CHAPTER

ME31003

1 SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Kinematics of Particles

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

System Dynamics
For your information
• Instructor: Dr. Jie Zhu
• BS, MS (Nanjing University, China)

• PhD, Materials Engineering (Pennsylvania State University,

USA)
• Postdoc (University of California, Berkeley, USA)

• Office: FG 603
• Phone: 2766 6649
• Email: jiezhu@polyu.edu.hk
• Office Hour: by appointment

• Pre-requisite: ME23001 Engineering Mechanics

System Dynamics
For your information

Text book:
Ferdinand P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston,
Phillip J. Cornwell
Vector Mechanics for Engineers
Dynamics SI, 10/e
McGraw-Hill, latest edition.

W.J. Palm III, System Dynamics,

McGraw-Hill, latest edition.
System Dynamics
Course Arrangement
Sem. Week Lecture Topics
Wk1
Kinematics of Particles
(Jan. 19)
Wk 2
Newton’s Second Law
(Jan. 26)
Wk 3
Kinetics of Particles
(Feb. 2)
Wk 4
Kinetics of Rigid Bodies
(Feb. 9)
Wk 5
Holiday
(Feb. 16)
Wk 6
Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
(Mar. 2)
Wk 7
Test 1 8:30AM-11:30AM (Venue will be informed later)
(Mar. 7)
Wk 7
Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
(Mar. 9)
Wk 8
Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies
(Mar. 16)
Wk 9
Introduction to Control Systems
(Mar. 23)
Wk 10
Holiday
(Mar. 30)
Wk 11
Block Diagram Representation
(Apr. 6)
Wk 12
Modelling of Different Systems
(Apr. 13)
Wk 13
Time Response Analysis
(Apr. 20)
System Dynamics
Grading Policy

Overall Grade = 0.5*(CA Grade) + 0.5*(EXAM Grade)

Ø Continuous Assessment: 50%

Assignments: 25%
Closed-book Midterm Test : 25%
Ø Final examination: 50%

Note: There is a minimum mark for each component, which is

usually lower than the low limit of grade “D”. Student will be
assigned an overall failing grade “F” without achieving this
minimum mark in either “Continuous Assessment” or
“Examination”.
System Dynamics
Introduction
• Dynamics includes:
Kinematics: study of the geometry of motion.
Relates displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time without reference
to the cause of motion.
Fdownforce

Fdrive Fdrag

Kinetics: study of the relations existing between the forces acting on

a body, the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is
used to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine the
forces required to produce a given motion.
System Dynamics
Introduction
Kinematic relationships are used to
help us determine the trajectory of a
snowboarder completing a jump, the
orbital speed of a satellite, and
accelerations during acrobatic
flying.
System Dynamics
Introduction
• Particle kinetics includes:

• Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a straight line.

• Curvilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a curved line in two or three
dimensions.
System Dynamics
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectilinear motion: particle moving
along a straight line
• Position coordinate: defined by
positive or negative distance from a
fixed origin on the line.

• The motion of a particle is known if

the position coordinate for particle is
known for every value of time t.
• May be expressed in the form of a
function, e.g., 2 3
x = 6t - t
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
System Dynamics
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle which occupies position P
at time t and P’ at t+Dt,
Dx
Average velocity =
Dt
Dx
Instantaneous velocity = v = lim
Dt ®0 Dt

• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or

negative. Magnitude of velocity is referred
to as particle speed.
• From the definition of a derivative,
Dx dx
v = lim =
Dt ®0 Dt dt
e.g., x = 6t 2 - t 3
dx
v= = 12t - 3t 2
dt
System Dynamics
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• Consider particle with velocity v at time t and
v’ at t+Dt,
Dv
Instantaneous acceleration = a = lim
Dt ®0 Dt

• Instantaneous acceleration may be:

- positive: increasing positive velocity
or decreasing negative velocity
- negative: decreasing positive velocity
or increasing negative velocity.
• From the definition of a derivative,
Dv dv d 2 x
a = lim = = 2
Dt ®0 Dt dt dt
e.g. v = 12t - 3t 2
dv
a= = 12 - 6t
dt
System Dynamics
Concept Quiz

What is true about the kinematics of a particle?

a) The velocity of a particle is always positive

b) The velocity of a particle is equal to the slope of
the position-time graph
c) If the position of a particle is zero, then the
velocity must zero
d) If the velocity of a particle is zero, then its
acceleration must be zero
System Dynamics
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• From our example,
x = 6t 2 - t 3
dx
v= = 12t - 3t 2
dt
dv d 2 x
a= = 2 = 12 - 6t
dt dt
• What are x, v, and a at t = 2 s ?
- at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

• Note that vmax occurs when a=0, and that the

slope of the velocity curve is zero at this point.
• What are x, v, and a at t = 4 s ?

