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University of Wollongong

Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections

1997

Series compensation of distribution and


subtransmission lines
Robert Arthur Barr
University of Wollongong

Recommended Citation
Barr, Robert Arthur, Series compensation of distribution and subtransmission lines, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1997. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1349

Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the


University of Wollongong. For further information contact Manager
Repository Services: morgan@uow.edu.au.
SERIES COMPENSATION OF

DISTRIBUTION AND SUBTRANSMISSION LINES

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree

of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

from

THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG

by

Robert Barr, B.E.(Hons),M.E.,C.P.Eng.,F.I.E.(Aust)

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1997


1

Dedication

T o m y wife, Linda and children, Jane, Adrian and Karen.

Acknowledgement

I wish to express m y appreciation and gratitude to m y supervisor, D r D o n Piatt for his


most valuable assistance with this project.

Declaration

I hereby certify that this thesis is entirely my own work and has not been submi
the award of a degree to any other university or institution.

RoberBarr

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


2

Abstract

Series capacitors can increase the power carrying capacity of subtransmission and

distribution lines by reducing voltage regulation. When considering series capacito

compensation of distribution lines and subtransmission lines careful consideration

to be given to capacitor location, ferroresonance, ohmic reactive value, transient

behaviour, short circuit withstand and capacitor protection. Conventional design

approaches include shunt connected resistors, spark gaps, metal oxide varisters, thy

controlled reactors and bypass switches.

This thesis describes the use of a saturating choke and damping resistor to control

ferroresonance, transients, and through fault currents. A small scale laboratory non

linear single phase ferroresonant circuit was constructed with realistic per unit

component values. Both 3rd and 2nd subharmonic ferroresonance modes were predicted

by modelling and generated in practice.

Choke and damping resistor parameters were selected by modelling to eliminate all t

unwanted ferroresonant states. Experimental work confirmed that all the unwanted

ferroresonant states were eliminated from the laboratory circuit. The transient and

circuit performance of the system is considered. The proposed arrangement offers an

effective countermeasure to ferroresonance for series compensated distribution line

The system also allows some control of system fault levels and transient circuit

behaviour. The technique is simple, effective and requires no sophisticated control,

protection or bypass switch systems.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


Table of Contents

/. Introduction

2. Compensation Effects on Line Voltage Ptofiles

3. An Overview of the Ferroresonance Phenomenon

4. Time Domain Transient Ferroresonance Model

5. Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model

6. Laboratory Ferroresonant Circuit "A"

7. Laboratory Ferroresonant Circuit "B"

8. Stability of Frequency Domain Ferroresonant Solutions_

9. Management of Ferroresonance and Short Circuit Withstand

10. Existing Techniques for Managing Ferroresonance and Short Circuit Curr

11. A New Technique for Managing Ferroresonance 83

12. Selection Of Component Values 95

13. Scaling Up To Real Distribution Networks 98

14. Future Research Directions 108

15. Conclusions 110

16. References 113

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


4

List of Appendices

Appendix A
Detailed Experimental and Frequency Domain Model Results for Circuit "A" 128

Appendix B
Modelled Transient R L C Behaviour for Circuit "A" 131

Appendix C
Detailed Experimental and Frequency Domain Model Results for Circuit "B" 134

Appendix D
Modelled Transient R L C Behaviour for Circuit "B" 137

Appendix E
Experimental Circuit "D" 3 Phase 140

Appendix F
Modelled stored Energy in Circuit "A" 142

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


5

List of Main Symbols

co power frequency - radians per second


X transformerfluxlinkage - weber turns
Xc choke flux linkage - weber turns
e mismatch voltage error
a sine switch on angle - radians
<|) V-I phase angle - radians
fr frequency ratio
I distribution line current - amps
Lci Choke leakage inductance - henrys
R distribution line resistance - ohms
T power frequency period - seconds
Vc capacitor voltage - volts
Vd line voltage drop - volts
VI load voltage - volts
Vs supply voltage - volts
X distribution line reactance - ohms
Xc capacitor reactance - ohms

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


6

1. Introduction

Series Compensation in Power Distribution Systems

1.1.1 Capacitors have been used for the series compensation of transmission and
distribution lines for m a n y years. Series capacitor installations have been
described in the literature as far back as 1954 102. Pioneer power system
engineers were seriously examining the merits and demerits of series
capacitors and analysing the subharmonic ferroresonance phenomena [401] in
the 1930's.

1.1.2 Series capacitors are now in common use at the transmission level with
hundreds of units in service throughout the world. Although series capacitors
have been in use for a long time they have not found widespread acceptance as
a viable economic power system component at the distribution level. It is the
use of series capacitors at the distribution level that is the subject of this thesis.

1.1.3 Distribution power systems have special characteristics that make them
different from transmission systems. This thesis is aimed at examining ways in
which the viability and effectiveness of series capacitor compensation can be
improved at the distribution level.

The Series Capacitor Compensation Circuit.

1.2.1 Figure 1 shows the typical voltage profile of a very weak distribution lin
a lumped load at the end. The line resistance and reactance is distributed along
the line. A s the load varies from light load to full load there is a substantial
voltage difference seen by customers. It is the difference between light load
and full load voltage that in many cases limits the capacity of the line.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


AAAA^ -rrrnr^

73 75
d d
Distributed line R & L O
o

Figure 1 Voltage Profile of a W e a k Distribution Line

1.2.2 Figure 2 shows the effect of series capacitor compensation on the same li
The power line supplying the transformer is represented by distributed linear
inductance and resistance. The circuit contains a series capacitor to tune out
the effects of the line inductance. W h e n used for series compensation, the
capacitance will normally be chosen so as to tune out all or most of the line
inductance at the power frequency.

rYMA7™^ -yVVVXA-^nnpo^
CAP,
-a 73
a. a
Distributed line R & L
o. o
CK

Light Load

±0.90

Figure 2 Voltage Profile of a W e a k Distribution Line with Series Capacitor


Compensation
Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines
8

1.2.3 T h e fundamental issues concerning series capacitors are the same today as
they were in the pioneering days of 1930's. Series capacitors offer the
potential to tune out all or part of the series inductance of lines at the power
frequency. This can result in reduced voltage regulation, enhanced power
transfer capability and improved system stability. Series capacitors are
particularly attractive in controlling voltage fluctuations associated with
rapidly varying loads. With such significant potential for enhanced power
transfer capability the question arises as to w h y series capacitors have not
found widespread use and acceptance at the distribution level.

1.2.4 Series capacitors are not in widespread use at the distribution level because
the generation of ferroresonant overvoltages, fault level problems, problems
associated with capacitor withstand of heavy through fault currents and high

cost.

1.2.5 Series capacitors can produce subharmonic ferroresonant overvoltages and


currents. This phenomenon is generally not well understood by power system
engineers with the result that a series capacitor installation is considered a
high risk option or simply not considered at all. T h e possibility of serious
damage to capacitors, transformers and customer installations by
ferroresonance is of real concern and requires careful management. T h e
experimental and modelling w o r k performed in the course of this project has

highlighted h o w destructive ferroresonance can be.

1.2.6 Effective solutions to the problems of ferroresonance and capacitor protection


are of great potential benefit. Analysis of most large power system distribution
networks will identify locations of high voltage regulation where voltage

conditions could be improved by series compensation.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


9

1.2.7 This thesis is concerned with gaining a fundamental understanding of


ferroresonance and other series capacitor related problems and developing
n e w solutions.

Improved Voltage Control with Series Capacitors

1.3.1 Voltage control in electric power systems is of fundamental importance in


achieving desired power flows and maintaining voltage levels within specified
limits.

1.3.2 Great engineering effort and capital expenditure is invested in power syste
to provide sufficient "system strength" to maintain voltage levels within the
required margins. Distribution lines are normally limited in their load carrying
capacity by either thermal current rating considerations or excessive voltage
drop. In general terms distribution systems supplying high load density areas
such as Commercial Business Districts and areas of high density housing
development tend to be current rating limited. Regions of low load density
such as rural areas and regional towns tend to be supplied by distribution

systems that are voltage drop limited.

1.3.3 High voltage regulation in distribution feeders is not the main limitation
itself. It is the voltage variation between light load and full load that limits the
m a x i m u m feeder loads that can be accommodated. With off circuit
transformer taps on distribution transformers, the voltage variation in the high
voltage distribution feeder is directly reflected on to low voltage customers.
Australian Standard A S 2 9 2 6 sets m a x i m u m voltage variation at + 6 % to - 6 %
or 2 2 6 V to 2 5 4 V in a 2 4 0 V system.

1.3.4 There are many engineering approaches to overcoming problems of excessive

voltage regulation including augmentation of lines, construction of additional

lines, shunt capacitors, voltage regulators (on load tap changing auto
transformers), on load tap changing transformers and construction of n e w

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


10

substations. These approaches often involve large capital costs in areas where
there are low load densities. Development of a low cost series compensation
arrangement for distribution systems could provide significant advantages in
selected situations.

.4 Improved System Stability with Series Capacitors

1.4.1 Series capacitors can increase the stability of power systems by reducing th
effective impedance of lines. Reduced line impedance has the effect of
increasing system fault levels and increasing the strength of interconnection of
a distributed network of generators [512] [513],

.5 Ferroresonance

1.5.1 Ferroresonance is a well documented hazard of series capacitors in


distribution networks 102[103]. Ferroresonance can result in severe
overvoltages in capacitors, distribution transformers and customer
installations.

.6 Subsynchronous Resonance

1.6.1 Subsynchronous resonance is a potential hazard with series capacitors [510],


Subsynchronous resonance involves a low frequency exchange of energy
between a series capacitor and a generator. Subsynchronous resonance can
cause the mechanical failure of generator shafts.

.7 Asynchonous Resonance

1.7.1 Asynchronous resonance is a another potential problem whereby motors can


lock onto subharmonic frequencies on starting and consume abnormally high
currents [102].

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


11

2. Compensation Effects on Line Voltage Profiles

2.1 Uncompensated Line Voltage Profiles

2.1.1 Figure 3 shows a phasor diagram for the typical uncompensated system with
the corresponding voltage profile.

IR sin(0) + IX cos(0)

VI

Figure 3 Phasor Diagram of an Uncompensated Line

2.1.2 The voltage drop Vd is defined by equation (1) as the difference in magn
between the supply voltage V s and the load voltage VI. A s shown on the
phasor diagram, equation (2) is a very good approximation for the voltage
drop in short lines where transmission line effects can be ignored. Equation (2)

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


12

remains a good approximation for most distribution lines because the angle
between V s and VI is generally small.

Vd= |Vs|- |V1| (1)

Vd « IRcos(<|>) + IXsin(<|>) (2)

2.1.3 Equation (2) describes the fundamentals of voltage drop performance on


distribution lines and is very useful for analysing the various forms of power
system compensation.

2.1.4 At no load the load current I will be zero and hence both terms IR cos((J>) an
IX sin((p) in equation (2) will be zero. Under these conditions there will be no
line voltage drop. At full load the voltage drop needs to be kept d o w n to a
manageable level (typically 5 % to 1 5 % of the supply voltage Vs). The aim is
to minimise the line voltage drop, Vd. The line resistance, R, is determined by
the line length and conductor size and hence is a fundamental characteristic of
the line. The parameters over which control is possible are the effective
inductive reactance of the line, X, and the effective load power factor (i.e. X
and cos(<|>) ). The effective inductive reactance of the line, X, can be controlled
by series capacitor compensation and the effective load power factor can be
controlled by shunt capacitor compensation.

2.2 Series Compensation Line Voltage Profiles

2.2.1 With series compensation the series capacitors produce a reactive impedance
that typically cancels out all or part of the line reactance, X. Under full
compensation conditions the effective line reactance is zero and hence the
term IX sin(<j>) from equation (2) becomes zero. The voltage drop on the line

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


13

is n o w a function of the line resistance, load current and load power factor via
the term IR cos(<J>) as shown in equation (3).

Vdw IRcos((j>) (3)

2 Series capacitors are most effective in lines with a high X / R ratio. If the X / R
ratio is less than unity then series capacitors will tend to be ineffective. Load
power factor is also a consideration with little or no benefit being gained if the
power factor is close to unity.

3 Figure 4 shows a typical voltage profile of a fully series compensated line


where the capacitor is located at the centre of the line. This figure clearly
shows h o w the installation series capacitors can significantly improve the
voltage variations between full load and light load.

IR sin<0)

Vc
I

CAP,
Vs Distributed line R 8. L VI

Light Load

Figure 4 Phasor Diagram of a Fully Compensated Line

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


14

2.2.4 Series capacitors are not a solution to all line voltage drop problems, however
in the appropriate locations they offer the prospect of solving voltage and
other system problems in a very effective manner. The key requirements for a
successful series compensation scheme is a high X / R ratio (say X / R > = 1 ) and a
power factor below unity (say cos(<|>)<=0.9).

2.3 Shunt Capacitor Compensation Line Voltage Profiles

2.3.1 Shunt capacitor compensation or power factor correction is the most common
form of compensation used in power systems. Large industrial customers are
commonly required by electricity supply authorities to maintain their power
factor above a specified minimum. Power factor control is often achieved in
these cases with shunt connected power factor correction capacitors.
Electricity supply authorities also use shunt connected capacitors in critical
parts of their networks to control reactive power flows.

2.3.2 With shunt compensation the line impedance remains unchanged. The shunt
capacitors increase the effective load power factor towards unity by
generating reactive power for the load. With reference to equation (1) this
means that the effective power factor cos(<|)) moves towards unity and sin((|>)
is driven toward zero. Under conditions of full compensation the term I X
sin((j)) is driven to zero leaving the voltage drop as approximately IR cos(<l)).

2.3.3 The effectiveness of shunt compensation is not limited by the line inductive
reactance. The ultimate limitation in a shunt compensation scheme is the line
resistance. In practical shunt compensation schemes the power factor m a y be
lifted from say 0.75 lagging (for an industrial plant) up to 0.9. It would be rare
and generally uneconomic to provide sufficient compensation to bring the
power up into the range 0.95 to 1.0.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


15

2.3.4 Figure 5 shows a typical voltage profile of a shunt capacitor compensation


scheme. The possible voltageriseeffect is shown if the capacitors are left in
service under light or no load conditions. T o overcome this problem
capacitors must be switched in and out of service depending on the reactive
load requirements. This means that voltage changes occur in discrete steps and
switchgear and control equipment is required. Unless specialised thyristor
equipment is used it not possible to react to rapidly fluctuating loads.

serv'\ce _P 1.1 Light Load capacitors


out of service
& i.o.
cs r
-p uU Load capacitors in service
°0.9

0.8 d0.8

Figure 5 Voltage Profile Illustrating Shunt Capacitor Compensation

2.3.5 Harmonic resonances generated by variable speed drives and other non linear
loads are becoming an increasing problem with shunt capacitors [513]. Shunt
capacitors present a low impedance to high frequency harmonics that can
result in abnormally high and destructive capacitor currents.

