CABLES

Cables are designed to be suitable for specific design voltages, which is called the "Voltage
Grade" (or "Voltage Designation", "Voltage Class" or "Voltage Rating") of the cable. The
voltage grade is commonly expressed in the following form: U0/U
Where U0 is the power frequency voltage between phase and earth (V rms)
U is the power frequency voltage between two phase conductors (V rms)

For example, some standard IEC voltage grades are 0.6/1kV, 1.9/3.3kV, 3.8/6.6kV, 6.35/
11kV , 12.7/22kV, 19/33kV, etc. U0 and U both being r.m.s, values

You may notice that LV cables are mainly specified to 0.6/1kV cables even though they are
operated are much lower voltages (e.g. 240/415V, 220/380V, etc). This is due to the fact that
the mechanical requirements of the insulation thickness are greater than the electrical
requirements.

Neutral Earthing Considerations

For MV and HV cables (>1kV), some consideration must be given to the neutral earthing
arrangements of the system when specifying a voltage grade. In the US, the Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies (AEIC) has the following specifications depending on the
neutral earthing arrangements and clearing time of the protective device:
 100% insulation level
 133% insulation level
 173% insulation level

The insulation levels above refer to the nominal phase-to-phase voltages. For example, a
cable with a 133% insulation level on a 33kV system is rated for 133% the nominal phase-to-
phase system voltage, i.e. 133% x 33kV = 43.89kV.
100% Insulation Level
The 100% is the insulation level normally used for cables on solidly earthed systems, or on
any system where the protective device will clear earth faults within 1 minute.
133% Insulation Level
The 133% insulation level is specified for systems where the protective device is expected to
clear earth faults within 1 hour, and is typically specified for high impedance earthed or
unearthed systems.
173% Insulation Level
The 173% insulation level is specified for systems where the time to clear an earth fault is
indefinite. This is typically recommended for unearthed or resonant earthed systems.
D.C. resistance
The d.c. resistance is also dependent on temperature as given by
Rt = R20[l + az0(t - 20)]

where Rt : conductor resistance at t°C (~)

R20 = conductor resistance at 20°C (D)
a20 = temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor material at 20°C
t = conductor temperature (°C)
A.C. resistance
If a conductor is carrying high alternating currents, the distribution of current is not evenly
disposed throughout the cross-section of the conductor. This is due to two independent effects
known as the 'skin effect' and the 'proximity effect'.

What is skin effect and proximity effect?

Skin effect is the tendency for high-frequency currents to flow on the surface of a conductor.

When two or more conductors are placed near to each other, then their electromagnetic fields
interact with each other. Due to this interaction, the current in each of them is redistributed
such that the greater current density is concentrated in that part of the strand most remote
from the interfering conductor.
Proximity effect is the tendency for current to flow in other undesirable patterns---loops or
concentrated distributions---due to the presence of magnetic fields generated by nearby
conductors.

The proximity effect also increases the effective resistance and is associated with the
magnetic fields of two conductors which are close together. If each carries a current in the
same direction, the halves of the conductors in close proximity are cut by more magnetic flux
than the remote halves. Consequently, the current distribution is not even throughout the
cross-section, a greater proportion being carried by the remote halves.

If the currents are in opposite directions the halves in closer proximity carry the greater
density of current. In both cases the overall effect results in an increase in the effective
resistance of the conductor. The proximity effect decreases with increase in spacing between
cables.

If DC flows on the surface of the conductor, then the current are uniformly distributed around
the cross section area of the conductor. Hence, no proximity effect occurs on the surface of
the conductor.
The proximity effect is important only for conductor sizes greater than 125 mm2.Correction
factors are to be applied to take this fact into account.
If Rdc – uncorrected DC level of the core
Ys – skin effect factor, i.e., the fractional increment in resistance to allowing for skin effect.
yp – proximity effect factor, i.e., the fractional increment in resistance to allowing for skin
effect.
Re – effective or corrected ohmic resistance of the core.
The allowance for proximity effect is made, the AC resistance of the conductor becomes
The resistance Rdc is known from stranded tables.

Factors Affecting the Proximity Effect

The proximity effect mainly depends on the factors like conductors material, conductor
diameter, frequency and conductor structure. The factors are explained below in details
Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in the frequency.

Diameter – The proximity effect increases with the increase in the conductor.

Structure – This effect is more on the solid conductor as compared to the stranded

conductor (i.e., ASCR) because the surface area of the stranded conductor is smaller than the

solid conductor.

Material – If the material is made up of high ferromagnetic material then the proximity

effect is more on their surface.

How to reduce Proximity Effect?

The proximity effect can be reduced by using the ACSR (Aluminum Core Steel Reinforced)
conductor. In ACSR conductor the steel is placed at the centre of the conductor and the
aluminium conductor is positioned around steel wire.
The steel increased the strength of the conductor but reduced the surface area of the
conductor. Thus, the current flow mostly in the outer layer of the conductor and no current is
carried in the centre of the conductor. Thus, reduced the proximity effect on the conductor.