dp

the values p = $11, x = 4, and dt

= $0.10. Using the product rule, we have that
d 2 d
(x − 3xp + p2 ) = 5
dt dt

dx dp dx dp
2x · − 3x · − 3p · + 2p · =0
dt dt dt dt

dx (3x − 2p) dp
dt
= .
dt 2x − 3p
We plug in the given values to find that dx dt
= (3(4)−2(11))(0.1)
2(4)−3(11)
−1
= −25 = 0.04. We conclude that in
this instant the supply of drives is increasing at a rate of 40 drives per week. �
Using the following algorithm, we are able to compute related rates.
1.) Begin by assigning a variable to each quantity. Draw a diagram, if needed.
2.) List the given values of the variables and their rates of change with respect to t.
3.) Find an equation giving the relationship between the variables.
4.) Differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t.
5.) Replace the variables and their derivatives by the numerical data from the second step, and
solve the equation for the required rate of change.
Related Rates: Rocket Launch. From a safe distance of 4000 feet away, a spectator observes
a rocket launch. Given that the rocket lifts off vertically and rises at a speed of 600 feet per sec-
ond when it is at an altitude of 3000 feet, how fast is the distance between the rocket and the
spectator changing at the moment the rocket is 3000 feet in the air?
Solution. We will follow the algorithm above. (1.) Consider the variables y := altitude of the
rocket (in feet) and x := distance between the rocket and the spectator (in feet) at any time t (in
seconds). (2.) We are given that when y = 3000, we have that dy dt
= 600. We are asked to find dx
dt
.
(3.) Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we have that x = y + 40002 so that when y = 3000, we
2 2

have that x = 5000. (4.) By implicitly differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to t,
we find that x · dx
dt
= y · dy
dt
. (5.) Replacing all variables and derivatives with numbers, we find that
dx 3000
dt
= 5000
· 600 = 360. We conclude that in this instant, the distance between the rocket and the
spectator is changing at a rate of 360 feet per second. �

3.7 Differentials
We use the language increments when discussing the change in a given variable. For instance, the
slope of the secant line between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 − y1 Δy increment in y
m= = = .
x2 − x1 Δx increment in x
Consider some differentiable curve f (x) and a point P on its graph. Let L be the line tangent to
f (x) at P . Given an arbitrarily small change in x — written Δx — the quantity f � (x) · Δx is a
good approximation for the resulting change in y — likewise written Δy.

39
Definition. We call the quantity dx = Δx the differential of x and dy = f � (x) · Δx = f � (x) · dx
the differential of y. Observe that Δy measures the actual change in f (x) as x changes to x +
Δx, whereas dy measures the estimated change in y using the tangent line to approximate.

Cubic Function Differential. Consider the cubic function y = f (x) = x3 . Use differentials to
approximate Δy as x changes (a.) from x = 2 to 2.01 and (b.) from x = 2 to 1.98.

Solution. We have the differential of y given by dy = 3x2 · Δx. We wish to approximate the actual
change in y — written Δy — when (a.) x changes from x = 2 to 2.01. We have that Δx = 0.01,
from which it follows that dy = 3(2)2 (0.01) = 0.12. On the other hand, when (b.) x changes from
x = 2 to 1.98, then Δx = −0.02 and dy = 3(2)2 (−0.02) = −0.24. Calculating the actual changes,
we find that (a.) Δy = 0.0120601 and (b.) Δy = −0.237608, respectively. �

Funky Square Root Approximation. √ Use an appropriate function y = f (x) and appropriate
x values to approximate the value of 26.5 using differentials.
�
Solution. Observe that f (x + Δx) − f (x)
√ √ = Δy ≈ dy = f (x) · Δx. We wish √ to approximate
26.5, hence we should choose f (x) = x. We already know that f (25) = 25 = 5, hence we
have that Δx = 1.5 since x + Δx = 26.5 and x = 25. Observe
√ that the differential of y is given by
� 1
f (x) · Δx = 2√x · Δx, hence the approximate value of 26.5 is given by
√ 1 1.5
26.5 ≈ 5 + √ (1.5) = 5 + = 5.15.
2 25 10
√
Using our calculators, the actual value of 26.5 is more closely estimated by 5.14782. �

Effects of Advertising on Sales. Economists at a digital film company have estimated that
the relationship between the amount of money x (in thousands of dollars) spent on advertising
and the company’s total sales S(x) (in thousands of dollars) is given by the cubic function
S(x) = −0.002x3 + 0.6x2 + x + 500 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 200. Find the approximate change in the total
sales when the company increases advertising spending from $100, 000 to $105, 000.