2.4 Comparison of Series and Shunt Compensation

2.4.1 Both series and shunt capacitor compensation have their advantages and
disadvantages. Both schemes have their place in power systems. Below is a
summary of the advantages and disadvantages.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


16

Series Capacitor Compensation

Advantages

• Compensation naturally regulates with changes in load current.

• L o w risk of problems from load generated harmonics.

• Reduced line currents.

Disadvantages

• Ferroresonance.

• Fault level control.


• Capacitor fault level withstand.

Shunt Capacitor Compensation

Advantages

• No inherent ferroresonance risk.

• Capacitors do not carry line fault currents.

• Reduced line currents.

Disadvantages

• Automatic regulation only possible with expensive control gear.

• Switchgear and control equipment generally required.

• Voltage and V A R changes in discrete steps.

• Inability to respond to rapid load fluctuations.


• Risk of overcurrent damage from load generated harmonics.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


17

2.5 Limitations of Series and Shunt Capacitor Compensation Schemes

2.5.1 Both series and shunt capacitor compensation can only provide benefits if the
power load power factor is significantly below unity. Although series and
shunt compensation operate in different ways they both reduce the voltage
drop effect of the line inductive reactance. Lines with a high resistance tend to
be beyond any real scope for improvement with any form of compensation
scheme.

2.5.2 Capacitor compensation techniques are concerned with improving the


electrical performance of the distribution network. They cannot create a
strong system if the existing line is of high resistance. A high line resistance
generally means that a major system augmentation is the only real solution to
severe voltage drop problems.

2.5.3 Compensation schemes in the correct locations can be highly effective in


improving power system performance. If installed without due considerations
to the fundamentals, they are likely to be ineffective.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


18

3. A n Overview of the Ferroresonance Phenomenon

3.1 The Nature of Ferroresonance

3.1.1 Normal linear circuit resonance is well understood and the conditions required
for resonance are well defined. T h e most c o m m o n resonances in linear electric
circuits involve series/parallel capacitors and inductances. Resonance(s) occur
at specific and easily predictable values of frequency, inductance and
capacitance.

3.1.2 In circuits consisting of linear resistive, capacitive and inductive elements with
constant voltage power frequency sources only one steady state solution will
exist. In these cases the branch currents and node voltages are single valued
and are predicable using standard circuit theory techniques 511.

3.1.3 Ferroresonance by comparison is more complex and much more difficult to


predict. Ferroresonance results from the interactions of linear circuit elements
in combination with non-linear transformers and chokes. It is the non linear B -
H characteristic of iron cored transformers and chokes that gives
ferroresonance its unique characteristics. Circuits susceptible to
ferroresonance can sustain multiple current waveforms of different frequencies
for a given supply voltage. In these situations the circuits have multiple
solutions to the governing differential equations. It is this aspect of

ferroresonance that makes it particularly interesting to study.

3.1.4 Ferroresonance is one of the fundamental barriers to the widespread use of


series capacitors in distribution and transmission lines. Ferroresonance can
cause dangerous system overvoltages and overcurrents. T h e conditions
generated by ferroresonance can damage power system equipment and

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


19

customer installations. Ferroresonance cannot be explained in conventional


linear circuit theory terms and requires sophisticated modelling.

3.1.5 Ferroresonant circuits can exhibit circuit behaviour that is far removed from
conventional linear circuits. Ferroresonant behaviour can have both
symmetrical and non-symmetrical voltage, current and flux waveforms. The
resulting waveforms can have a power frequency fundamental or can have
even or odd subharmonic waveforms. Chaotic circuit behaviour is also
possible with ferroresonant circuits [509].

3.1.6 Series compensation is only one source of power system ferroresonance. The
other major source of power system ferroresonance occurs with single phase
switching involving phase to ground capacitance and iron cored transformers
[301 to 323]. High voltage capacitive voltage transformers feeding iron cored
voltage transformers are also a potential source of ferroresonance [428]. The
ferroresonant models described later in this thesis can be applied to all these
situations. This thesis has concentrated on the ferroresonant effects associated
with series capacitor compensation.

3.1.7 Figure 6 shows the basic ferroresonant circuit configuration. The transformer
has a saturable iron core. The power line supplying the transformer is
represented by a linear inductance and resistance. The circuit contains a series
capacitor to tune out the effects of the line inductance. W h e n used for series
compensation, a capacitance will normally be chosen so as to tune out a
majority or all of the line inductance at the power frequency. This results in
the L C combination having a natural frequency close to the power frequency.

3.2 Linear Circuit Techniques

3.2.1 In the literature [401 to 431] a great deal has been published on mathematical
techniques for analysing the behaviour of ferroresonant circuits. M a n y of the

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


20

techniques involve making assumptions concerning the non-linear current/flux


linkage relationship.

Vc
Vr

Figure 6 Series Capacitor Ferroresonant Circuit

2 In many cases the mathematics becomes so complicated and so restricted to


the underlying assumptions that m u c h of the value of the resulting
mathematical expressions is limited. The reality is that ferroresonance is a
complex non-linear phenomena and does not lend itself to clean mathematical
analysis like circuits with linear circuit elements.

3 A great deal can be understood about ferroresonance by studying the step


voltage response of the linear L R C circuit show in Figure 7. The speed at
which the capacitor voltage can change compared to the period of the power
frequency is a critical factor in determining if ferroresonance can be sustained
in the power frequency voltage source circuit shown in Figure 6.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


21

VI Vr y^

A L R C

V(t)

Figure 7 Linear Series L R C Circuit

3.2.4 Determining the rate of change of capacitor voltage in the linear LRC circui
shown in Figure 7 requires solution of the linear differential equation (4) with
the appropriate initial conditions.

V = L- + R 1+ -jKlt (4)

3.2.5 There are three (3) fundamental responses possible. Overdamped, critically

damped and underdamped [511].

Case 1 Overdamped (R/2L)2 > 1/(LC)

Figure 8 shows the voltage response of a typically overdamped system.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


22
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Case 2 Critically damped (R/2L) 2 = 1/(LC)

Figure 9 shows the voltage response of a critically damped system.

Case 3 Underdamped 1/(LC) > (R/2L)2

Figure 10 shows the voltage response of an underdamped system.

Under power frequency supply conditions, overdamped and critically damped LRC
circuits in series with an iron cored transformer are unlikely to produce any
ferroresonant response because of the high level of damping. W h e n studying
ferroresonance the most important and relevant L R C response is the underdamped case.
All the ferroresonant circuits examined in this thesis consist of linear L R C components
that have an underdamped behaviour.

Step Response Analysis of an Underdamped Series LRC Circuit

Below are the key equations that describe the behaviour of an underdamped linear LRC
circuit in response to a step voltage.

let tc=2L/R (5)

let j3=yll/LC-(R/2L)2 (6)

let Zc=^ (7)

Given the definitions given be equations (5),(6) and (7) it can be shown 51 lthat t
response current is given by equation (8).

V -(-)
I= — e *• sin(>ft) (8)

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


24
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Figure 11 shows the line current associated with the underdamped example
shown in Figure 10. This current response shows the nature of equation 8.
The current has a natural frequency of 0 radians per second and exponentially
decays toward zero with a time constant of tc seconds. O f particular
importance is the rate ofriseof capacitor voltage shown in Figure 10 and the
time taken for the capacitor voltage to reach the applied step voltage.

Figure 12 shows the standard series ferroresonant circuit where the linear
L R C circuit elements are in series with a saturable transformer. In order to
gain a basic understanding of ferroresonance behaviour the transformer can be
considered as an open circuit when it is not saturated and a short circuit when
it is saturated. The transformer no load case is being considered. The
transformer flux linkage is governed by equation (9).

Vc

Figure 12 Series Ferroresonant Circuit

*. = Jvpdt (9)

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


28

Typical Ferroresonant Voltage, Current and Flux W a v e f o r m s

3.3.1 Figures 13 and 14 show the voltage, current and flux linkage waveforms of a
circuit in steady state 3rd subharmonic ferroresonance. Analysis of the
waveforms show that w h e n the transformer is not saturated the current flow is
near zero with the result that the capacitor cannot charge or discharge and
hence the capacitor stays at near constant voltage. The voltage applied to the
transformer is the source voltage plus a contribution from the capacitor
voltage. This voltage after a short period of time causes the transformer to
saturate. Transformer saturation results in an effective short circuit across the
primary transformer terminals (Vp=0) and the supply voltage is suddenly
applied across the series L R C elements. The circuit response is similar to
applying the step voltage to the L R C circuit studied earlier. The capacitor will
charge up toward the applied supply voltage.

3.3.2 The rate at which the capacitor voltage can change to form a repetitive pattern
of transformer saturation is a critical factor in determining the possibility of
ferroresonance. During any ferroresonance the transformer can only remain in
saturation for part of a full cycle. If the circuit is capable of changing the
capacitor voltage by a significant amount (in the order of 5 % of the supply
voltage) during part of a cycle then ferroresonance is possible.

3.3.3 In order to predict the possibility of ferroresonance it is useful to examine th


ratio of the natural circuit frequency to the power frequency as defined by

equation 10.

Let Frequency Ratio fr = p V © (10)

3.3.4 The other key indicator is the X/R ratio of the circuit.

X/R = ©L/R (11)


= cotc/2 (12)

= 7ttc/T (13)

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


29
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3.3.5 Equation 13 shows that the X / R ratio is a direct measure of the ratio of the
decay time constant of the natural circuit behaviour (t c ) to the power

frequency period (T).

3.3.6 The non linear nature of ferroresonance makes it a difficult and complex task
to predict. Computer modelling is the most c o m m o n w a y of predicting the
possibility of ferroresonance in a particular circuit.

3.3.7 Modelling and experimental work has shown that the frequency ratio and X/R
ratio can provide a simple method of determining by inspection the possibility
of ferroresonant states. Table 1 below has proved to be a good predictor as to
h o w these two simple ratios influence the risk of ferroresonance. The table
and comments below relate to typical power system conditions where a small
but significant line resistance is in the ferroresonant circuit and the transformer
is operating near its design voltage and hence close to saturation.

X/R«l No No No
Ferroresonance Ferroresonance Ferroresonance

X/R«l | No Ferroresonance Ferroresonance

Ferroresonance Possible Possible

X/R»l | No Ferroresonance Ferroresonance

Ferroresonance Possible Possible

Table 1 - Predictor of Ferroresonace

3.4 Influence of the Frequency Ratio on Ferroresonance Behaviour

3.4.1 For the establishment of sustained ferroresonance the circuit must be capable
of significantly changing the capacitor voltage by charging through the series

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


32

inductance on resistance over a small part of a cycle. For example if the power
frequency is 50 hertz the capacitor voltage must be able to change its voltage
by a significant amount in a period m u c h less then 0.02 seconds. The
frequency ratio is a key indicator as to the capability of the circuit to exhibit
ferroresonant behaviour.

Case 1 fr « i

Due to the inherent low natural frequency of the circuit the capacitor voltage of the
ferroresonant circuit can change by only a very small amount during any interval the
transformer is in saturation. Under these conditions ferroresonance is not possible.

Case 2 fr «1

Under these conditions the capacitor voltage will change by a significant but limited
amount during any interval the transformer is in saturation. Under these conditions
ferroresonant states are possible. Because of the limited change in capacitor voltage at
each point of transformer saturation, the capacitor voltage tends to change in steps that
can generate repeating w a v e forms with subharmonic fundamentals. Ferroresonance is
possible.

Case 3 fr»l

Under these conditions the capacitor voltage can change rapidly and track the supply
voltage during any interval the transformer is in saturation. Under these conditions
ferroresonant states are possible.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


33

3.5 Influence of the X / R Ratio on Ferroresonance Behaviour

3.5.1 The X/R ratio is a measure of the transient damping characteristic of circuit. A
high line resistance results in a highly damped system with a small X / R ratio.

Case A X/R« 1

Where the X/R ratio is much less than 1 the circuit is highly damped by the line
resistance and the generation of ferroresonance is not possible.

CaseB XZR*1

Under these conditions the circuit is moderately damped and if ferroresonance


establishes it is likely to produce steady state repeating waveforms.

CaseC X/R»l

Under these conditions the circuit is very underdamped. Where ferroresonance


establishes with a large X/R the circuit m a y create either repeating or non repeating
waveforms. N o n repeating chaotic circuit behaviour is possible [509].

3.5.2 When analysing series compensated circuits it is very useful to calculate the
frequency ratio and the time constant ratio to gain an understanding of the
ferroresonance possibilities.

3.6 Series Compensated Lines

3.6.1 In the case of series compensation, the series capacitor will normally be
chosen so as to tune out all or most of the line inductance at the power
frequency. This means that the frequency ratio fr will typically be unity or
slightly less than unity.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


34

3.6.2 For distribution lines, typical X / R ratios are in the range of 0.1 for small
diameter steel conductor lines to 3 for high capacity lines with bundled
conductors [514].

3.6.3 Modelling and experimental work has shown that in series single phase
compensated distribution lines with typical ranges of frequency ratio and X/R
ratio, the most c o m m o n type of ferroresonance is the subharmonic
fundamental type with stable repeating waveforms.

7 Ferroresonance Cause by Single Phase Switching

3.7.1 Another major source of ferroresonance in power systems is the result of


single phase switching [301 to 323] were there is naturally occurring phase to
earth capacitance. In general the phase to earth capacitance is small creating a
frequency ratio fr m u c h greater than unity.

8 Generation of Chaotic Ferroresonant Waveforms

3.8.1 Generation of chaotic ferroresonance in power systems is rare but has been
identified as possible in the literature [429]. The generation of chaotic
ferroresonance has been reported in an electronic circuit by Deane and Hamill
[509]. The resonance was generated with a square wave voltage generator

operating at high frequency.