- at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

System Dynamics
Determining the Motion of a Particle

• We often determine accelerations from the forces applied

(kinetics will be covered later)
• Generally have three classes of motion
- acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t)
- acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x)
- acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v)

• Can you think of a physical example of when force is a

function of position? When force is a function of velocity?
System Dynamics
Acceleration as a function of time, position, or velocity
If…. Kinematic relationship Integrate
v t
dv
a = a (t )
dt
= a (t ) ò dv = ò a (t ) dt
v0 0

dx dv
dt = and a = v x
v dt
a = a ( x) ò v dv = ò a ( x ) dx
v dv = a ( x ) dx
v0 x0

v t
dv dv
dt
= a (v ) òv a ( v ) = ò0 dt
a = a (v)
0

dv x v
v dv
v = a (v) ò dx = ò
dx x0 v0
a (v)
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.1
STRATEGY:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).

• Solve for t when velocity equals zero

(time for maximum elevation) and
evaluate corresponding altitude.

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero

Ball tossed with 10 m/s vertical velocity (time for ground impact) and evaluate
from window 20 m above ground. corresponding velocity.
Determine:
• velocity and elevation above ground at
time t,
• highest elevation reached by ball and
corresponding time, and
• time when ball will hit the ground and
corresponding velocity.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.1
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).
dv
= a = -9.81 m s 2
dt
v (t ) t
ò dv = - ò 9.81 dt v(t ) - v0 = -9.81t
v0 0

( )
v(t ) = 10m / s - 9.81m / s 2 t

dy
= v = 10 - 9.81t
dt
y (t ) t
ò dy = ò (10 - 9.81t )dt y (t ) - y0 = 10t - 12 9.81t 2
y0 0

æ mö æ mö
y(t ) = 20 m + ç10 ÷t - ç 4.905 2 ÷t 2
è sø è s ø
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.1
• Solve for t when velocity equals zero and evaluate
corresponding altitude.
m æ mö
v(t ) = 10 - ç 9.81 2 ÷ t = 0
s è s ø
t = 1.019 s

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate

corresponding velocity.

æ mö æ mö 2
y (t ) = 20 m + ç10 ÷t - ç 4.905 2 ÷t
è sø è s ø
æ mö æ mö
y = 20 m + ç10 ÷(1.019 s ) - ç 4.905 2 ÷(1.019 s )2
è sø è s ø
y = 25.1 m
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.1
• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate
corresponding velocity.
æ mö æ mö
y(t ) = 20 m + ç10 ÷t - ç 4.905 2 ÷t 2 = 0
è sø è s ø
t = -1.243 s (meaningless )
t = 3.28 s

m æ mö
v(t ) = 10 - ç 9.81 2 ÷ t
s è s ø
m æ mö
v(3.28 s ) = 10 - ç 9.81 2 ÷ (3.28 s )
s è s ø

m
v = -22.2
REFLECT and THINK: s
When the acceleration is constant, the velocity
changes linearly, and the position is a quadratic function of time.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.2
STRATEGY:

a = -kv • Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).

• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).
• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find
v(x).
A mountain bike shock mechanism used
to provide shock absorption consists of a
piston that travels in an oil-filled cylinder.
As the cylinder is given an initial velocity
v0, the piston moves and oil is forced
through orifices in piston, causing piston
and cylinder to decelerate at rate
proportional to their velocity.
Determine v(t), x(t), and v(x).
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.2
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).

dv
v
dv
t
v (t )
a=
dt
= -kv òv v = -k ò0 dt ln
v0
= -kt
0

v(t ) = v0 e - kt

• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).

dx
v (t ) = = v0e - kt
dt
x t t
é 1 ù
ò dx = v0 ò dt
e - kt
x ( t ) = v0 ê - e - kt ú
0 0 ë k û0

x(t ) =
v0
k
(
1 - e - kt )
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.2
• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find v(x).
v x
dv
a = v = - kv dv = -k dx ò dv = -k ò dx
dx v0 0
v - v0 = - kx
v = v0 - kx

• Alternatively,

with
v
(
x(t ) = 0 1 - e - kt
k
)
v(t )
and v(t ) = v0 e -kt or e -kt =
v0
v æ v(t ) ö
then x(t ) = 0 çç1 - ÷÷
k è v0 ø
v = v0 - kx
System Dynamics
Group Problem Solving
A bowling ball is dropped from a boat so that it
strikes the surface of a lake with a speed of 8 m/s.
+y Assuming the ball experiences a downward
acceleration of a = 3 - 0.1v2 when in the water,
determine the velocity of the ball when it strikes the
bottom of the lake. (a and v expressed in m/s2 and
m/s respectively)

Which integral should you choose?

v t v x
(a) ò dv = ò a (t ) dt
v0 0
(c) ò v dv = ò a ( x ) dx
v0 x0

v t
x v
v dv dv
(b) òx dx = vò a ( v ) (d) òv a ( v ) = ò0 dt
0
0 0
System Dynamics
Uniform Rectilinear Motion
Once a safe speed of descent for a
For a particle in uniform
vertical landing is reached, a Harrier jet
rectilinear motion, the
pilot will adjust the vertical thrusters to
acceleration is zero and
equal the weight of the aircraft. The
the velocity is constant.
plane then travels at a constant velocity
downward. If motion is in a straight dx
line, this is uniform rectilinear motion. = v = constant
dt
x t
ò dx = v ò dt
x0 0
x - x0 = vt
x = x0 + vt

Careful – these only apply to

uniform rectilinear motion!
System Dynamics
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
For a particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the
acceleration of the particle is constant. You may recognize these
constant acceleration equations from your physics courses.
v t
dv
dt
= a = constant ò dv = aò dt
v0 0
v = v0 + at

x t
dx
dt
= v0 + at ò dx = ò ( v0 + at ) dt
x0 0
x = x0 + v0t + 12 at 2

v x
dv
v = a = constant ò v dv = a ò dx v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x - x0 )
dx v0 x0

Careful – these only apply to uniformly

accelerated rectilinear motion!
System Dynamics
Motion of Several Particles
We may be interested in the motion of several different particles,
whose motion may be independent or linked together.
System Dynamics
Motion of Several Particles: Relative Motion
• For particles moving along the same line, time
should be recorded from the same starting
instant and displacements should be measured
from the same origin in the same direction.

xB = x B - x A = relative position of B
A
with respect to A
xB = x A + xB A

vB = v B - v A = relative velocity of B
A
with respect to A
vB = v A + vB A

aB = a B - a A = relative acceleration of B
A
with respect to A
aB = a A + aB A
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.4
Ball thrown vertically from 12 m level
in elevator shaft with initial velocity of
18 m/s. At same instant, open-platform
elevator passes 5 m level moving
upward at 2 m/s.
Determine (a) when and where ball hits
elevator and (b) relative velocity of ball
and elevator at contact.
STRATEGY:
• Substitute initial position and velocity
and constant acceleration of ball into
general equations for uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion.
• Substitute initial position and constant
velocity of elevator into equation for
uniform rectilinear motion.
• Write equation for relative position of
ball with respect to elevator and solve
for zero relative position, i.e., impact.
• Substitute impact time into equation
for position of elevator and relative
velocity of ball with respect to
elevator.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.4
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Substitute initial position and velocity and constant
acceleration of ball into general equations for
uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
m æ mö
v B = v0 + at = 18 - ç 9.81 2 ÷t
s è s ø
æ mö æ mö
y B = y0 + v0t + 12 at 2 = 12 m + ç18 ÷t - ç 4.905 2 ÷t 2
è sø è s ø

• Substitute initial position and constant velocity of

elevator into equation for uniform rectilinear motion.
m
vE = 2
s
æ mö
y E = y0 + v E t = 5 m + ç 2 ÷t
è sø
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.4
• Write equation for relative position of ball with respect to
elevator and solve for zero relative position, i.e., impact.

