robot can take
Measures of performance
Accuracy
–The difference between the
actual position of the robot and
the programmed position
• Repeatability
Will the robot always return to
the same point under the same
control conditions?
Increased cost
Varies depending on position,

load

Robot Control Systems
• Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations using
mechanical stops to set positions
• Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle as a
sequence of points, then plays back the sequence during program
execution
• Playback with continuous path control – greater memory
capacity and/or interpolation capability to execute paths (in
addition to points)
• Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes it seem
intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs, makes decisions,
communicates with humans

Robot Control System
• Hierarchical control structure of a robot microcomputer controller

End Effectors
• The special tooling for a robot that enables it to perform a specific
task
• Two types:
– Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during
work cycle
– Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting

Grippers and Tools

Robot Mechanical Gripper
• A two-finger mechanical gripper for grasping rotational parts

Advances in Mechanical Grippers
• Dual grippers
• Interchangeable fingers
• Sensory feedback
– To sense presence of object
– To apply a specified force on the object
• Multiple fingered gripper (similar to human hand)
• Standard gripper products to reduce the amount of custom design
required

Sensors in Robotics
Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:
1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the manipulator
joints
2. External - used to coordinate the operation of the robot with other
equipment in the work cell
– Tactile - touch sensors and force sensors
– Proximity - when an object is close to the sensor
– Optical -
– Machine vision
– Other sensors - temperature, voltage, etc.

Robot Workspace
Fig. Typical workspaces for common robot configurations

Working Envelope

Advantages VS. Disadvantages of Robots
 Robots increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and
consistency of products.
 Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need.
 Robots need no environmental comfort.
 Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue of problem.
 Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
 Robots can be much more accurate than human.
 Robots replace human workers creating economic problems.
 Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously.
 Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies.

 Robots, although superior in certain senses, have limited
capabilities in Degree of freedom, Dexterity, Sensors, Vision
system, real time response.
 Robots are costly, due to Initial cost of equipment, Installation costs,
Need for Peripherals, Need for training, Need for programming.
ROBOT CLASSIFICATION
Classification: classified into six categories
– Arm geometry: rectangular; cylindirical; spherical; jointed-
arm(vertical);joined-arm(horizontal).
– Degrees of freedom: robot arm; robot wrist.
– Power sources: electrical; pneumatic; hydraulic;any
combination.
– Type of motion: slew motion; joint-interpolation; straight-line
interpolation; circular interpolation.
– Path control: limited sequence; point-to-point; continous path;
controlled path.
– Intellligence level: low-technology(nonservo); high-techonology
(servo).

Industrial Robot Applications
1. Material handling applications
– Material transfer – pick-and-place, palletizing
– Machine loading and/or unloading
2. Processing operations
– Welding
– Spray coating
– Cutting and grinding
3. Assembly and inspection

Robotic Arc-Welding Cell
• Robot performs
flux-cored arc
welding (FCAW)
operation at one
workstation while
fitter changes parts
at the other
workstation

Robot Programming
• Leadthrough programming
– Work cycle is taught to robot by moving the manipulator
through the required motion cycle and simultaneously entering
the program into controller memory for later playback
• Robot programming languages
– Textual programming language to enter commands into robot
controller
• Simulation and off-line programming
– Program is prepared at a remote computer terminal and
downloaded to robot controller for execution without need for
leadthrough methods

Leadthrough Programming
1. Powered leadthrough
– Common for point-to-
point robots
– Uses teach pendant
2. Manual leadthrough
– Convenient for
continuous path control
robots
– Human programmer
physical moves
manipulator

Leadthrough Programming Advantages
• Advantages:
– Easily learned by shop personnel
– Logical way to teach a robot
– No computer programming
• Disadvantages:
– Downtime during programming
– Limited programming logic capability
– Not compatible with supervisory control

Robot Programming
• Textural programming languages
• Enhanced sensor capabilities
• Improved output capabilities to control external equipment
• Program logic
• Computations and data processing
• Communications with supervisory computers

Coordinate Systems
World coordinate system Tool coordinate system

Motion Commands
MOVE P1
HERE P1 - used during lead through of manipulator
MOVES P1
DMOVE(4, 125)
APPROACH P1, 40 MM
DEPART 40 MM
DEFINE PATH123 = PATH(P1, P2, P3)
MOVE PATH123
SPEED 75

Interlock and Sensor Commands
Interlock Commands
WAIT 20, ON
SIGNAL 10, ON
SIGNAL 10, 6.0
REACT 25, SAFESTOP
Gripper Commands
OPEN
CLOSE
CLOSE 25 MM
CLOSE 2.0 N

Simulation and Off-Line Programming

Simulation and Off-Line Programming
• In conventional usage, robot programming languages still require
some production time to be lost in order to define points in the
workspace that are referenced in the program
– They therefore involve on-line/off-line programming
• Advantage of true off-line programming is that the program can be
prepared beforehand and downloaded to the controller with no lost
production time
– Graphical simulation is used to construct a 3-D model of the
robot cell in which locations of the equipment in the cell have
been defined previously

Robot Accuracy and Repeatability
Three terms used to define precision in robotics, similar to numerical
control precision:
1. Control resolution - capability of robot's positioning system to
divide the motion range of each joint into closely spaced points
2. Accuracy - capability to position the robot's wrist at a desired
location in the work space, given the limits of the robot's control
resolution
3. Repeatability - capability to position the wrist at a previously
taught point in the work space

Example
A robot performs a loading and unloading operation for a machine tool
as follows:
– Robot pick up part from conveyor and loads into machine (Time=5.5 sec)
– Machining cycle (automatic). (Time=33.0 sec)
– Robot retrieves part from machine and deposits to outgoing conveyor. (Time=4.8 sec)
– Robot moves back to pickup position. (Time=1.7 sec)
Every 30 work parts, the cutting tools in the machine are changed
which takes 3.0 minutes. The uptime efficiency of the robot is 97%;
and the uptime efficiency of the machine tool is 98% which rarely
overlap.
Determine the hourly production rate.

Solution
Tc = 5.5 + 33.0 + 4.8 + 1.7 = 45 sec/cycle
Tool change time Ttc = 180 sec/30 pc = 6 sec/pc
Robot uptime ER = 0.97, lost time = 0.03.
Machine tool uptime EM = 0.98, lost time = 0.02.
Total time = Tc + Ttc/30 = 45 + 6 = 51 sec = 0.85 min/pc
Rc = 60/0.85 = 70.59 pc/hr
Accounting for uptime efficiencies,

Rp = 70.59(1.0 - 0.03 - 0.02) = 67.06 pc/hr

References
1. Kalpakjian, Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials, 4th edition,, Prentice Hall 2003
2. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology – Metal Cutting and
Machine Tools, TMH.
3. Y. Koren, Computer Control of Manufacturing Processes,
4. Mikell P. Groover, Automation, Production Systems, and
Computer–Integrated Manufacturing, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of
India, 2003

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PE 6007

Manufacturing Automation & Robotics

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

1. Know the various aspects of automation in manufacturing.

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Manufacturing facilities: factory,

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Material Handling Complexity

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Type of Number Typical products

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Figure : General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop,

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Reference: Bright J.R.

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 6007 Manufacturing Automation & Robotics, Joyjeet Ghose