9 Conclusions on the Overview of Ferroresonance

3.9.1 A great deal can be understood about ferroresonance by applying linear circuit
techniques to what is a non linear problem. The basic series L R C elements are
linear and their transient behaviour is well understood. The transient behaviour
of the L R C elements can be completely analysed by conventional analytical
means. The saturable transformer is the non linear element and in its simplest

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


35

form can be thought of as a switch which is open w h e n the core is unsaturated


and closed w h e n the core is saturated.

2 The simple analysis techniques described provide a basic overview of


ferroresonance. The techniques have proved useful in gaining a fundamental
understanding of the ferroresonance phenomenon prior to detailed modelling
and analytical work.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


36

4. Time Domain Transient Ferroresonance Model

4.1 The Governing Fundamental Ferroresonant Differential Equation

4.1.1 This model has been developed to operate in the time domain to examine the
behaviour of ferroresonant circuits. The model operates by numerical
integration of the following non-linear differential equation on a step by step
basis:

V(t) = L^ + ^+Ri +I|idt (14)


dt dt CJ

where: X (i) is a non-linear function representing the transformer flux linkage.

4.2 The Modelling Process

4.2.1 Given the circuit quantities at t = ti the model calculates a new set of circuit
quantities at t = ti+At where At is a small increment of time. In making the
small step forward in time, an estimate of the new capacitor voltage is made
which by calculation results in a mismatch (error) between the capacitor
current and the transformer current. Applying Newton's method and other
numerical techniques to the error allows the calculation of an improved
estimate of capacitor voltage. Continued improved estimates of the circuit
parameters are achieved by iteration until the error falls below a
predetermined small limit. The model is very robust and able to cope with all
ferroresonant circuits analysed.

4.3 Initial Conditions

4.3.1 The initial conditions are often critical in determining the behaviour of the
circuit. Solution of the equation requires knowledge of the forcing function

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


37

V(t) and the initial conditions. The initial conditions that need to be defined at
the beginning of each simulation are the capacitor charge and flux linkage. O f
critical importance is the voltage angle at which the circuit is energised.

4.4 Modelling Features Required to find Numerous Ferroresonant Modes

4.4.1 To allow close simulation of experimental procedures, the model allows the
establishment of ferroresonance at a supply voltage of say 200 volts and then
simulating the effect of reducing the voltage d o w n to say 170 volts. Using this
technique, the limits of ferroresonance operation can be found over a range of
supply voltages. The model has been designed to allow simulation of all initial
conditions including variation of turnon angles, residual capacitor charge and
residualfluxlinkage.

4.4.2 Ferroresonance is such a complex phenomenon that modelling under


conditions of a specified voltage of say 200 volts is not likely to produce the
full ferroresonant picture. There m a y be three or more ferroresonant states
possible for a specific supply voltage. T o achieve simulation of all the possible
modes requires careful consideration of initial conditions and the path that is
followed to a given supply voltage. Finding all the ferroresonant states
requires more than just a good simulation model, it requires insight by the user
in driving the model to achieve the desired results.

4.5 Modelling the Transient Response

4.5.1 The Time Domain Ferroresonance Model is suited to tracking the transient
response of ferroresonant circuits through until a steady state behaviour is
achieved. The understanding gained by the author of the transient circuit
behaviour has given insight into effective counter measures against
ferroresonance.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


38

4.6 Interfacing with the Frequency D o m a i n Model

4.6.1 The Time Domain Ferroresonance Model interfaces with another modelling
system that operates in the frequency domain. The Time Domain
Ferroresonance Model is designed to provide the Frequency Domain
Ferroresonance Model with an initial estimate of harmonic flux linkages. This
technique has proved very useful in mapping out the ferroresonant states in a
quick and effective manner. Both models can accept the transformer non-
linear B - H characteristic as a continuously differentiable function.

4.7 Building the Time Domain Ferroresonance Model to suit Experimental


Requirements

4.7.1 Extensive experimental work has given insight into the features required
within the Time Domain Ferroresonance Model. Experimental work showed
that some ferroresonant states were very difficult to achieve in the laboratory.
For example some subharmonic ferroresonant waveforms at a specific supply
voltage required generation of the similar waveforms at a higher voltage,
followed by a slow reduction in the supply voltage. The Time Domain
Ferroresonance Model software was written to allow this type of simulation.
This is particularly important in the area of initial conditions and in being able
to track over a range of supply voltages from high to low or from low to high.
The time domain modelling also allowed the selection of circuit components
that were k n o w n to generate ferroresonant responses before the circuits were

constructed.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


39

5. Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model

5.1 The Modelling Process

v(t + i +Ri idt 14


^ df 4/ < >
5.1.1 The Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model is governed by the non-linear
differential equation shown as equation (14). The Frequency Domain
Ferroresonance Model operates by making an estimate of the fundamental and
higher order harmonic flux linkages in the circuit. The method is k n o w n as
"harmonic balance" and has been used by researchers studying non linear
systems for many years. The number of harmonics to be analysed can be set by
the user. Typically 9 harmonics are analysed, each with sine and cosine
components giving 18 degrees of freedom. Where even harmonics are
analysed the D.C. level of transformer flux linkage forms an additional 19th
degree of freedom. Using the harmonic flux linkages, loop voltage errors are
calculated for all harmonic components.

5.1.2 The model uses the harmonic loop voltage errors to make an improved
estimate of flux linkages. This process involves making an individual small
change to each of the 19 harmonic flux linkages, one at a time. The 19 sets of
19 errors are used to calculate a 19x19 Jacobian matrix (incremental error
matrix). This matrix is inverted and multiplied by the error vector to produce
an improved estimate of the harmonic flux linkages using Newton's method.

This process is repeated until the error is sufficiently small.

5.1.3 A continuously differentiable B-H function is a fundamental requirement of

the Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


40

5.2 Initial Estimates of Harmonics

5.2.1 An initial estimate of the harmonic flux linkages is required to start the
iteration process. The initial estimate of the harmonic flux linkages can come
from the Time Domain Ferroresonance Model or it can come from a known
nearby Frequency Domain solution.

5.3 Selection of Base Ferroresonant Fundamental Frequency

5.3.1 The base ferroresonant frequency (e.g. power frequency, 2nd subharmonic or
3rd subharmonic) must also be selected by the user prior to starting the
iteration process. Once selected the Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model
is "blind" to other solutions that are not multiples of the fundamental search
frequency.

5.3.2 For example, if the user set the base ferroresonant frequency to search for
solutions with a 3rd subharmonic fundamental (50Hz/3 = 16.6Hz) it could not
find a 2nd subharmonic solution or a 5th subharmonic solution. The model
could however find a power frequency solution because the power frequency
is the 3rd harmonic of the 3rd subharmonic. Having completed the search for
3rd subharmonic solutions the user could then set the base ferroresonant
frequency to say a 2nd subharmonic frequency and search for additional
solutions.

5.4 Tracking a Locus of Frequency Domain Solutions

5.4.1 The advantage of the Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model is that it


quickly converges on the steady state solution. Having found a solution in the
frequency domain, n e w solutions can then be found with small changes to
voltage levels and other variables creating a locus of solutions. This is
achieved by using the nearby solution as the initial condition for the search.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


41

.5 Unstable Solutions not Experimentally Achievable

5.5.1 The model operates by identifying locations in state space where the non-
linear differential circuit equation is satisfied. Multiple solutions can exist for a
given supply voltage and are found by using different initial conditions and by
searching for different subharmonics.

5.5.2 One of the most interesting findings has been that not all solutions found by
the Frequency Domain Ferroresonance Model are stable solutions that can
exist in practice. Investigation has shown that some solutions exist where the
fundamental ferroresonant differential equation (14) is satisfied but are
unstable and unsustainable in the laboratory. Solutions found in the Frequency
Domain Ferroresonance Model can be tested for stability using the Time
Domain Ferroresonance Model.

5.5.3 In the experimental ferroresonant circuits studied all the unstable solutions
identified have been associated with alternate ferroresonant solutions. In these
cases multiple solutions exist to the governing differential equation but one
solution dominates the other in some sense making it unstable. This is one area
where there is a fundamental difference between linear and non linear circuits.

5.5.4 In linear circuits, a real solution to the governing differential equations is a


necessary and sufficient condition for the solution to exist in practice. In the
non linear ferroresonant circuits studied, solution of the governing differential
equations is a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for the
solution to exist in practice. Determination of whether a particular solution is
stable or unstable is of considerable interest and is covered later in chapter 8.

6 Interfacing the Frequency Domain Model with the Time Domain Model

5.6.1 The Time Domain Model and the Frequency Domain Model complement each
other and are extremely useful in analysing ferroresonance. Data can be

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


42

exchanged between models to aid in the search for solutions. This process
allows the mapping of the ferroresonant states with a composite approach.
The process of using both the Frequency Domain Model and the Time
Domain Model in combination is shown in Figure 15.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


43

Set initial switch on


conditions Vs,Vc, a, X
? —
Complete time domain
simulation (typically 100 cycles)

Fourier analyse X
into frequency components
Multiply the inverted
Initialise transformer
Jacobian Matrix by the
harmonic flux
error vector to determine
linkages \... \
incremental change
required to XQ ... X„
Use non-linear transformer
characteristics to
determine in... i_ I
T
Determine harmonic error
Invert Jacobian Matrix

voltages E„ ... e„

Determine (n+1) by (n+1)


Jacobian Matrix by
analysing individual small
increments to X^... \

Use time domain analysis to


determine if solution is stable

I
M a p and store solution

I
Step through required range of V s (or other key
variable) to create a locus of solutions. Use the previous
solution as the initial condition for the next run.

Figure 15 Composite Time Domain and Frequency Domain Model

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


44

6. Laboratory Ferroresonant Circuit ""A


A"

6.1 Laboratory Circuit "A"- General Arrangement

6.1.1 To test the ferroresonant models, a series compensated circuit was


constructed in the laboratory with the component values as shown in Figure
14. The series capacitor was selected to tune out the line inductance at 50 H z
and demonstrate the generation of both odd and even subharmonics. The
transformer was modelled with no load by equation (15).

L = 0,147H C=69uF
KZT7P—wv—
R=5,6 DHM

V(t)

Figure 16 Ferroresonant Circuit M"AA"

i = 0 . U +0.892 X5 .(15)

6.1.2 The transformer losses were modelled by a 1500 Q resistance across the
primary transformer terminals. The supply frequency was 50 Hz. The
transformer used was a single phase 200V/415V rated at 500 V A . The 200
volt transformer winding was used in the circuit with no connected load. The
supply voltage was sinusoidal. The resulting transformer magnetising curve is

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


45

shown in Figure 17 and the comparison of measured and modelled


magnetising current over a range of applied transformer voltage is shown in
Figure 18. The detailed results are provided in appendix A.

6.1.3 Circuit "A" represents the series compensation of a distribution line with
approximately 2 5 % line voltage drop at full transformer load. The circuit
characterises the compensation of a very high impedance line. Deviation from
standard per unit distribution line values were used to produce the desired
range of ferroresonant conditions.

6.1.4 This circuit was modelled using both the Time Domain Model and the
Frequency Domain Model and tested under a range of supply voltage
conditions to demonstrate the wide range of ferroresonant conditions possible.

6.2 Comparison of Experimental and Modelled Results

6.2.1 The following figures show the predicted and measured circuit behaviour.
Figure 19 shows the variation in R M S current over a range of applied source
voltages and Figure 20 shows the variation in capacitor voltage over a range
of applied source voltages.

6.2.2 50 Hz Fundamental with Higher Order Harmonics

6.2.2.1 This mode of circuit behaviour is not unusual and simply reflects
increasing transformer magnetising current with increasing applied voltage.

6.2.3 3rd Subharmonic

6.2.3.1 The 3rd subharmonic mode was sustainable only over a range of supply
voltages from 60 volts to 180 volts. Figures 21 and 22 show the Time
Domain Modelled voltage, current and flux waveforms at a supply voltage

of 120 volts R M S .

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


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6.2.3.2 The waveforms show perfect symmetry and hence the absence of any
even harmonics. The graphs show that the transformer saturates twice on
the positive side followed by twice on the negative side. The pattern
repeats every 3 cycles hence the generation of the 3rd subharmonic
fundamental waveform of 16.7 H z .

6.2.3.3 The cycle time used in the following description refer to the time bases in
Figures 21 and 22. W h e n the transformer is being driven into saturation the
transformer voltage falls to near zero causing the source voltage to be
applied to the other circuit elements, namely the series L R C . At the
beginning of the cycle (0.0 cycle time), the capacitor voltage is large and
negative. The capacitor voltage combined with the supply voltage result in
a high positive transformer voltage peaking at 0.25 cycle time. This causes
a high dX/dt which is the cause of the transformer going into saturation.

6.2.3.4 The transformer voltage falls to low values again when saturation occurs
at 0.6 cycle time. At this time the source voltage is effectively applied
across the series L R C elements forcing the capacitor with a large negative
voltage to a smaller negative voltage. The change in capacitor voltage is
determined by the natural frequency of the L and C which in this case is 50

Hz., the damping effect of R, the shape of the transformer A,(i) curve and

the time the transformer remains saturated.

6.2.3.5 When the transformer comes out of saturation at 0.7 cycle time, the
transformer offers a high impedance to the circuit and allows minimal
current flow. During this part of the cycle the capacitor voltage remains
nearly constant. The small negative capacitor voltage combined with the
supply voltage result in a second high positive transformer voltage which
forces the transformer into heavy positive saturation a second time at 1.4

cycle time.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


53

6.2.3.6 During the second positive saturation phase, the capacitor charges rapidly
and attains a large positive voltage peaking at 1.6 cycle time. The large
positive capacitor voltage combined with the supply voltage result in a
large negative transformer voltage which forces the transformer into
saturation in the negative direction at 2.1 cycle time. Similarly, a second
heavy saturation occurs in the negative direction at 2.9 cycle time.

6.2.3.7 This process repeats over 3 complete 50 Hz cycles and hence the resulting
waveform has a 3rd subharmonic fundamental (16.7 H z ) with higher order
odd harmonics (e.g. 50 H z , 83.3 H z , 116.7 H z etc.).

6.2.4 2nd Subharmonic

6.2.4.1 The ferroresonant circuit also demonstrated the ability to generate 2nd
subharmonic voltages, currents andfluxes.In power systems, the linearity
of most system components and the symmetry of the transformer B - H
loops normally dictates that even harmonics cannot occur.

6.2.4.2 After ferroresonant even subharmonics were found using the Time
Domain Model, the Frequency Domain Model was modified to permit
even subharmonics and the existence of a D.C. component of transformer
flux linkage. Study of the literature revealed that the existence of even
subharmonics had been discovered as far back as 1941 by M c C r u m m

[203].

