BELTMAN MANSFIELD PRICE 2011 Thriving Not Just Surviving A Review of Research On Teacher Resilience PDF

Educational Research Review 6 (2011) 185–207
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Educational Research Review

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Review
Thriving not just surviving: A review of research on teacher resilience

Susan Beltman a,⇑, Caroline Mansfield b, Anne Price b
a
School of Education, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
b
School of Education, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Retaining teachers in the early stages of the profession is a major issue of concern in many
Received 16 December 2010 countries. Teacher resilience is a relatively recent area of investigation which provides a
Revised 22 September 2011 way of understanding what enables teachers to persist in the face of challenges and offers
Accepted 22 September 2011
a complementary perspective to studies of stress, burnout and attrition. We have known
Available online 13 October 2011
for many years that teaching can be stressful, particularly for new teachers, but little
appears to have changed. This paper reviews recent empirical studies related to the resil-
Keywords:
ience of early career teachers. Resilience is shown to be the outcome of a dynamic relation-
Resilience
Teacher resilience
ship between individual risk and protective factors. Individual attributes such as altruistic
Literature review motives and high self-efficacy are key individual protective factors. Contextual challenges
Teacher education or risk factors and contextual supports or protective factors can come from sources such as
Early career teachers school administration, colleagues, and pupils. Challenges for the future are to refine con-
ceptualisations of teacher resilience and to develop and examine interventions in multiple
contexts. There are many opportunities for those who prepare, employ and work with pro-
spective and new teachers to reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors and so
enable new teachers to thrive, not just survive.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.1. Parameters for the review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.2. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.1. Overview of research methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.2. Conceptualisations of resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.3. Risk factors or challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.3.1. Individual risk factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.3.2. Contextual risk factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4. Protective factors or supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.1. Individual protective factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.4.2. Contextual protective factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.5. Relationship between risk and protective factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.6. Implications from the literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.6.1. Implications for pre-service teacher education programmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.6.2. Implications for employers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 8 9266 2161; fax: +61 8 9266 2547.
E-mail addresses: S.Beltman@curtin.edu.au (S. Beltman), caroline.mansfield@murdoch.edu.au (C. Mansfield), a.price@murdoch.edu.au (A. Price).
1747-938X/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.09.001
186 S. Beltman et al. / Educational Research Review 6 (2011) 185–207
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.1. Issues and challenges emerging from this review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.2. Further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
1. Introduction
Teacher resilience is a relatively recent area of investigation. While the stresses that face teachers in their daily lives have
been well documented (e.g. Goddard & Foster, 2001; Tait, 2008), more recently researchers have focused on teacher resil-
ience i.e. what sustains teachers and enables them to thrive rather than just survive in the profession (e.g. Gu & Day,
2007; Kitching, Morgan & O’Leary, 2009; Sumsion, 2003). As the retention of early career teachers is a significant current
concern in many countries (Scheopner, 2010), examining factors that sustain teachers as they move from the pre-service
to the early career stage will assist in addressing these issues (Tait, 2008). Rather than consider the form of retention that
is ‘‘physical continuation in the role’’, we focus on ‘‘quality retention’’ (Gu & Day, 2007, p. 1314), where motivation and com-
mitment are maintained as teachers are able to meet the challenges encountered in their work and lives and ‘‘thrive
professionally’’.
Initially the term ‘resilience’ was used to explain the capacity of individuals to adapt and thrive despite experiencing
adversity (Garmezy, 1974; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990). However, it has been subsequently shown that resilience is
not solely a personal attribute, but is a complex construct resulting from a dynamic relationship between risk and protective
factors (Benard, 2004). As an emerging field of research, and in part due to the complex nature of resilience, teacher resil-
ience has been conceptualised in the literature in a range of ways (Bobek, 2002; Le Cornu, 2009). Such a range of conceptu-
alisations is important to address the multi-dimensional nature of resilience, but also contributes to ambiguity about the
nature of resilience and how to best examine this phenomenon. Teacher resilience has been investigated using a variety
of methodologies, ranging from qualitative, in depth case studies to broader quantitative measures. In short, the literature
regarding teacher resilience is varied in its theoretical basis and scope. The literature also has the potential to reveal impli-
cations for pre-service programmes, for schools, for employers and for the teachers themselves to ensure that teachers be-
come and remain healthy, effective professionals.
As teacher resilience is an emerging field of research there appear to be pockets of research that directly deal with teacher
resilience and others that examine related constructs. What is missing however, is a comprehensive review of the current
empirical research. This review aims to address this need by bringing together and synthesising the diverse body of current
research, raising challenges and issues and pointing to areas for future work. Therefore the paper will provide a timely and
unique contribution to the field, complementing existing bodies of literature that examine teacher attrition, stress and burn
out. As suggested by Christopher Day:
Research on teacher retention tends to focus on factors affecting teachers’ decision to leave the teaching profession.
Instead, what is required is a better understanding of the factors that have enabled the majority of teachers to sustain
their motivation, commitment and, therefore, effectiveness in the profession (Day, 2008, p. 256).
Given these conditions, we aim to present a systematic review of recent empirical studies focusing on the following key
questions:
(1) What methodologies have been used to examine teacher resilience?