( )
y B E = 12 + 18t - 4.905t 2 - (5 + 2t ) = 0
t = -0.39 s (meaningless )
t = 3.65 s

• Substitute impact time into equations for position of elevator

and relative velocity of ball with respect to elevator.
y E = 5 + 2(3.65)
y E = 12.3 m

v B E = (18 - 9.81t ) - 2
= 16 - 9.81(3.65)
m
v B E = -19.81
s
System Dynamics
Motion of Several Particles: Dependent Motion
• Position of a particle may depend on position of one
or more other particles.
• Position of block B depends on position of block A.
Since rope is of constant length, it follows that sum of
lengths of segments must be constant.
x A + 2 x B = constant (one degree of freedom)
• Positions of three blocks are dependent.
2 x A + 2 x B + xC = constant (two degrees of freedom)

• For linearly related positions, similar relations hold

between velocities and accelerations.
dx A dx B dxC
2 +2 + = 0 or 2v A + 2v B + vC = 0
dt dt dt
dv A dv B dvC
2 +2 + = 0 or 2a A + 2a B + aC = 0
dt dt dt
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.5
STRATEGY:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface
with positive displacement downward.
• Collar A has uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion. Solve for acceleration
and time t to reach L.
• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion.
Pulley D is attached to a collar which Calculate change of position at time t.
is pulled down at 75 mm/s. At t = 0,
collar A starts moving down from K • Block B motion is dependent on motions
with constant acceleration and zero of collar A and pulley D. Write motion
initial velocity. Knowing that velocity relationship and solve for change of block
of collar A is 300 mm/s as it passes L, B position at time t.
determine the change in elevation, • Differentiate motion relation twice to
velocity, and acceleration of block B develop equations for velocity and
when block A is at L. acceleration of block B.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.5
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface with
positive displacement downward.

• Collar A has uniformly accelerated rectilinear

motion. Solve for acceleration and time t to reach L.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.5
• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion. Calculate
change of position at time t.

• Block B motion is dependent on motions of collar

A and pulley D. Write motion relationship and
solve for change of block B position at time t.
Total length of cable remains constant,

xB - (xB )0 = - 400mm.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.5
• Differentiate motion relation twice to develop
equations for velocity and acceleration of block B.

mm
vB = 450
s

mm
aB = - 225 2
s
REFLECT and THINK:
In this case, the relationship we needed was not between position coordinates,
but between changes in position coordinates at two different times. The key
step is to clearly define your position vectors. This is a two degree-of-freedom
system, because two coordinates are required to completely describe it.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.6
Slider block A moves to the left with a
constant velocity of 6 m/s. Determine the
velocity of block B.

STRATEGY:
• Sketch your system and choose
coordinate system
• Write out constraint equation
• Differentiate the constraint equation to
get velocity
System Dynamics
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration

The snowboarder and the train both

undergo curvilinear motion.

• A particle moving along a curve other than a

straight line is in curvilinear motion.
System Dynamics
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
• The position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a vector between
origin O of a fixed reference frame and the position occupied by particle.
!
• Consider a particle which occupies position P defined by r at time t
!
and P’ defined by r ¢ at t + Dt,
System Dynamics
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
Instantaneous velocity Instantaneous speed
(vector) (scalar)
! !
! Dr dr Ds ds
v = lim = v = lim =
Dt ®0 Dt dt Dt ®0 Dt dt
System Dynamics
Curvilinear Motion: Position, Velocity & Acceleration
! !
• Consider velocity of a particle at time t and velocity v ¢ at t + Dt,
v
! !
! Dv dv
a = lim = = instantaneous acceleration (vector)
Dt ®0 Dt dt

• In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent

to the particle path and velocity vector.
System Dynamics
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• When position vector of particle P is given by its
rectangular components,
! ! ! !
r = xi + y j + zk

• Velocity vector,
! dx ! dy ! dz ! ! ! !
v = i + j + k = x"i + y" j + z"k
dt dt dt
! ! !
= vx i + v y j + vz k