6.2.4.3 The modelling of the system predicted the existence of a 2nd subharmonic
ferroresonant state and experimental work confirmed the existence of such
a state. A stable 2nd subharmonic state existed for supply voltages in the
range 190 volts to 230 volts. Figures 23 and 24 show the predicted
modelled waveforms for the 2nd subharmonic ferroresonant state at an
applied voltage of 205 volts. These shapes show very good correlation

with experimentally measured wave shapes shown in Figure 25.


Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines
54
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PM3304, FLUKE <S PHILIPS

channel 1 - Transformer Flux Linkage 1.2 webers/division


channel 4 - Current 2 amps/division
time 10 ms/division

supply voltage 205 volts R M S

Figure 25 Measured 2nd Subharmonic Waveforms Circuit "A"

6.2.4.4 Table 2 shows the magnitude and phase of the harmonic transformer flux
linkages. O f special interest is the existence of a D.C. level of transformer
flux linkage.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


57

Table 2
Harmonic Components of Transformer Flux Linkage

205 V RMS 50 Hz supply voltage


2nd subharmonic 25 H z fundamental
Units - Webers peak

Frequency Tml
Hz Magnitu
0 (D.C.) 0.27 0.27
25 4,38; -0.26 1.40
50 0.36 -0.10 0.37

75 ' •0.02 0.01 0.02

100 0.02 0.01 002


125 •0.02 0.00 OM
150 0.00 0.00 0.00

6.2.4.5 The key feature of the 2nd subharmonic ferroresonant state is that the
transformer goes into "light" saturation twice in one direction followed by
one "heavy" saturation in the opposite direction. This process repeats over
2 complete 50 H z cycles and hence the resulting waveform has a 2nd
subharmonic fundamental (25 Hz) with higher order harmonics both odd
and even (e.g. 50 Hz, 75 Hz, 100 H z etc.).

6.2.4.6 It should be noted that in the 2nd subharmonic ferroresonant state


currents generated are in the order of full load current of the transformer
and the capacitor voltage is approximately twice the level expected at full
load. These are extremely high levels of current and voltage in a circuit
with no connected load.
Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines
58

6.3 Ferroresonant M o d e s O f Circuit Behaviour

6.3.1 Using the circuit models, three distinct modes of circuit behaviour were
predicted. W h e n constructed, the circuit displayed all three predicted modes of
behaviour.

6.3.2 The results show clearly how the circuit has up to two (2) stable states for a
single supply voltage. For example, with an applied voltage of 140 volts, the
50 H z fundamental m o d e produces an R M S current of 0.2 amps, the 3rd
subharmonic m o d e produces an R M S current of 0.9 A m p s . A third unstable
2nd subharmonic state exists at 2.6 A m p s . At this unstable position, all the
circuit differential equations are satisfied but the 2nd harmonic state is
unsustainable possibly because of the characteristics of the 3rd subharmonic
state below. The issue of stability is discussed later in Chapter 8.

6.3.3 The ability of the circuit to produce an even second subharmonic fundamental
waveform was experimentally confirmed. In this m o d e the circuit behaves in a
non-symmetrical manner with a D.C. component of transformer flux. In the
example studied, a stable 2nd subharmonic state cannot be sustained until the
supply voltage exceeds the point where the 3rd subharmonic state has
collapsed. In this circuit the existence of a 3rd subharmonic state appears to
preclude the existence of a stable 2nd subharmonic state at the same supply
voltage. In 2nd subharmonic mode, the circuit displays negative incremental
impedance whereby the current increases as the source voltage is decreased
over the range 230 volts to 190 volts. These characteristics are evident in
Figure 19.

6.3.4 In 3rd subharmonic mode, the circuit displays negative incremental impedance
whereby the current increases as the source voltage is decreased over the
range 180 volts to 140 volts. The currents generated are greater than the

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


59

transformer magnetising current but significantly less than full load current
levels. These characteristics are evident in Figure 19.

4 Transient Behavioural Characteristics of the Linear RLC Circuit Elements

6.4.1 Circuit "A" has been shown to generate 2nd and 3rd subharmonic waveforms.
It is interesting to examine the linear R L C circuit elements that have allowed
the generation of these characteristics.

6.4.2 The linear RLC elements have the following characteristics:

frequency ratio = 0.998


X/R = 8.25

6.4.3 With reference to Table 1 "Predictor of Ferroresonace" on page 31 this circuit


falls into to the category of fr« 1 and X / R » l in which it is correctly
predicted that ferroresonance is possible. Appendix B shows the modelled
underdamped transient response of the linear L R C circuit elements.

5 Stored Energy in Circuit Components

6.5.1 For circuit "A", appendix F shows details of the stored energy within the
circuit components under number of ferroresonant states.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


60

7. Laboratory Ferroresonant Circuit " B "

7.1 Laboratory Circuit 2- General Arrangement

7.1.1 A second laboratory ferroresonant circuit was constructed to allow


comparison of the model with experimental results. The transformer used (and
hence the flux linkage characteristic) w a s the same as the unit used in the
Laboratory Circuit "A". The circuit parameters are shown in Figure 26.

L = 0,054H C-182uF
VA
R=5.6 DHM

V(t)

Figure 26 Ferroresonant Circuit ««>»


"B

7.1.2 Per unit component values were selected that are more in line with real
distribution lines. The circuit represents the series compensation of a
distribution line with approximately 1 5 % line voltage drop at full transformer
load, 0.9 load power factor and an X / R ratio of 3. The series compensation

reduces the full load voltage drop from 1 5 % to 6%.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


61

7.1.3 This circuit was modelled using both the Time Domain Model and the
Frequency Domain Model and tested under a range of supply voltage
conditions.

7.2 Ferroresonant Modes Of Circuit Behaviour

7.2.1 Circuit "B" displayed modes of ferroresonant circuit behaviour similar to


circuit " A " but with some significant differences. Figure 27 shows the
variation in R M S current over a range of applied source voltages and Figure
28 shows the variation in capacitor voltage over a range of applied source
voltages. The detailed results are provided in appendix C.

7.2.2

7.2.3 The results show that circuit "B" is highly susceptible to ferroresonance. The
circuit displays three distinct modes. The first m o d e is 2nd subharmonic
ferroresonance with capacitor voltages in the order of 200 volts and currents
in the order of 8 amps. The second m o d e is 3rd subharmonic ferroresonance
with line currents in the order of 3 amps and capacitor voltages in the order of
100 volts. The third m o d e is the normal 50 H z transformer magnetising
current with small line currents and capacitor voltages.

7.2.4 This analysis illustrates the very high capacitor voltages that ferroresonance
can generate. The possibility of capacitor damage by ferroresonant
overvoltage is very obvious and effective counter measures are essential.

7.3 Existence of Three Circuit Modes of Behaviour over a Range of Supply


Voltages

7.3.1 Of particular interest is the observation that the circuit was able to support al
three modes of behaviour over a narrow range of supply voltages from 230

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7.3.2 The ability of circuit " B " to exhibit three independent states over a range of
supply voltages differentiates this circuit behaviour from that of circuit "A".

7.4 Transient Behaviour Characteristics of the Linear RLC Circuit Elements

7.4.1 Circuit "B" has been shown to generate 2nd and 3rd subharmonic waveforms.
Examination of the linear R L C circuit elements provide the following key
characteristics.

frequency ratio fr=1.00


X/R =3.03

7.4.2 With reference to Table 1 "Predictor of Ferroresonace" on page 31 this circuit


falls into to the category of fr« 1 and X / R » l in which it is correctly
predicted that ferroresonance is possible. Appendix D shows the modelled
underdamped transient response of the linear L R C circuit elements.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


66

8. Stability of Frequency Domain Ferroresonant Solutions

8.1 Comparison of Circuits "A" and "B"

8.1.1 Circuits "A" and "B" both showed the common characteristic of having both
2nd and 3rd subharmonic ferroresonant states as shown previously in Figures
19, 20, 27 and 28. Circuit " A " showed the unusual characteristic of having an
unstable second subharmonic frequency domain solution over the range of
supply voltage from 120V to 190V.

8.1.2 Over this range of supply voltages, the frequency domain solution represents a
solution to the governing circuit differential equation (14). Despite the
existence of a 2nd subharmonic Frequency Domain solution to circuit " A "
over the range of supply voltages from 120V to 190V, no Time Domain
Model solution w a s predicted or was found in the actual laboratory circuit
operation. This type of circuit behaviour is unique to non linear circuits. In
linear circuits a solution to the governing differential equations ensures that
the solution state will exist in practice.

8.1.3 Examination of Figures 19 and 20 show that as the supply voltage is


decreased from 230V, a stable 2nd subharmonic ferroresonant state exits until
190V where the 3rd subharmonic state begins. In this circuit the existence of
the 3rd subharmonic state appears to preclude the existence of the 2nd

subharmonic.

8.1.4 The limits of stability of a ferroresonant state are commonly described as


where the determinant of the Jacobian approaches zero. The discussion
contained in the closure on the author's paper [5] refers to this issue.
Modelling and experimental work has shown that if the determinant of the
Jacobian approaching zero is the sole criterion used for predicting the limits of

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


67

a ferroresonant state then the range of ferroresonant states could be


overestimated. This is definitely the case with circuit "A".

8.2 State Plane Analysis

8.2.1 Three state variables are required to describe behaviour of the series
compensated circuits " A " and "B". These can be selected as:

• line current

• capacitor voltage

• transformer primary current

8.2.2 The transformer current and the line current are almost identical with the small
difference being due to the effect of the 1500 o h m resistor used to represent
the transformer no load losses. Based on the assumption that the line and
transformer currents are approximately equal, circuits " A " and " B " can be
represented by two state variables. The state variables are line current and
capacitor voltage.

8.2.3 Figure 30 shows the phase plane trajectories of circuit "A" at a supply voltage
of 180 volts R M S . S h o w n are the 5 0 H z trajectory, 3rd subharmonic trajectory
and the unstable 2nd subharmonic solution from the frequency domain model.
It should be noted that the unstable 2nd subharmonic solution could not be
achieved in the laboratory or in the time domain model. Figure 31 shows the
sweep areas of each of the trajectories.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


68
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8.2.4 In circuit " A " it can be observed that the trajectory sweep area of the unstable
2nd subharmonic on the phase plane does not totally enclose the trajectory
sweep area of the 3rd subharmonic. It can also be observed that the 3rd
subharmonic trajectory and the 5 0 H z trajectory intersect on the phase plane.
Despite the trajectory intersection, the 3rd subharmonic sweep area
completely contains the sweep area of the 5 0 H z trajectory because the 3rd
subharmonic trajectory loops within itself.

8.2.5 Figure 32 shows the state plane trajectories of circuit "B" at a supply voltage
of 240 volts R M S . S h o w n are the 5 0 H z trajectory, 3rd subharmonic trajectory
and the 2nd subharmonic trajectory. Figure 33 shows the sweep areas of each

of the trajectories.

8.2.6 In circuit "B" it can be observed that the trajectory sweep area of the stable
2nd subharmonic on the phase plane totally encloses the trajectory sweep area
of the 3rd subharmonic. It can also be observed that the sweep area of the
5 0 H z trajectory lies completely within the 3rd subharmonic sweep area.

8.2.7 The state plane trajectories provide an interesting view of the ferroresonance
phenomenon. The state plane does not give any indication of the supply
voltage angle. Hence intersection of different states on the state plane m a y

occur at completely parts of the supply voltage wave.

8.3 Stability of Frequency Domain Ferroresonant Solutions

8.3.1 It is well documented and understood that a ferroresonant state will cease to
exist w h e n the Jacobian approaches zero [431]. Experimental and modelling
w o r k has shown that a frequency domain ferroresonant solution m a y be

unstable in the time domain and unachievable in the actual circuit.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


71
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8.3.2 It appears that one frequency domain solution in some w a y m a y interfere with
another ferroresonant solution (at a different base frequency) making it
unstable. This is particularly evident in the modelled and measured results for
circuit " A " as shown previously in figure 19 with respect to the 2nd
subharmonic.

8.3.3 The time domain simulation has been used as a reliable test of stability.
Stability is achieved if the time domain simulation produces steady repeating
waveforms over a long period of time.

8.3.4 When the harmonic balance approach is used, the model is blind to all
frequencies that are not multiples of the specified base frequency. It is not
surprising that w h e n different base frequencies are used (e.g. 1/2 and 1/3
power frequency) that conflicting solutions are obtained where sometimes one
solution predominates over the other.

8.3.5 Unstable frequency domain solutions could be related in some way to state
plane trajectory intersections, state plain swept area intersection or other
criteria. Further research could lead to improved methods of stability

determination.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


74

9. Management of Ferroresonance and Short Circuit


Withstand

Initiation of Ferroresonance in Series Capacitor Compensated Circuits

9.1.1 In a normal distribution power system operating environment the generation


of ferroresonance in a series compensation scheme under no-load or light load
conditions is likely unless effective counter measures are taken. T h e previous
results have shown that ferroresonance can generate capacitor overvoltages in
the order of 5 times normal full load operating voltage. During ferroresonant
states currents can be less than full load current or in the order of 5 times load
current and transformer voltage canriseabove 2 times nominal.

9.1.2 A substantial transient such as energising a transformer via a switch or circuit


breaker is generally required to initiate a ferroresonant state. In a circuit
without effective countermeasures the ferroresonant state will continue
indefinitely. It is the ongoing nature of ferroresonance that makes it

particularly destructive.

9.1.3 The generation of ferroresonance will only occur if the transformer is driven
into saturation and the transformer is in a no load or light load situation. In the
single phase case where the capacitor holds no initial charge and the
transformer has no residual flux, a voltage switch on time corresponding to
sine 90 degrees (voltage peak) will avoid driving the transformer into
saturation and hence avoid the onset of ferroresonance. A switch on time
corresponding to sine(0) (voltage zero) will drive the transformer into heaviest

saturation and is the switching angle most likely to initiate ferroresonance.

9.1.4 Modelling and experimental work has shown that for single phase circuits with
no stored energy that are susceptible to ferroresonance, there is a critical

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


75

switching time between sine 0 and sine 90 degrees below which


ferroresonance may be initiated.

5 If the capacitor holds residual charge and/or the transformer holds residua
flux then the critical switching voltage angle can vary considerably. In some
ferroresonant circuits the ferroresonant states cannot be initiated by normal
switch on transient unless there is residual capacitor charge and/or transformer
flux. In experimental circuits "A" and " B " this was the case for the 2nd
subharmonic states.