(2) How is teacher resilience conceptualised?
(3) What are the key risk and protective factors for teacher resilience and how do these relate to each other?
(4) What are the implications for pre-service teacher education programmes, schools and employers?
2. Method
2.1. Parameters for the review
The selection process for relevant literature involved two phases. In phase 1, we searched education, social science, psy-
chology and health science data bases (e.g. ERIC, Psycharticles, Science Direct, Proquest), specific publisher data bases (e.g.
Sage Journals Online, Wiley Interscience) and web sites regarding teacher retention and resilience. Searches were limited to
publications in English from the year 2000 onwards using the key terms ‘resilience’ and ‘teach’. Given the recent nature of
this topic, terms related to the authors’ knowledge of the extant retention literature such as ‘stress’, ‘burn out’, ‘coping’, ‘peer
support’, ‘wellbeing’ and ‘optimism’ were also used, where the focus is on what sustains teachers. The search resulted in 260
S. Beltman et al. / Educational Research Review 6 (2011) 185–207 187
publications. In phase 2, we removed papers if they were duplicates, were not empirical studies, or were not published in
peer-reviewed journals or conference proceedings. Although the review was aimed at the pre-service to early career phase,
papers focusing on experienced teachers were included when they traced experiences over time, or shed light on teachers
thriving in difficult situations. The resulting 50 papers form the basis of this review (see Appendix).
2.2. Analysis
The process of analysis began by dividing the selected papers between the authors and two research assistants. Each indi-
vidual constructed a summary table for each of their papers, outlining the aim, how resilience was conceptualised, partic-
ipants, method, key findings and implications. A summary paragraph was also written for each paper. The first author
combined these details into a single table and checked any inconsistencies or missing information. A brief summary of each
paper appears in the Appendix. Papers’ key constructs or conceptualisations and definitions of resilience were identified and
summarised. Factors that were seen as challenges (risk factors) or supports (protective factors) were identified and catego-
rised, as were the implications proposed in the papers. The following section outlines the main findings.
3. Results
3.1. Overview of research methods
To gain an overview of the nature of the recent empirical research conducted, the first key question investigated in the
review was: What methodologies have been used to examine teacher resilience? To address this question, the selected pa-
pers were categorised according to the country in which the research was located, the nature and size of the sample, the
methodological approach used and the sources of data. The Appendix contains details for each study. The largest group of
studies was set in the USA (17–34%), with 15 (30%) in Australia (see Table 1). This was not completely surprising given
the location of the search (Australia) and that many available data bases originated from the USA. The issue of teacher reten-
tion is also an important one in these countries, as in the others with multiple papers. In a study from England more than one
paper was written about the same research project (the VITAE project) which examined teachers’ lives across the different
career phases of 300 primary and secondary teachers. Four papers from the VITAE project, presenting different aspects of its
findings, are included in this review (Day, 2008; Day & Gu, 2007; Gu & Day, 2007; Sammons et al., 2007).
Methodological approaches were classified as qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. Most studies (n = 23) used
qualitative methods with fewer than 30 participants (see Table 2). Sample size varied from 1 to 3235. The largest group
of participants was early career teachers (n = 21), followed by experienced teachers (n = 14) and teachers at multiple career
stages (n = 9). Six studies solely focused on pre-service teachers.
Consistent with the aim of understanding teachers’ experiences, interviews were the most frequent source of data (see
Table 3). Although multiple sources of data were generally used, only nine studies combined quantitative and qualitative
data. Many studies developed their own surveys but where established instruments were used, these are listed in the Appen-
dix. In addition, 19 papers collected longitudinal data (four from the VITAE project) over periods ranging from 2 months to 5
years.
Table 1
Location of studies.
Country of Research Number of studies