Solution. We wish to find dS in order to approximate ΔS. Observe that the change in advertising
is given by Δx = 5. Using the differential of S, the approximate change in total sales is given by
�
�
�
ΔS ≈ dS = S � (x) · Δx �
�
x = 100 �
�
�
= (−0.006x2 + 1.2x + 1) · 5 �
�
x=100
= (−60 + 120 + 1) · 5 = 305.

We conclude that the total sales increases by $305,000. �

Rings of Neptune. Like with Saturn, it is known that the planet Neptune possesses rings around
it. Let r be the inner radius and R be the outer radius of one of the rings. Unsurprisingly, the
rings are much farther from the planet than they are wide. Recently, a probe observed that the
outermost ring of Neptune has an inner radius of 62,900 km with a radial width of 50 km. Use
differentials to estimate the area of this ring.

40
Solution. Consider the function A = f (x) = πx2 that gives the area of a circle of radius x. We
note that the actual change in the area of a circle whose radius increases from r to R is given by
πR2 − πr2 = f (R) − f (r) = ΔA ≈ dA = f � (r) · Δr. We note that f � (r) = 2πr and Δr = R − r,
hence the area of the ring is approximately 2πr · (R − r). Using the given information, we see that
the area of Neptune’s outermost ring is approximately 2π(62, 900)(50) ≈ 19,760,000 km2 . �
Recall that the error in a measurement is given by the ratio of the difference between the actual
value and the measured value to the actual value. Using the theory of differentials, it follows that
the relative error or percentage error of a quantity q is given by Δq q
≈ dqq .

Error in Calculated Volume of Cube. Consider a scenario in which the side of a cube is
measured with a maximum percentage error of 2%. Use differentials to estimate the maximum
percentage error in the calculated volume of the cube.

Solution. Let x denote the side length of the cube. We have the volume given by V = f (x) = x3 .
Given that the maximum percentage error is at most 2%, it follows that we | dx
x
| ≤ 2%. Consider-
2 dV 3x2 dx dx
ing the differential of V, we have that dV = 3x dx so that V = x3 = 3 · x . We conclude that
the maximum percentage error in the calculated volume is approximately 3 · (2%) = 6%. �

4 Applications of the Derivative

4.1 Applications of the First Derivative
4.1.1 Determining Intervals of Increasing and Decreasing
Definition. Given a function f (x), we say that f (x) is increasing on the open interval (a, b) if
for all x1 and x2 in (a, b) such that x1 < x2 , we have that f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). Likewise, we say that
f (x) is decreasing on (a, b) if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). We say that f (x) is increasing (decreasing) at c in
(a, b) if c is in an interval contained in (a, b) on which f (x) is increasing (decreasing).
We can use our knowledge of derivatives to study intervals of increasing and decreasing in a nat-
ural way. We note that the derivative of a function at a point gives its rate of change — i.e., the
slope of the line tangent to f (x) — so we can use the sign of the derivative to determine whether
the function is increasing or decreasing. (Consider this graphically, if you are not convinced.) Ex-
plicitly, if f (x) has a positive derivative at x, then f (x) is increasing at x. On the other hand, if
f (x) has a negative derivative at x, then f (x) is decreasing at x. We summarize this now.

Evaluate the Derivative to Find Intervals of Increasing / Decreasing. Given a differen-

tiable function f (x), we have the following.
(1.) Given that f � (x) > 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), f (x) is increasing on (a, b).

(2.) Given that f � (x) < 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), f (x) is decreasing on (a, b).

(3.) Given that f � (x) = 0 for every value of x in an interval (a, b), f (x) is constant on (a, b).

Quadratic Increasing / Decreasing. Consider the differentiable function f (x) = x2 . We have

that f � (x) = 2x. We note that we have f � (x) < 0 when x < 0 and f � (x) > 0 when x > 0, from
which we conclude that f (x) is increasing on (0, ∞) and decreasing on (−∞, 0). Observe that at
x = 0, the function is neither increasing nor decreasing. Graphing f (x) corroborates this fact.

41