6 Figure 34 shows a very simple radial series compensation scheme with a


typical arrangement of switchgear. The most likely standard switching
procedures that could provide the transient necessary to drive the system into
a ferroresonant state are:

a) Energising the transformer by closing circuit breaker " X ' with switches " Y "
and " Z " closed.
b) Energising the transformer by closing switch " Y " with circuit breaker " X ' and
switch " Z " closed.
c) Energising the transformer by closing switch " Z " with circuit breaker " X " and
switch " X ' closed.

1 1 k V O.H. Line Transformer


D
cn X Y z
CQ
Circuit
> Series
Breaker
Capacitor

Figure 34 Simplified Series Compensated llkV Line

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


76

9.1.7 These switching operations are normal day to day power system operations
that are likely to occur during substation commissioning, maintenance and
restoration of supply after faults.

9.1.8 The use of auto reclosing at circuit breaker "X' is a prime candidate for
initiating ferroresonance and is worthy of s o m e attention. Auto reclosing is a
technique used to cater for short duration transient faults. With auto reclosing,
after a protection trip clears a line fault, the circuit breaker is automatically
reclosed after a predetermined time usually in the range 0.1 to 10 seconds. If
the fault remains on the line the circuit breaker trips and locks out. If the fault
is cleared the line remains energised after the reclose.

9.1.9 Auto reclosing is particularly prone to initiating ferroresonance because at the


time of clearing the fault there is a wide range of residual capacitor charge and
transformer flux conditions possible. W h e n the close occurs the voltage angle
can also vary over a wide range creating conditions that in m a n y cases will be
conducive to ferroresonance. Another factor that can be overlooked is that the
feeder load m a y drop to near zero after a successful reclose. This can occur
because even a very brief interruption of supply can result in motor contactors
dropping out causing significant load shedding in industrial plants and
throughout the supply area.

9.1.10 The transient and load shedding characteristics of auto reclosing make it a
major consideration in the initiation of ferroresonance.

9.2 Short Circuit Fault Considerations

9.2.1 In any series compensation scheme, careful consideration needs to be given to


the effect the series elements have on system fault levels. It is essential that all

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


77

circuit elements are capable of sustaining the full short circuit conditions for a
reasonable fault clearing time without damage.

9.2.2 The use of series capacitors can greatly increase the system fault levels
because of the reduced overall system impedances. Table 3 shows the effect
on the system fault level of the series capacitors for the experimental circuit
"B".

Table 3

Modelled Short Circuit Fault Currents for the Laboratory


Series Compensated Circuit " B "

Configuration Cupimtw/LineCurrent

No series compensation 12 amps 6.0 p.u.

With capacitor compensation 35 amps 17.5 p.u.

Notes: - rated load current is 2 amps


- all currents are R M S quantities

9.2.3 The table shows that in the laboratory circuit the fault level at the transform
primary terminals has increased by almost a factor of three (3). This can have
a significant effect on the fault rating requirement of all power system
components, especially on the fault rating of the series capacitor.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


78

9.2.4 T h e fault rating of the series capacitor is a major consideration. T h e short

circuit performance of capacitors is restricted in terms of the thermal impact of


short circuit current and the associated voltage stresses [131].

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


79

10. Existing Techniques for Managing Ferroresonance and


Short Circuit Currents

10.1 ASEA Series Compensation Circuit Arrangements of 1954

10.1.1 Figures 35 and 36 show two series capacitor schemes from the 1954 ASEA
Journal 102. O n e of the circuits is designed for small series compensation
schemes where the compensation is not more than a few hundred k V A R while
the other is designed for schemes in the order of 1 to 2 M V A R .

10.2 The Simple ASEA Spark Gap Series Compensation Circuit

10.2.1 The spark gap in shown in Figure 35 is set to operate when overvoltages
occur across the capacitor. In this circuit it is difficult to set the spark gap
threshold voltage high enough to cater for normal load currents yet low
enough to provide sufficient capacitor protection for through faults and
damping for subharmonic oscillations. In addition, damage could be caused
by low fault currents through the spark gap that m a y not be cleared by the
high voltage feeder protection. This circuit is quite simple but it has inherent

limitations.

10.2.2 The series compensation scheme shown in Figure 36 utilises a by-pass circuit
breaker, spark gap, damping resistor and special protection relays.

10.2.3 When subharmonic ferroresonant disturbances occur, the secondary winding


of the voltage transformer contains subharmonic voltages. The subharmonic
voltage is sensed using a low pass filter. After sensing the subharmonic
voltage for a brief period of time the protection scheme closes the circuit
breaker to place the damping resistor in parallel with the capacitor. The
resistor then damps out the subharmonic oscillations. After the protection

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


80

senses that the subharmonic oscillations are removed the circuit breaker is
opened and the circuit returns to normal operation.

damping resistor spark gap

series capacitor

<^>
bypass switch

ure 35 A S E A Series Capacitor Circuit for not more than few hundred k V A R

bypass switch
-0"O-

damping resistor

spark gap current transformer

Figure 36 A S E A Series Capacitor Circuit for 1-2 M V A R

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


81

10.3 T h e A S E A By-pass Circuit Breaker Circuit

10.3.1 During line short circuit conditions, the capacitor experiences a large voltage
rise. The voltage rise causes the protective spark gap to arc across. The arc
discharges the capacitor through the damping resistor. The protection senses
the fault current via the current transformer and then closes the circuit
breaker. The closed circuit breaker extinguishes the arc to protect the spark
gap. The short circuit withstand process involves three (3) distinct stages.

Stage 1: All fault current is carried by the capacitor.


Stage 2: Fault current is shared between the capacitor and the spark gap.
Stage 3: Fault current is shared between the capacitor and the circuit breaker.

10.3.2 This circuit is more robust that the previous circuit but it is considerably more
expensive due to the added cost of circuit breakers, voltage transformer,
current transformer and protection relays.

10.4 Modern Day Series Capacitor Arrangements for Distribution Lines

10.4.1 The fundamental techniques developed in 1954 are used by ASEA Brown
Boveri today in their "Minicap" series compensator for distribution [134].
Figure 37 shows the circuit arrangement for a typical "Minicap" installation.

10.4.2 In the modern circuit arrangement the vacuum bypass switch closes on the
loss of supply voltage to ensure the capacitor is bypassed w h e n the circuit is
energised. This minimises theriskof ferroresonance during turn on and feeder
auto reclose. The system incorporates a precision triggered spark gap that is
used to initiate an instantaneous close of the vacuum bypass switch as soon as

an arc develops.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


82
-o^b-

series capacitor

-O^b- -&^o-

dischage limiting inductor


voltage transformer

arc detector

spark gap

O^O-
v a c u m m bypass switch - electrically operated

Figure 37 ASEA Brown Boveri Minicap - Typical Arrangement

10.4.3 The "Minicap" system has a discharge limiting inductance to limit the
discharge current of the capacitor w h e n the bypass is initiated. In addition the
system incorporates sophisticated resonance detection equipment to protect
the system from overvoltages generated ferroresonance, self excitation of
motors and power frequency resonance.

10.4.4 The system described tends to be relatively expensive compared to line


augmentations and other solutions to distribution voltage regulation problems.
This thesis is concerned with examining the possibility of achieving series
capacitor compensation at the distribution level using a different approach
involving simpler and less expensive components.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


83

11. A N e w Technique for Managing Ferroresonance

11.1 Areas for Potential Improvement of Existing Series Compensation


Arrangements

11.1.1 Modelling and experimental work with series compensated circuits have
shown what major problems ferroresonance and short circuit currents can be.
The fundamental approach to overcoming these problems has often been to
use protection devices to sense abnormal conditions of ferroresonance and
short circuit and then bypass the capacitor with a switch or circuit breaker to
protect the capacitor.

11.1.2 This approach requires expensive protection sensing equipment,


switches/circuit breakers and other related equipment. During normal
operation the circuit always remains susceptible to ferroresonance and heavy
short circuit current. It is only w h e n abnormal conditions are sensed by the
protection that the circuit is altered to counteract the problems.

11.1.3 New techniques that can address the ferroresonance and short circuit issues
with less protection equipment and reduced hardware requirements offer great
potential benefits for the electricity supply industry.

11.2 Series Compensation With Saturable Choke And Damping Resistor

11.2.1 Figure 38 shows a series compensated circuit configuration with a damping


resistor and saturable choke. The transformer has a saturable iron core. The
power line supplying the transformer is represented by a linear inductance " L "
and resistance "R". The circuit contains a series capacitor to tune out the
effects of the line inductance. The capacitance will normally be chosen so as to
tune out all or most of the line inductance at the power frequency.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


84
Saturating
Damping Resistor Choke

Rd Xc
Vc
VI Vr
^nr v A/w
L R

V(-t)

Figure 38 Series Compensated Circuit with D a m p i n g Resistor and Saturable


Choke

11.2.2 The use of a saturable choke in conjunction with the damping resistor is the
innovative aspect of the circuit. Extensive modelling of this circuit shows that
it has properties that are well suited to series compensation of distribution

lines.

11.3 Theory of Operation

11.3.1 The fundamental aspect of the series compensation circuit is that all circuit
elements of the series compensator are permanently connected in the circuit.
There are no switches or circuit breakers and no protection relays.

11.3.2 Under emergency full load conditions the voltage across the capacitor will
typically reach 2 0 % of the supply voltage. The saturating choke is designed
such that at full emergency line loading, the knee point of the choke is
sufficiently high so as not to interfere with the normal operation of the
capacitor. Hence under normal operating conditions the choke draws only a

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


85

small magnetising current and the capacitor effectively carries all the load
current. This provides the line with the desired compensation effect.

11.3.3 Under conditions of subharmonic ferroresonance the capacitor voltage


increases substantially above the knee point driving the choke into saturation.
During saturation the choke looks like a short circuit which effectively places
the damping resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Careful selection of
components can eliminate the undesirable ferroresonant states. The low
frequency components of the subharmonic ferroresonance also assists with
saturating the choke.

11.3.4 Under fault short circuit conditions on the load side of the series compensator
the capacitor voltage rises substantially above normal causing the choke to
saturate. During the parts of the cycle where choke is saturated the damping
resistors are effectively in parallel with the capacitor. This has the effect of
reducing the overall line fault current and substantially reducing the fault
current carried by the capacitor.

11.3.5 One of the significant circuit aspects of the saturable choke is that it provides
a path for D.C. current to be bypassed around the capacitor. The location of
the saturating choke ensures that the series capacitor holds no steady state
D.C. component of voltage/charge. The circuit arrangement forces any D.C.
component of capacitor charge to be discharged via the damping resistor and
saturating choke. Trapped D.C. capacitor charge causes power transformer

saturation which can lead to the onset of ferroresonance.

11.4 Model and Experimental Results with the Series Compensator

11.4.1 Laboratory circuit "B" described earlier in this thesis was used as the base
circuit on which to test the series compensator technique. Figure 39 shows the
series compensated circuit that w a s modelled and constructed in the

laboratory.
Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines
86

Rd=19.1 DHM lllZ?±lnQ


rVvv^T)
ic>\ Xc(ic)
L = 0.054H

XCi)
R = 5,6 QHM C = 182uF
Vp
\A, V(t)

Figure 39 Laboratory Series Compensated Circuit with Saturating Choke

11.4.2 The saturable choke was designed with a 50 hertz knee point voltage
sufficiently high to permit emergency full load operation yet low enough to
provide effective damping. Experimental work found that the saturating choke
could be modelled by equation (16). Details of the modelled and experimental
saturating choke results are shown in Figures 40 and 41 .

ic(^c) = 0.8X,C +28421 Xc9 .(16)

11.4.3 The circuit was modelled to determine the optimum damping resistor value to
eliminate the unwanted ferroresonant states. Modelling showed that if the
ohmic value was too high or too low the ferroresonant states would be
modified but not eliminated. A damping resistor value of 19.1 Q was selected
and inserted into the laboratory circuit.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


87
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11.4.4 Insertion of the damping resistor and saturable choke w a s completely


effective in eliminating the ferroresonant states. Figure 4 2 shows both the
model predicted and laboratory variation in R.M.S. current over a range of
applied source voltages at no load. Both the 3rd subharmonic ferroresonant
state and the 2nd ferroresonant state have been eliminated. The original 3rd
subharmonic ferroresonant and the 2nd ferroresonant states can be clearly
seen in the results of the uncompensated circuit in Figure 27.

11.4.5 The choke and damping resistor prevented the establishment of


ferroresonance following every switching transient attempt to excite the
circuit into a ferroresonant state.

11.4.6 In addition the laboratory circuit was brought into a range of ferroresonant
states without the saturable choke connected. While the circuit w a s in the
ferroresonant state the saturable choke and damping resistor were connected
to the circuit. The connection of the saturable choke and damping resistor
eliminated the ferroresonance in every case.

11.5 Modelled Transient Response of Laboratory Circuit

11.5.1 The previous experimental and modelling results have shown how the
saturable choke can eliminate the steady state 3rd subharmonic and 2nd
subharmonic ferroresonant modes. The effectiveness of the saturable choke
can be demonstrated by examining switch on transients that would normally

lead to ferroresonance.

11.5.2 When energising transformers, a zero voltage switch on angle is the most
severe starting condition with respect to transformer saturation and inrush

currents. For a series compensated circuit at rest (i.e. no stored energy), a

switch on at voltage zero is the condition most likely to initiate ferroresonance

because of the transformer saturation and inrush current effects.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


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11.5.3 Figure 43 shows the simulated response to a zero voltage switch on without
the saturable choke in place. The figure shows that after a brief transient of
approximately five (5) cycles, a stable 3rd subharmonic ferroresonance is
established and continues indefinitely.

11.5.4 Figure 44 shows the simulation of the same series compensated circuit with
the saturable choke and damping resistor added. The saturable choke and
damping resistor have the effect of damping out the switch on transient in a
w a y that does not permit the establishment of steady state ferroresonance. At
0.6 of a cycle after switch on the choke current peaks at 4.1 amps and then
returns permanently to near zero amps after two (2) cycles. It is the ability of
the choke to provide a D.C. current path that makes the scheme so effective.

11.5.5 Comparison of the two (2) switch on transients show clearly the effectiveness
of the saturable choke and damping resistor in eliminating ferroresonance.