• Acceleration vector,
! d 2 x! d 2 y ! d 2 z ! ! ! !
a = 2 i + 2 j + 2 k = "x"i + "y" j + "z"k
dt dt dt
! ! !
= ax i + a y j + az k
System Dynamics
Rectangular Components of Velocity & Acceleration
• Rectangular components particularly effective
when component accelerations can be integrated
independently, e.g., motion of a projectile,
a x = !x! = 0 a y = !y! = - g a z = !z! = 0
with initial conditions,
x0 = y0 = z0 = 0 ( )
(v x )0 , v y 0 , (v z )0 = 0
Integrating twice yields
v x = (v x )0 ( )
v y = v y - gt
0
vz = 0
x = (v x )0 t ( )0
y = v y y - 12 gt 2 z=0

• Motion in horizontal direction is uniform.

• Motion in vertical direction is uniformly accelerated.

• Motion of projectile could be replaced by two

independent rectilinear motions.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.7
STRATEGY:
• Consider the vertical and horizontal motion
separately (they are independent)
• Apply equations of motion in y-direction

• Apply equations of motion in x-direction

• Determine time t for projectile to hit the

A projectile is fired from the edge
ground, use this to find the horizontal
of a 150-m cliff with an initial
distance
velocity of 180 m/s at an angle of
30°with the horizontal. Neglecting • Maximum elevation occurs when vy=0
air resistance, find (a) the horizontal
distance from the gun to the point
where the projectile strikes the
ground, (b) the greatest elevation
above the ground reached by the
projectile.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.7
MODELING and ANALYSIS:

Given: (v)o =180 m/s (y)o =0 m

(a)y = - 9.81 m/s2 (a)x = 0 m/s2

Vertical motion – uniformly accelerated:

Horizontal motion – uniform:

Choose positive x to the right as shown
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.7
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Horizontal distance
Projectile strikes the ground at:
Substitute into equation (2) above

Solving for t, we take the positive root

Substitute t into equation

Maximum elevation occurs when vy=0

Maximum elevation above the ground =

System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.8
A baseball pitching machine
“throws” baseballs with a
horizontal velocity v0. If you
want the height h to be
1050 mm, determine the value
of v0.
STRATEGY:
• Consider the vertical and horizontal motion
separately (they are independent)
• Apply equations of motion in y-direction
• Apply equations of motion in x-direction
• Determine time t for projectile to fall to
1050 mm
• Calculate v0=0
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.8
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Given: x= 12.2 m, yo = 1.5
m, yf= 1050 mm.
Find: vo
Analyze the motion in Analyze the motion in
the y-direction the x-direction
1 2
y f = y0 + (0)t - gt x = 0 + (vx )0 t = v0t
2
1 2 12.2 m = (v0 )(0.30289 s)
1.05 = 1.5 - gt
2
1 v0 = 40.3 m/s = 145 km/h
0.45 m = - (9.81 m/s2 )t 2
2
REFLECT and THINK:
t = 0.30289 s Units are correct and magnitudes
are reasonable
System Dynamics
Motion Relative to a Frame in Translation
It is critical for a pilot to know the relative motion of his helicopter
with respect to the aircraft carrier to make a safe landing.
System Dynamics
Motion Relative to a Frame in Translation
• Designate one frame as the fixed frame of reference.
All other frames not rigidly attached to the fixed
reference frame are moving frames of reference.
• Position vectors for particles A and B with respect to
! !
the fixed frame of reference Oxyz are rA and rB .
!
• Vector rB A joining A and B defines the position of
B with respect to the moving frame Ax’y’z’ and
! ! !
rB = rA + rB A
• Differentiating twice,
! ! ! !
v B = v A + v B A v B A = velocity of B relative to A.
! ! ! !
a B = a A + a B A a B A = acceleration of B relative
to A.
• Absolute motion of B can be obtained by combining
motion of A with relative motion of B with respect to
moving reference frame attached to A.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.9
STRATEGY:

• Define inertial axes for the system

• Determine the position, speed, and

acceleration of car A at t = 5 s
• Determine the position, speed, and
acceleration of car B at t = 5 s
Automobile A is traveling east at the • Using vectors equations, determine the
constant speed of 36 km/h. As relative position, velocity, and acceleration
automobile A crosses the intersection
shown, automobile B starts from rest
35 m north of the intersection and
moves south with a constant
acceleration of 1.2 m/s2. Determine
the position, velocity, and
acceleration of B relative to A 5 s
after A crosses the intersection.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.9
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Define axes along the road
Given: vA=36 km/h, aA= 0, (xA)0 = 0
(vB)0= 0, aB= - 1.2 m/s2, (yA)0 = 35 m
Determine motion of Automobile A:

We have uniform motion for A so:

At t = 5 s
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.9
MODELING and ANALYSIS:

Determine motion of Automobile B:

We have uniform acceleration for B so:

At t = 5 s
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.9

We can solve the problems geometrically, and apply the arctangent relationship:

Or we can solve the problems using vectors to obtain equivalent results:

rB = rA + rB/ A v B = v A + v B/ A aB = a A + aB/ A
20 j = 50i + rB/ A -6 j = 10i + v B/ A -1.2 j = 0i + aB/ A
rB/ A = 20 j - 50i (m) v B/ A = -6 j - 10i (m/s) aB/ A = -1.2 j (m/s2 )

Physically, a rider in car A would “see” car B travelling south and west.
System Dynamics
Concept Quiz
If you are sitting in train
B looking out the window,
it which direction does it
appear that train A is
moving?

a) 25o c)

b) 25o d)
System Dynamics
Tangential and Normal Components

If we have an idea of the path of a vehicle or object, it is often

convenient to analyze the motion using tangential and normal
components (sometimes called path coordinates).
System Dynamics
Tangential and Normal Components
y
r= the instantaneous
radius of curvature

v = v et
en v= vt et dv v2
et a = e t + en
dt r

x
• The tangential direction (et) is tangent to the path of the
particle. This velocity vector of a particle is in this direction
• The normal direction (en) is perpendicular to et and points
towards the inside of the curve.
• The acceleration can have components in both the en and et directions
System Dynamics
Tangential and Normal Components
• To derive the acceleration vector in tangential
and normal components, define the motion of a
particle as shown in the figure.

! !
• et and et¢ are tangential unit vectors for the
particle path at P and P’. When drawn with
! ! !
respect to the same origin, Det = et¢ - et and
Dq is the angle between them.

Det = 2 sin (Dq 2 )

!
Det sin (Dq 2 ) ! !
lim = lim en = en
Dq ®0 Dq Dq ®0 Dq 2
!
! de
en = t
dq
System Dynamics
Tangential and Normal Components
! !
• With the velocity vector expressed as v = vet
the particle acceleration may be written as
! ! !
! dv dv ! de dv ! de dq ds
a= = et + v = et + v
dt dt dt dt dq ds dt
but !
det ! ds
= en r dq = ds =v
dq dt
After substituting,
! dv ! v 2 ! dv v2
a = et + en at = an =
dt r dt r
• The tangential component of acceleration
reflects change of speed and the normal
component reflects change of direction.
• The tangential component may be positive or
negative. Normal component always points
toward center of path curvature.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.10
STRATEGY:

• Define your coordinate system

• Calculate the tangential velocity and

tangential acceleration
• Calculate the normal acceleration
A motorist is traveling on a curved
section of highway of radius 750 m • Determine overall acceleration magnitude
at the speed of 90 km/h. The after the brakes have been applied
motorist suddenly applies the brakes,
causing the automobile to slow
down at a constant rate. Knowing
that after 8 s the speed has been
reduced to 72 km/h, determine the
acceleration of the automobile
immediately after the brakes have
been applied.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.10
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Define your coordinate system
• Determine velocity and acceleration in
the tangential direction

• The deceleration constant, therefore

• Immediately after the brakes are applied,

the speed is still 25 m/s

a = an2 + at2 = 0.6252 + 0.8332

System Dynamics
Tangential and Normal Components
In 2001, a race scheduled at the Texas Motor Speedway was
cancelled because the normal accelerations were too high and
caused some drivers to experience excessive g-loads (similar to
fighter pilots) and possibly pass out. What are some things that
could be done to solve this problem?
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.11
STRATEGY:

• Define your coordinate system

• Calculate the tangential velocity and
tangential acceleration

• Calculate the normal acceleration

• Determine overall acceleration

The tangential acceleration of the magnitude
centrifuge cab is given by
at = 0.5 t (m/s 2 )
where t is in seconds and at is in
m/s2. If the centrifuge starts from
fest, determine the total acceleration
magnitude of the cab after 10
seconds.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.11
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Define your coordinate system
In the side view, the tangential en
direction points into the “page”
Determine the tangential velocity
at = 0.5 t
t
2 t
Top View
vt = ò 0.5 t dt = 0.25t = 0.25t 2
0 0

vt = 0.25 (10) = 25 m/s

2
et
Determine the normal acceleration en
(v )
2
252
an = t = = 78.125 m/s 2
r 8
Determine the total acceleration magnitude
amag = an2 + at2 = 78.1252 + [(0.5)(10) ]
2
amag = 78.3 m/s2
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.11
REFLECT and THINK:
Notice that the normal
acceleration is much higher than
the tangential acceleration.
What would happen if, for a
given tangential velocity and
acceleration, the arm radius was
doubled?
a) The accelerations would remain the same
b) The an would increase and the at would decrease
c) The an and at would both increase
d) The an would decrease and the at would increase
System Dynamics
Radial and Transverse Components
The foot pedal on an elliptical machine
rotates about and extends from a central
pivot point. This motion can be analyzed
using radial and transverse components
Fire truck ladders can rotate as well as
extend; the motion of the end of the
ladder can be analyzed using radial and
transverse components.
System Dynamics
Radial and Transverse Components
• The position of a particle P is
expressed as a distance r from the
origin O to P – this defines the
radial direction er. The transverse
direction eq is perpendicular to er
! !
r = rer
• The particle velocity vector is
! ! " !
v = r" er + rq eq
• The particle acceleration vector is

! 2 ! !
( " ) "" ( "
r - rq er + rq + 2r"q eq
a = "" )
System Dynamics
Radial and Transverse Components
• We can derive the velocity and acceleration
relationships by recognizing that the unit vectors
change direction.

• The particle velocity vector is

!
! d ! dr ! de dr ! dq !
v = (rer ) = er + r r = er + r eq
dt dt dt dt dt
! !
= r" er + rq" eq
! !
r = rer
! ! • Similarly, the particle acceleration vector is
der ! deq !
= eq = - er ! d æ dr ! dq ! ö
dq dq a = ç er + r eq ÷
dt è dt dt ø
! ! ! !
der der dq ! dq d 2 r ! dr der dr dq ! d 2q ! dq deq
= = eq = 2 er + + eq + r 2 eq + r
dt dq dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
! !
deq deq dq
=
! dq
= - er ( ) ! !
= "r" - rq" 2 er + (rq"" + 2r"q" )eq
dt dq dt dt
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.13
STRATEGY:

• Define your coordinate system

• Calculate the angular velocity after

three revolutions
• Calculate the radial and transverse
accelerations
The angular acceleration of the • Determine overall acceleration
centrifuge arm varies according to magnitude

q!! = 0.05q (rad/s2 )

where q is measured in radians. If the

centrifuge starts from rest, determine the
acceleration magnitude after the gondola
has travelled two full rotations.
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.13
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Define your coordinate system
er
In the side view, the transverse
direction points into the “page”
Determine the angular velocity
q!! = 0.05q (rad/s2 )
Acceleration is a function er Top View
q!!dq =q!dq!
of position, so use:

Evaluate the integral eq

(2)(2p ) q!

ò 0.05q dq = ò q!dq!
0 0

2 2(2p )
q!
0.05q q! 2
q = 0.05[ 2(2p )]
! 2 2
=
2 0
2 0
System Dynamics
Sample Problem 1.13
Determine the angular velocity
q = 0.05[ 2(2p )]
! 2
2 er
q! = 2.8099 rad/s
Determine the angular acceleration
q!! = 0.05q = 0.05(2)(2p ) = 0.6283 rad/s 2
Find the radial and transverse accelerations
! ! !
(
a = "" ) ( )
r - rq" 2 er + rq"" + 2r"q" eq
! !
= ( 0 - (8)(2.8099) 2 ) er + ( (8)(0.6283) + 0 ) eq
! !
= -63.166 er + 5.0265 eq (m/s 2 )
Magnitude:
amag = ar2 + aq2 = (-63.166)2 + [5.0265]
2
amag = 63.4 m/s2