11.6 Fault Short Circuit Performance

11.6.1 Modelling has shown that the choke and damping resistor characteristics can
be effectively used to control and limit the system fault levels. Table 3
illustrated this point using the laboratory circuit under different configurations.

11.6.2 Table 4 illustrates how the saturable choke and damping resistor can be used
to control system fault levels. The fault currents referred to are for a short
circuit at the transformer terminals with a 200 volt R M S supply. The table
shows that the addition the capacitor to the uncompensated circuited increases
the fault level from 6 p.u. to 17.5 p.u.. This is a very large increase and is the
direct result of the power frequency tuning effect of the capacitor with the line
inductance.

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Table 4
Modelled Short Circuit Fault Currents for the Laboratory Circuit " B "

Capacitor Choke
Current Current
P.U. P.tL
N o series compensation 6 N/A N/A
Capacitor only 17.5 17.5 ill
Capacitor & choke 5.5 6.5 4.5

Notes:- rated load current is 2 A m p s = 1 P.U.


- all currents are R M S quantities

11.6.3 W h e n the choke and damping resistor are added to the series capacitor the
choke heavily saturates under fault conditions causing a substantial circulating
current in the capacitor/choke loop. In this situation the line fault current is
reduced to 5.5 p.u. which is approximates the value of the line fault current in

the uncompensated case.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


95

12. Selection O f Component Values

12.1 General Rules for Component Selection

12.1.1 On first inspection the selection of component values appears to be difficult


requiring extensive modelling of each individual situation. Modelling and
analysis of a number of circuit configurations has shown that selection of
component values can be relatively straightforward by the use of the following
rules.

12.2 Capacitor pF Selection

12.2.1 To achieve full compensation the capacitor value "C" should be selected to
give the same reactive impedance as the line inductance at the power
frequency.

i.e. for full compensation C=1/(LQ2) (17)

12.2.2 There are stability advantages in designing for less than full compensation.
Depending on the actual design situation, engineers m a y elect to less than fully
compensate for the inductive reactance of the line.

12.3 Damping Resistor Ohmic Selection

12.3.1 Modelling and experimental work has shown that the damping resistor ohmic
value is critical to the effective performance of the system. If the ohmic value

is too high then little current flows through the choke/resistor resulting in

ineffective damping under ferroresonant and fault conditions. If the ohmic


value is too low heavy currents flow through the damping resistor under

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


96

ferroresonant and fault conditions but the I 2 R loss is too small to provide
effective damping.

12.3.2 Analysis and experimental work on the series compensation scheme has
shown damping resistor ohmic value should be selected to approximately
equal the reactive impedance of the capacitor at the power frequency.

i.e. suggested Rj « 1/(©C) (18)

12.3.3 The reason for this selection is as follows. Circuit damping is provided by
saturating the choke and generating I 2 R losses in the damping resistor. Under
conditions of choke saturation the choke can be thought of as a short circuit.
Under these conditions the capacitor discharges directly into the resistor with

a time constant of R j C . At the suggested value of R j this time constant is 1/co

or 1/27C (approximately l/6th) of a period. Under conditions of ferroresonance


in the power line circuits the time period of high capacitor voltage is typically
half to one period or 3.5 to 7 R ^ C time constants. This is generally sufficient
time for the damping resistor to sufficiently discharge the capacitor and
prevent the onset of ferroresonance.

12.3.4 If Rd is too large the Capacitor damping resistor time constant is too long to
allow effective damping. If R d is too small the leakage reactance of the
saturating choke becomes significant limiting the circulating current and hence

the I 2 R effect of the damping resistor.

12.3.5 After selection of a damping resistor value R^ it is important to model the


series compensation scheme to check that all ferroresonant states have been

eliminated.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


97

12.4 Saturable Choke

12.4.1 There are a number of aspects of the saturating choke that require careful
design consideration.

12.4.2 Knee Point

12.4.2.1 The knee point of the saturable choke must be sufficiently high to permit
normal and emergency loads without any saturation effects. However for
currents in excess of the emergency load plus a safety margin the choke
must go heavily into saturation.

12.4.3 Leakage Inductance

12.4.3.1 The leakage inductance is the marginal inductance of the choke when it
is in full saturation. The leakage inductance must be sufficiently small so as
not to interfere with the discharge of the capacitor into the damping
resistor. The ideal value would be zero henries.

12.4.3.2 To achieve the desired effect the natural frequency of the capacitor in
combination with the leakage reactance of the choke (Lcj) must be much
greater than the power frequency.

l/Sqrt(LclC) » © ( 19)

or

Lcl« 1/(C©2) (20)

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


98

13. Scaling U p To Real Distribution Networks

13.1 Limitations of Small Scale Laboratory Experiments

13.1.1 The experimental results have been successful in determining the effectiveness
of the modelling and providing practical insight into the issues associated with
series compensation. The limitation of the experimental work has been one of
scale. The experimental work has been dealing with circuits with a supply
voltage of 240 volts and load currents of 2 amps.

13.1.2 To be effective in practice, the proposed series compensation scheme needs


to operate for a supply voltage of 1 l k V and up and load currents of 10 amps
up to 1000's of amps. Testing and experimenting on this scale has simply not
been possible.

13.1.3 The question arises, are the component values and ratings required for real
series compensation scheme within the realm of engineering practicability? T o
answer this question a circuit with realistic distribution values was modelled
and the component values and ratings determined.

13.1.4 The single phase circuit to be modelled is shown in Figure 45. The nominal
supply voltage was llkV and the m a x i m u m emergency line load was 262
amps. Worst case conditions were examined including no loss distribution
transformers with sharp saturation curves. The line has 1 1 % full load voltage

regulation at 0.85 power factor.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


99

Rd = 6.28 DHM sChoke


-aturQ+in9

Xc(ic)
IC
L = 0,02H

R=l,55 DHM C=507uF

V(t) nominal llkV 1 phase

Figure 45 Large Scale Series Compensated Circuit with Saturating Choke


Circuit " C "

13.1.5 The choke and transformer characteristics used are detailed in equations
below. The transformer losses were represented by a 14,400 o h m resistance
across the transformer llkV terminals. The transformer characteristics were
based on commercially available modern power distribution transformers.

i = 0.0165X + 1.429 10" 3 0 X 1 7 (21)

i c =1.0 10- 3 0 A, c 1 5 (22)

13.1.6 This circuit provides full compensation and reduces the line voltage drop
from 1 1 % to 3 % . In distribution networks, the length of line, number of
transformers and loading can vary greatly with changes to the switching
configuration and the construction of additions to the system over time.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


100

13.1.7 The modelled characteristics of the system are described in the following
figures.

Figure 46 No Load Ferroresonant States with no Saturating Choke Compensation.


Figure 47 Short Circuit Fault level Comparisons with and without Compensation.
Figure 48 Capacitor voltage with and without Compensation under Short Circuit Fault
Conditions.

Figure 49 Choke, Capacitor and Line currents under short circuit fault conditions.

13.1.8 The modelling clearly demonstrates that the damping choke limits the fault
duty of both the line and capacitor. Further modelling also showed that the
ferroresonant states were eliminated.

13.2 Equipment Rating

13.2.1 Based on the modelling, the following ratings were devised for Circuit "C"

Vsrc= 11,000 volts


L=0.02 H
RL=1.55ohm
1 phase

Series Capacitor

C=507 pF

Continuous rating
200 amps rms (252 kvar)
1,256 volts rms
1,775 volts peak

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


101

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3 hour rating

263 amps rms (435 kvar)


1,651 volts rms
2,335 volts peak

3 second fault rating

1,754 amps rms


2,547 amps peak
10,466 volts rms
15,677 volts peak

Damping Resistor

6.28 ohm

3 second rating

1454 amps rms (13.3Mw)


2481 amps peak

Saturable Choke

3 second rating

1,454 amps rms


2,481 amps peak

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


106

13.3 C o m m e n t s on the C o m p o n e n t Specifications

13.3.1 The required ratings of system components indicate that they are within the
realm of engineering reality.

13.3.2 The continuous rating of the capacitor is readily achievable. The difficulty in
economically constructing such a capacitor is providing for the 3 second fault
rating. This is a fundamental problem of series compensation schemes. It
should be noted that the compensation arrangement not only eliminated the
ferroresonance problem but also reduces the capacitor's 3 second rating from
7,000 amps (uncompensated) to 1,900 amps (compensated). T h e damping
choke improves the economic feasibility of constructing a suitable capacitor by
a great margin.

13.3.3 There would be no major technical problems in the construction of the


saturating choke or the damping resistor. Pole mounting of all the equipment

is envisaged.

13.4 Ferroresonance Protection

13.4.1 In order to provide additional protection to the distribution network and the
electricity customers, subharmonic ferroresonance protection could be
considered. Figure 50 shows a method of subharmonic ferroresonance

protection which could be provided.


Saturating
Choke
Low Pass Filter
Ferroresonant Detection
/ Relay
Tronsformer(s)
11 kV O.H. Line
A
3 *S* t Q-
DO
Zone Substation
Series
Circuit
Capacitor
Breaker
metering class
current
transformer

Figure 50 Proposed Ferroresonant Protection Scheme


Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines
107

13.4.2 The subharmonic protection relay would incorporate a low passfilterand


cause the l l k V circuit breaker to operate if subharmonic currents were
detected. Such a scheme would use existing feeder circuit breakers and could
be incorporated at relatively low cost.

13.4.3 Subharmonic protection would provide added security to the scheme and
provide some backup protection on the damage to either the saturating choke
or the damping resistor.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


108

14. Future Research Directions

14.1 The Need for Field Trials

14.1.1 Further research into the proposed series compensation scheme requires field
trials at 1 lkV or similar voltages. There are limitations and inherentrisksin
scaling up the results of small scale laboratory experiments to larger real
power systems. Large scale systems tend to have transformers with lower
losses and sharper saturation characteristics. In many cases real power systems
have high line X/R ratios that are difficult to reproduce at small scale.

14.1.2 For these reasons larger scale field trials are considered the next logical s
in the research and development process.

14.2 The Likelihood of Universal Solutions

14.2.1 Modelling of a number of systems suggests that the use of the component
selection techniques described in section 11 could eliminate the need to model
each individual application. Further modelling and actual field trials are
necessary to draw any definite conclusions on the issue.

14.3 Three Phase Systems

14.3.1 The saturating choke technique in the three phase situation has a great deal o
potential. Analysis of the three phase system has not been attempted in any
depth.

14.3.2 A three phase ferroresonant laboratory circuit was constructed using


component values that model a realistic three phase distribution line. A
number of complex subharmonic waveforms were generated. O f particular
interest was the fact that the saturating choke technique with damping resistor
was able to eliminate all the ferroresonant states. These preliminary results are
Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines
109

very encouraging and show that additional modelling of three phase systems is
likely to lead to successful series compensation using the saturating choke
technique on three phase lines. Appendix E shows details of the three phase
laboratory circuit " D " constructed.

14.4 Stability Criteria for Ferroresonance Frequency Domain Solutions

14.4.1 Time domain modelling has been used with success as a test for the stability

of frequency domain solutions. Stability of a frequency domain solutions is


confirmed w h e n the solution can be modelled in the time domain as a steady
repeating waveform over a long period of time.

14.4.2 Opportunities exist for further research into causes of instability and
improved testing for stability.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


110

15. Conclusions

15.1 The Benefits of Series Compensation

15.1.1 Increasing the power carrying capacity of transmission and distribution lines
by series compensation offers great potential for electricity supply authorities.
Effective series compensation can reduce voltage regulation in distribution and
transmission systems and provide an effective countermeasure to voltage dips
caused by load fluctuations.

15.2 Modelling the Ferroresonance Phenomenon

15.2.1 The modelling and experimental work presented has highlighted the damaging
ferroresonant overvoltages and overcurrents that can be created by series
capacitors interacting with transformers. A thorough understanding of the
possible ferroresonant modes of behaviour is essential w h e n considering series
compensation of distribution and subtransmission lines.

15.2.2 The Time Domain and Frequency Domain Ferroresonant Models have proved
to be very useful and accurate. The models give the design engineer a valuable
insight into the ferroresonant phenomenon as applicable to series
compensation and other situations. For engineers designing and studying the

feasibility of series line compensation the models offer the ability to:

• determine the possibility of ferroresonant overvoltages and currents.

• determine the possible modes of ferroresonant behaviour.


• determine under what range of operating conditions ferroresonance

can occur.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


Ill

• develop and analyse strategies for eliminating ferroresonant


conditions.

15.2.3 The generation of power system even subharmonic ferroresonant states was
demonstrated both experimentally and by modelling in the demonstration
circuits. The generation of even harmonic voltages and fluxes is most unusual
in power systems because of the linear nature of most system components and
the symmetry of transformer B - H loops. Even harmonic generation resulted
from non-symmetrical circuit behaviour, the key element of which w a s the
existence of a D C component of transformer flux linkage. The models also
predicted the existence of odd ferroresonant harmonics in the experimental
circuits. Experimental work confirmed the existence of all the predicted
ferroresonant states.

15.2.4 The ferroresonant states associated with series compensated transmission and
distribution lines can be modelled and understood. Understanding and
modelling the phenomenon is the key to designing effective countermeasures.

15.3 A New Method of Managing Series Compensation

15.3.1 A method of eliminating ferroresonance in series compensated lines has been


proposed, modelled and found to be effective in a small scale series
compensated laboratory circuit. The modelling and experimental work
presented has highlighted h o w ferroresonant overvoltages and overcurrents
can be eliminated by the use of a saturable choke and damping resistor.

15.3.2 The key to designing a successful scheme is to determine by modelling the


natural ferroresonant states. This modelling is generally required over a wide

range of supply conditions. Having determined the natural ferroresonant


states, additional modelling of the system incorporating the saturable choke

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


112

and damping resistor are required to ensure that all natural ferroresonant

states are eliminated and that no n e w states are created.

15.3.3 The performance of the system under transient and short circuit conditions is
of critical importance and needs to be considered at the early design stage.
Fault levels can be controlled within limits to suit the designer's requirements.

15.3.4 The saturable choke technique is simple, effective and requires no


sophisticated control, protection or bypass switch systems. The choke and
damping resistor technique is a non-linear solution to a complex non-linear

problem. With further research the technique opens the w a y for the more
widespread use of series capacitors in distribution and subtransmission electric

power systems.

15.4 Component Values

15.4.1 Simple techniques for selecting component values have been developed that
with additional modelling and experience m a y lead to universal general
purpose series compensation solutions. Field trials and additional modelling
are required to m a k e further progress.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


113

16. References

16.1 Author's Papers

[1] R.A.Barr, "A Nomogram for the Selection of Matching Design Parameters for the
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[2] A. Baitch and R.A.Barr, "A Tapping Range and Voltage Level Analysis Chart for
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[6] R.A. Barr and D. Piatt "Use of a Saturating Choke in the Series Capacitor
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Transmission and Distribution, Vol. 143, No.6, November 1996.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


114

16.2 Series Compensated Lines

[101] W.G. Shepard, "AC Voltage Regulation with Ordinary Transformers" Electro
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[102] S. Smedsfelt and P. Hjertberg, "Series Capacitors for Distribution Netwo


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[104] V. Madzarevic, "Ease Overvoltages Due to Faults" Electrical World, Augus


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[105] F. Iliceto and E. Cinieri, "Comparative Analysis of Series and Shunt


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[106] J.L. Batho, J.E. Hardy and N. Tolmunen, "Series Capacitor Installations
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[107] V. Madzarevic, F.K. Tseng, D.H. Woo, W.D. Niebuhr and R.G. Rocamora,
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Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


115

[108] A.L. Courts, N.G. Hingorani and G.E. Stemler, " A N e w Series Capacitor
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[109] E.R. Taylor, "Application of Series Capacitors" Electrical Engineer, October

1978, pp. 7-16.

[110] S.C. Tripathy, K.K. Patel and M.Y. Khan, "Digital Computer Study of Switching
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[Ill] J.J. Burke, A.P. Engel and S.R. Gilligan, "Increasing the Power System Capac
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98, N o 4 July/Aug 1979, pp. 1268-1274.

[112] E.E. Baraket and D.E. Hirst, "Susceptibility of 3-phase Power Systems fo Fer
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[113] C.A. Peterson and J.C. Osterhout, "Metal Oxide Protector for Series Capacitor
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692-697.

[114] R.F. Wolff, "Metal Oxide Improves Capacitor Protection" Electrical World,

March 1980, pp. 52-53.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


116

[115] G.T. Bellarmine and K. Srikrishna, "Optimum Compensation with Series


Capacitor at Centre of Transmission Line" Institution of Engineers India Journal
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[116] N.T. Fahlein, "EHV Series Capacitor Equipment Protection and Control" IEE
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[117] K. Murotani, K. Takenaka, M. Asano and M. Inouye, "Development and Testing


of 500kV Series Capacitor", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
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[118] T. Baitch, "Series Capacitors Boost 1 lkV Line Performance" Australian Elec
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[119] Y. Mansour, T.G. Martinich and J.E. Drakos, "B.C. Hydro Series Capacitor Ba
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[120] S.P. Seth, "Comparative Analysis of Shunt and Series Compensation Schemes f
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[121] C.S. Indulkar, "Series Compensation of EHV Transmission Lines" Institution


Engineers India Journal Electrical, Vol. 65, October 1984, pp. 85-88.

[122] A. Kalam, "Simulation of Series Compensated EHV Transmission Lines and Thei
Protection" Institution of Engineers India Journal Electrical, Vol. 60, December
1985, pp. 178-181.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


117

[123] Goldsworthy, " A Linearised Model for MOV-Protected Series Capacitors" IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. P W R S - 2 , N o . 4, November 1987, pp. 953-
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[124] C.S. Indulkar and B. Viswanatnan, "Maximum Transfer Limited by Voltage


Stability in Series and Shunt Compensated Schemes for A.C. Transmission Lines"
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No. 2, April 1989, pp. 1246-1252.

[125] Boon-Teck Ooi, Shu-Zu Dai and Xiao Wang, "Solid-State Capacitive Reactance
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[126] G. G. Karady, "Concept of a Circuit Current Limiter and Series Compensator


IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No. 3 July 1991 pp. 1031-1037.

[127] M. El-Marsafawy, "Application of Series-Capacitor and Shunt-Reactor


Compensation to an existing Practical A C Transmission Line" IEE Proceedings-C
Vol. 138, N o 4, July 1991, pp. 330-336.

[128] R. Vitelli, "Series Capacitors in Distribution Systems" Regional Conferenc


the Electricity Supply Engineers Association of N.S.W. held at Narrabri, N.S.W.
Australia 2-3 April 1992.

[129] B.Ooi, S Dai and X. Wang, "Solid State Series Capacitive Reactance
Compensators" IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 7, N o 2 April 1992,

pp. 914-919.

[130] S. G. Helbing and G.G. Karady, "Investigations of an Advanced Form of Seri


Compensation" IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 9, No.2, April 1994,
pp. 939-945.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


118

[131] "IEEE Standard for Series Capacitors in Power System" IEEE Std 824-1994.

[132] P. Halvarsson and L. Angquist, "Controlled Series Capacitors - Practical and


Economical Solutions" Institution of Engineers Australia, Proceedings of the
Electrical Engineering Congress held in Sydney Australia, November 1994, pp.
147-150.

[133] G. Ledwich and A. Ghosh, "Series Compensation: Steady State Analysis"


Institution of Engineers Australia, Proceedings of the Electrical Engineering
Congress held in Sydney Australia, November 1994, pp. 151-156.

[134] ABB Power Systems, "Minicap Series Compensation of Distribution Lines".


Pamphlet A02-0123 E

16.3 Ferroresonant Subharmonics

[201] I. Travis and CN. Weygandt, "Subharmonics in Circuits Containing Iron-Cored


Reactors" Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.) August 1938, Vol. 57, pp. 423-431.

[202] I. Travis, "Subharmonics in Circuits Containing Iron-Cored Reactors IF'. Tra


Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.), Vol. 58, 1939, pp. 735-742.

[203] J.D. McCrumm, "An Experimental Investigation of Subharmonic Currents" Trans.

Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.), 1941, Vol. 60, pp. 533-540.

[204] E. Brenner, "Subharmonic Response of the Ferroresonant Circuit with Coil


Hysteresis" Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.), September 1956, Vol. 75, pp. 450-456.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


119

[205] LA. Wright, "Three Phase Subharmonic Oscillations in Symmetrical Power


Systems" Paper 70 T P 625-PWR IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee
M a y 1970, pp. 1295-1304.

[206] LA. Wright and K. Morsztyn, "Subharmonic Oscillations in Power Systems


Theory and Practice" Trans. IEEE (PAS) Vol. P A S 89, No. 8, November 1970,
pp. 1805-1815.

[207] T.C. Cheng, "The Effect of Subsynchronous Current on a Static Mho Type
Distance Relay" IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. P A S -
100, No. 11, November 1981, pp. 4562-4570.

[208] A.S. Akpinar and S.A. Nasar, "Harmonic Balance Analysis of the Subharmoni
Ferroresonance" Electric Machines and Power Systems, Vol. 18, 1990, pp. 409-
428.

16.4 Ferroresonance Associated with High Voltage Switching

[301]E. Clarke, H.A. Peterson and P.H. Light, "Abnormal Voltage Conditions in T
Phase Systems Produced by Single-Phase Switching" Trans. Amer. I.E.E.

(P.A.S.), 1941, Vol. 60, pp. 329-339.

[302] G.G. Auer and A.J. Schultz, "An Analysis of 14.4/24.9kV Grounded Wye
Distribution System Overvoltages. Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.), August 1954, pp.

1027-1032.

[303] L.B. Crann and R.B. Flickinger, "Overvoltages on 14.4/24.9kV Rural Distr
Systems" Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.) , October 1954, pp. 1208-1212.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


120

[304] F.C. Van Wormer, "Switching three-phase transformer banks" General Electric
Monograph March 1965.

[305] R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonance During Single-phase Switching of 3-phase

Distribution Transformer Banks" Trans. IEEE, April 1965, pp. 289-293.

[306] A.M. Lockie, "Ferroresonance, a Growing Problem" Monograph of unknown


U S A origin, March 1965.

[307] R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonance During Single-Phase Switching of 3-Phase


Distribution Transformer Banks" (Discussion). Trans. IEEE, June 1965, pp. 514-

517.

[308] J.F. Young, "Ferroresonance - Problems and Applications" Electrical Revie

M a y 1965, pp. 782-785.

[309] R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonant Overvoltage Control Based on TNA Tests on


Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer Banks" Trans. IEEE (PAS) Vol. PAS-86,

N o . 10, October 1967, pp. 1258-1265.

[310] R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonant Overvoltage Control based on TNA Tests on


Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer Banks" IEEE (PAS) Vol. PAS-87, No. 2,

February 1968, pp. 352-361.

[311] F.S. Young, R.L. Schrnid, and P.I. Fergetad, "A Laboratory Investigation

Ferroresonance in Cable-Connected Transformers" Trans. IEEE (PAS), Vol.

PAS-87, N o . 5 M a y 1968, pp. 1240-1249.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


121

[312] R. Archibald, "160kV peaks occur when Switching 13kV Circuits" Electrical
World, August 26, 1968, pp. 52-53, 102.

[313] G.C. Damstra, "Ferroresonance during Single-phase Switching" Electrical


Engineer, 10 April, 1969, pp. 32-34.

[314] G.C. Damastra, "Ferroresonance during Single-phase Switching of Distributio


Transformers" Australian Electrical World, M a y 1969, pp. 10-11.

[315] A. Clerici and CH. Didriksen, "Dynamic overvoltages and ferroresonance found

in switching. Trans. IEEE, August 1971, pp. 195-203.

[316] E.J. Dolan, D.A. Gillies and E.W. Kimbark, "Ferroresonance in a Transformer
Switched with an E.H.V. line" Trans. IEEE, M a y 1972, pp. 1273-1280.

[317] G.D. Wale, "Ferroresonance in a Disconnected E.H.V. Power System" GEC


Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 40, N o . 2, 1973, pp. 79-86.

[318] A. Baitch, "Theory and Practice of Ferroresonance due to the Single Phase
Switching of Distribution Transformers" Master of Engineering Thesis University

of N e w South Wales, Australia 1973.

[319] D.R. Smith and S.R. Swanson, "Overvoltages with Remotely-Switched Cable-Fed
Grounded W y e - W y e Transformers" IEEE paper T 75 137-5 November 1974, pp.
1843-1853.

[320] A. Baitch, "Ferroresonance due to the Single Phase Switching of Distribution


Transformers" International Conference on Electricity Distribution Liege, Belgium
1979 Session 3 paper 24.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


122

[321] "Dual Prescription for Ferroresonance" Electrical World, M a y 1, 1979, pp. 68-69.

[322] S. Prusty and M. Panda, "Predetermination of Lateral Length to Prevent


Overvoltage Problems due to Open Conductors in Three Phase Systems" IEE
Proc. Vol. 132, Pt. C, No. 1, January 1985, pp. 49-55.
[323] J.R. Marti and A.C. Soudack, "Ferroresonance in Power Systems, Fundamental
Solutions" IEE Proceedings-C, Vol. 138, N o 4, July 1991, pp. 321-328.

16.5 Ferroresonance Analytical Techniques

[401] C.G Suits, "Studies in Non-Linear Circuits" Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.) Ju
1931, pp. 724-736.

[402] W.T. Thomson, "Resonant Nonlinear Control Circuits" Trans. Amer. I.E.E.

(P.A.S.) August 1938, Vol. 57, pp. 469-476.

[403] P.P. Odesseyt and E. Weber , "Critical Conditions in Ferroresonance" Trans.


Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.)August 1938, Vol. 57, pp. 444-452.

[404] W.T. Thomson, "Similitude of Critical Conditions in Ferroresonant Circuits"


Trans. Amer. I.E.E. (P.A.S.) Vol. 58, March 1939, pp. 127-130.

[405] J.T. Salihi, "Analysis of Instability and Response of Reactors with Rectang
Hysteresis Loop Core Material in Series with Capacitors" Trans. Amer. I.E.E.

(Comrn. & Electronics), July 1956, pp. 296-307.

[406] G.E. Kelly, "The Ferroresonant Circuit" Trans. IEEE, January 1959, pp. 843-8

p. 1061.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


123

[407] J.T. Salihi, "Theory of Ferroresonance" Trans. IEEE, January 1960, pp. 755-763.

[408] L. Clarke, G.A. Curtis and R.O.M. Powell, "Capacitors in Relation to Trans
Fluctuating and Distorting Loads" Proc. IEE, 1963, pp. 21-32.

[409] L.A. Finzi and A. Lavi, "The Controlled Ferroresonant Transformer" Paper 6
1022 A T E E Non-Linear Magnetics Committee January 1963, pp. 414-419.

[410] R. Balasubramanian and D.P. Atherton, "Prediction of Jump Resonance in


Systems Containing Certain Multidimensional Nonlinearities" Proceedings IEE,
Vol. 115, No. 9, September 1968, pp. 1369-1372.

[411] G.W. Swift, "An Analytical Approach to Ferroresonance" Trans. IEEE (PAS),
Vol. P A S 88, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 42-46.

[412] S.S. Lamba and R.J. Kavanagh, "Jump-Resonance Criteria for Systems Contai
Double-Valued And Frequency Dependent Non-Linearities" Proceedings IEE,
Vol. 116, No. 7, July 1969, pp. 1225-1228.

[413] L.O. Chua, "Qualitative Analysis of 1st and 2nd-Order Nonlinear Networks"
Proc. IEE, Vol. 118, No. 1, January 1971, pp. 19-28.

[414] S.S. Lamba and R. J. Kavanagh "Phenomenon of Isolated Jump Resonance and i
Applications" Proc. IEE, Vol. 118, No. 8, August 1971, pp. 1047-1050.

[415] A. Semlyen, "Phasor-Trajectory Representation of Near-Resonance Transient


Quasilinear A.C. Circuits" Proc. IEE. Vol. 118, No. 8, August 1971, pp. 988-992.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


124

[416] D.Teodorescu, "Analysis and Synthesis of Nonlinear Control Systems by Means


of a Sampled-Data Nonlinear Matrix" Proc. IEE, Vol. 118, No. 11, November
1971, pp. 1655-1660.

[417] J.J. LaForest, "Program Models Magnetic Saturation" (System engineering)


Electrical World, April 15, 1972, pp. 70-71.

[418] B.S. Ashok Kumar, A.K. Tripathy, K. Parthasarathy and G.C. Kothari "Appro
to the Problem of Ferroresonance in E H V Systems" Proc. IEE, Vol. 119, N o . 6,
June 1972, pp. 672-676.

[419] A. Germond, "Computation of the Periodic Overvoltages Due to Ferroresonan


Phenomena in Three-Phase Networks" IEE Conference Publication No. 110,

approx. 1974.

[420] G.C. Kothari, B.S. Ashok Kumar, K. Parthasarathy and H.P. Khincha" Analys
Ferro-oscillations in Power Systems" Proc. IEE, Vol. 121, No. 7, July 1974, pp.

616-622.

[421] S. Prusty and S.K. Sanyal, "Some New Solutions to Ferroresonance Problem
Power System" Proc. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 12, December 1977, pp. 1207-1211.

[422] J.M. Feldman and AL. Cappabianca "On the Accuracy and Utility of Piecewis
Linear Models of Ferroresonance" IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and

Systems, Vol. PAS-97, No. 2, March/April 1978, pp. 469-477.

[423] S. Prusty and S.K. Sanyal "Effect on Core Loss on Multimodal Operation of
Parallel Ferroresonant Circuit: Some General Conclusions" Proc. IEE, Vol 126,

No. 9, September 1979, pp. 826-836.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


125

[424] P.K. Mukherjee and S. Ray, "Computation of Switching Transients for


Ferroresonance Studies" Institution of Engineers India Journal Electrical, Vol. 59,
December 1979, pp. 178-181.

[425] N.L. Diseko and J.P. Bickford, "A Method of Simulating Linear and Non-Linea
Resonant Phenomena Associated with Transformer Feeders" IEE Proc. Vol. 127.
Pt. C, N o . 3, M a y 1980, pp. 169-178.

[426] N. Janssens, A. Even, H. Denoel and P. A. Monfils, "Determination of the Ris


Ferroresonance in High Voltage Networks. Experimental Verification on a 245kV
Voltage Transformer" Proceeding Vol. 1 Sixth International Symposium on High
Voltage Engineering, N e w Orleans, Louisiana, U S A . 28 August to 1 September
1989.

[427] M. Tadokoro, H. Nagata and T. Yamazaki, "Analysis of Abnormal Oscillations


a Three-Phase Nonlinear Circuit" Electrical Engineering in Japan, Vol. 110, No. 6,
1990, pp. 128-137.

[428] N. Janssens, V. Vanderstock, H. Denoel and P.A. Monfils, "Elimination of

Temporary Overvoltages D u e to Ferroresonance of Voltage Transformers : Design


and Testing of a Damping System" Reference 33-204 C I G R E 1990 session 26

August - 1 September 1990.

[429] C. Kieny, "Application of the Bifurcation Theory in Studying and Understand


the Global Behaviour of a Ferroresonant Electric Power Circuit" IEEE Trans.
Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No. 2 April 1991, pp. 866-872.

[430] C Kieny, G. Le Roy and A. Sabai, "Ferroresonance Study using Galerkin Metho

with Pseudo-Arclength Continuation Method", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol.


6, N o . 4, October 1991, pp. 1841-1847.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


126

[431] N. Janssens, Th. Van Craenenbroeck, D. Van Dommelen and F. Van D e

Meulebroeke, "Direct Calculation of the Stability Domains of Three-Phase


Ferroresonance in Isolated Neutral Networks with Grounded-Neutral Voltage
Transformers" paper 95 S M 420-0 P W R D presented at the Summer Meeting of the
IEEE /PES July 1995, Portland, Oregan U S A .

16.6 Miscellaneous

[501] G.N. Patchett, "Automatic Voltage Regulators and Stabilisers" Pitman Publi
third edition 1970.

[502] Editorial, "Voltage Transformers Have Electronic Ferroresonance Protection


(Research and Development), Electrical Review, 13 August 1971.

[503] E.T.B. Gross, M.H. Hesse, CM. Summers and AJ.O. Cruickshank, "Approach to
Experimental Electric Power Engineering Education - IF' IEEE Paper T 73 505-5
M a y 1973, pp. 803-811.

[504] W.K. Macfadyen, R.R.S. Simpson, R.D. Slater and W.S. Wood, "Method of
Predicting Transient Current Patterns in Transformers" Proc. IEE, Vol. 120, No.

11, November 1993, pp. 1393-1396.

[505] W.E. Shula, "Capacitors Help to Start Large Motors" Electrical World, 1
November 1974, pp. 44-47.

[506] A.A. Mahmoud, T.H. Ortmeyer and R.G. Harley, "Effects of Reactive
Compensation on Inductive Motor Dynamic Performance" IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. Pas-99, No. 3 May/June 1980, pp. 841-846.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


127

[507] Australian Standard A S 2926 "Standard Voltages - Alternating (50 Hz) and
Direct".

[508] IEC Standard IEC 38 "Standard Voltages"

[509] J. H. B. Deane and D.C. Hamill, "Instability, Subharmonics and Chaos in Po


Electronic Systems" IEEE Trans. Power Electronics, Vol. 5, no. 3, July 1990, pp.
260-267.

[510] P.M. Anderson, B.L. Agrawal and J.E. Van Ness, "Subsynchronous Resonance in
Power Systems" Published IEEE Press, IEEE order Number PC0247-7.

[511] J.A. Edminster and J.E. Swann, "Electric Circuits" Published McGraw Hill
International Book Company 1972.

[512] B.M. Weedy "Electric Power Systems" Published John Wiley & Sons 1975.

[513] P.M.Anderson and A.A. Fouad, "Power System Control and Stability" Publish
IEEE Press 1994.

[514] The Electricity Authority of New South Wales - "Overhead Line Manual"
Drawing Reference E A S 4 10 2 1977.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


128

Appendix A
Detailed Experimental and Frequency Domain Model Results for
Circuit "A"

The following table gives a summary of the model predicted and experimental results for
circuit "A". This data is present in graphical form in figures 19 and 20.

Series Compensation of Distribution and Subtransmission Lines


IEEE90

Circuit "A" - Current amps R M S

Supply Voltage 2nd subh. - 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd


Vs Volte 50 hertz - 50 hertz - unstable model subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic •
RMS model experimental solution model experimental model experimental
0 0.01 0.00
10 0.02 0.00
20 0.02 0.00
30 0.03 0.00
40 0.04 0.00 0.74
50 0.05 0.01 0.75
60 0.06 0.01 0.76 0.74
70 0.07 0.02 0.78 0.81
80 0.08 0.02 0.81 0.88
90 0.09 0.03 0.84 0.92
100 0.11 0.03 0.88 0.94
110 0.12 0.04 0.90 0.96
120 0.14 0.06 0.92 0.97
130 0.15 0.07 2.55 0.93 0.98
140 0.16 0.09 2.58 0.92 0.97
150 0.18 0.10 2.60 0.90 0.94
160 0.20 0.13 2.63 0.86 0.88
170 0.23 0.15 2.62 0.81 0.81
180 0.27 0.20 2.61 0.71 0.72
190 0.31 0.23 2.58 2.58 2.38 0.51
200 0.36 0.29 2.51 2.34
210 0.42 0.37 2.40 2.28
220 0.49 0.45 2.22 2.11
230 0.58 0.53 1.94 1.88
240 0.68 0.65
250 0.79
260 0.93
270 1.08
280 1.25
290 1.44
300 1.67
310 1.91
320 2.19
330 2.50
IEEE90

Circuit "A" - Caipacitor Voltage - VoltsRMS

Supply Voltage 2nd subh. - 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd


Vs Volts 50 hertz • 50 hertz - unstable model subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic •
RMS model experimental solution model experimental model experimental
0 0.0 0.0
10 0.5 03
20 1.0 0.5
30 1.4 0.8
40 1.9 1.1 943
50 2.4 1.3 96.1
60 2.9 1.6 97.1 101.0
70 3.4 1.9 97.8 103.2
80 3.9 2.2 98.0 103.7
90 4.4 2.4 97.8 103.2
100 4.9 2.7 97.0 101.6
110 5.5 3.0 95.6 99.3
120 6.1 3.2 93.4 95.5
130 6.7 3.5 199.0 90.3 92.4
140 7.5 4.3 197.8 863 87.9
150 8.3 4.9 195.8 81.1 83.3
160 93 6.3 193.2 74.8 77.6
170 10.5 7.8 189.5 66.9 69.9
180 12.0 9.7 184.5 56.5 62.0
190 13.8 11.2 177.8 177.8 166.0 36.4
200 15.9 14.0 169.0 162.0
210 18.5 18.0 158.0 156.5
220 21.6 22.4 143.5 143.0
230 25.4 26.0 121.6 127.0
240 29.7 31.6
250 34.8
260 40.7
270 47.4
280 55.1
290 63.8
300 73.7
310 84.8
320 97.2
330 119.4
131

Appendix B
Modelled Transient R L C Behaviour for Circuit "A"

Figures 51 and 52 shows the modelled transient behaviour of the series RLC circuit
elements of circuit " A " w h e n excited by a 100 volt step voltage. T h e transformer
primary winding is short circuited for this simulation. O f particular interest is the near 50
H z response and the rate of decay.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


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Appendix C
Detailed Experimental and Frequency Domain Model Results for
Circuit UT>»
"B

The following table gives a summary of the model predicted and experimental results for

circuit "B". This data is present in graphical form infigures27 and 28.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


IEEE92

Circuit "B" - Current amps R M S


Supply 2nd subh. - 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd
Voltage V s 50 hertz - 50 hertz - unstable subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic -
Volts R M S model experimental model solution model experimental model experimental
0 0.00 0.00
10 0.02 0.00
20 0.02 0.02
30 0.03 0.02
40 0.04 0.03
50 0.05 0.03 2.49
60 0.06 0.04 2.50 2.79
70 0.07 0.04 2.52 2.82
80 0.08 0.04 2.56 2.89
90 0.09 0.05 2.61 2.98
100 0.11 0.06 2.69 3.11
110 0.12 0.06 2.77 3.26
120 0.13 0.07 2.87 3.39
130 0.15 0.08 2.96 3.54
140 0.16 0.09 3.04 3.65
150 0.18 0,12 3.11 3.70
160 0.20 0.14 3.15 3.71
170 0.23 0.17 3.17 3.68
180 0.27 0.21 3.15 3.63
190 0.31 0.27 3.10 3.57
200 0.37 0.33 3.01 3.48
210 0.43 0.38 8.41 2.88 3.35
220 0.51 0.47 8.14 2.71 3.17
230 0.60 0.58 7.91 7.91 10.18 2.47 2.98
240 0.71 0.64 7.66 10.14 2.10 2.68
250 0.84 0.80 7.41 9.88 2.46
260 1.00 0.95 7.16 9.54 1.93
270 1.16 1.07 6.95 9.14
280 1.37 1.25 8.66
290 1.59 1.49 7.72
300 1.85 1.74
310 2.03
320
330
340
IEEE92

I
Circuit "B" - Capacitor Voltage - Volts R M S
Supply 2nd subh. - 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd
Voltage Vs 50 hertz - 50 hertz - unstable subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic - subharmonic -
Volts R M S model experimental model solution model experimental model experimental
0 0.0 0.0
10 0.2 0.2
20 0.4 03
30 0.5 0.4
40 0.7 0.5
50 0.9 0.6 120.4
60 1.1 0.6 1225 128.0
70 1.3 0.7 123.9 128.0
80 1.5 0.8 124.8 128.0
90 1.7 0.9 125.4 128.0
100 1.9 1.0 125.7 127.0
110 2.1 1.1 125.7 124.0
120 2.3 1.2 125.3 120.0
130 2.6 1.4 124.5 118.0
140 2.8 1.6 1233 118.0
150 3.2 1.9 121.4 114.0
160 3.5 2.3 118.8 111.0
170 4.0 2.9 115.5 102.0
180 4.6 3.6 111.4 93.0
190 53 4.5 106.5 90.0
200 6.1 5.5 100.7 83.0
210 7.2 6.5 231.5 93.8 76.0
220 8.4 8.1 220.0 85.7 70.0
230 10.0 9.7 210.6 210.6 253.0 75.7 63.0
240 11.8 11.0 201.3 248.0 61.9 55.0
250 13.9 13.8 192.0 236.0 48.0
260 163 163 182.8 222.0 36.0
270 19.2 18.5 174.7 210.0
280 22.4 21.4 198.0
290 26.2 24.7 176.0
300 30.4 29.9
310 35.2 35.8
320 40.6
330 46.6
340 53.3
137

Appendix D
Modelled Transient R L C Behaviour for Circuit "B"

Figures 53 and 54 shows the modelled transient behaviour of the series RLC circuit
elements of circuit " B " w h e n excited by a 100 volt step voltage. T h e transformer
primary winding is short circuited for this simulation. O f particular interest is the near 50
H z response and the rate of decay. T h e circuit has a frequency ratio of 1.00 and an X / R
ratio of 3.03. This circuit is clearly underdamped.

Circuit "B" has a similar frequency ratio to circuit "A" with both circuits being tuned to
50 H z . Circuit " B " has a smaller X / R ratio than circuit "A" indicating it is more damped.
This is particularly evident in the comparison of the step responses. Despite the higher
level of damping, circuit " B " is prone to higher ferroresonant currents and capacitor

voltages than circuit "A".

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


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Appendix £
Experimental Circuit " D " 3 Phase
Figure 55 shows the layout of the three phase circuit " D " constructed in the laboratory.

Xc
Rd <^>

L R

^-^ L R

Rd >":«c)

^Ttf^AAA
L R c

Figure 55 Three Phase Series Compensated Circuit " D "

The circuit parameters were:


L=0.149H
C=69uF
R=1.0ohm
Rd=46
Tx winding resistance=1.2 o h m

The transformer was a three limb iron cored transformer rated at 200 VA 110V pha
phase on the primary side.

This series compensated circuit was examined in the laboratory both with the saturating
choke damping and without the saturating choke damping.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


141

Without damping the circuit w a s found to be highly ferroresonant and capable of


subharmonic wavefoms of order 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5. Under some conditions of supply
voltage low frequency oscillations between limbs in the order 5 seconds was observed.

When the damping elements were introduced into the circuit no ferroresonant states
could be generated.

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


142

Appendix F
Modelled Stored Energy in Circuit "A"

At a supply voltage of 180 volts circuit "A" can operate in two modes. In addition th
is an unstable 2nd subharmonic frequency domain solution. The followingfiguresrefer
to the energy stored in the circuit components.

Figure 56 Stored Energy - Circuit "A" 50 Hz Magnetising


Figure 57 Stored Energy - Circuit " A " 3rd Subharmonic
Figure 58 Stored Energy - Circuit " A " Unstable 2nd Subharmonic

Series Compensation of Distribution and SubUansmission Lines


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