USA 17
Australia 15
UKa 6
Canada 4
Ireland 3
Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Portugal, Singapore Each 1
Total 50
a
Four studies from same project.
Table 2
Sample size and methodological approach.
Sample size Actual range Qualitative Quantitative Mixed methods Number of studies
Not specified 2 0 0 2
<49 1–28 23 0 4 27
50–199 54–170 2 4 2 8
>200 211–3235 2 8 3 13
Total 29 12 9 50
Table 3
Sources of data.
Type of data source Number of studies

Interviews 34
Questionnaires/surveys 17
Scales/validated instruments (2 online) 16
Documents 15
Observations 10
Online discussion 3
Focus groups 2
Student achievement 2
Drawings 1
Table 4
Examples of definitions of resilience.
Definition Source
‘‘ a quality that enables teachers to maintain their commitment to teaching and their teaching practices despite challenging Brunetti (2006, p. 813)
conditions and recurring setbacks’’
‘‘capacity to overcome personal vulnerabilities and environmental stressors, to be able to ‘bounce back’ in the face of Oswald et al. (2003, p.
potential risks, and to maintain well-being’’ 50)
‘‘using energy productively to achieve school goals in the face of adverse conditions’’ Patterson et al. (2004, p.
3)
‘‘capacity to continue to ‘bounce back’, to recover strengths or spirit quickly and efficiently in face of adversity’’; ‘‘a dynamic Sammons et al. (2007,
construct subject to influence by environmental, work-specific and personal contexts’’ p. 694)
‘‘a mode of interacting with events in the environment that is activated and nurtured in times of stress’’ Tait (2008, p. 58)
In summary, the papers reviewed were mainly qualitative with small samples, aiming to understand the experiences and
characteristics of teachers at varying career stages. Most studies came from countries where teacher attrition is a concern.
Few studies explicitly focused on pre-service teachers and most examined particular cohorts over time or retrospectively.
Some studies examined course or system level contextual strategies implemented to assist with retention and teacher devel-
opment, but what is noted is a lack of intervention studies, particularly in relation to developing personal characteristics
such as motivation and self-efficacy that have been found to be important in enhancing resilience.
3.2. Conceptualisations of resilience
The second question of interest was: How is teacher resilience conceptualised in the literature? In the papers that explic-
itly discussed resilience (n = 24) conceptualisations and definitions incorporated common ideas (see examples in Table 4). In
summary, teacher resilience is a dynamic process or outcome that is the result of interaction over time between a person and
the environment (e.g. Bobek, 2002; Day, 2008; Sumsion, 2003; Tait, 2008). Individual characteristics such as self-efficacy,
confidence and coping strategies are important in overcoming challenging situations or recurring setbacks (e.g. Castro, Kelly,
& Shih, 2009). Difficulties are not simply managed, but individuals are able to bounce back quickly and efficiently, persevere
and thrive (e.g. Malloy & Allen, 2007). Successful adaptation occurs despite obstacles and personal wellbeing is maintained
(Howard & Johnson, 2004). Reciprocal, mutually supportive personal, professional and peer relationships are important in
this process (Sammons et al., 2007). The outcome is that teachers maintain job satisfaction and commitment to their profes-
sion (Brunetti, 2006).
It has been stated that the field of teacher resilience is an emerging one. In support of this notion, only 13 papers reviewed
had the word ‘‘resilience’’ or ‘‘resiliency’’ in their titles, and of the papers that explicitly examined resilience, six did not de-
fine it. In order to reach the above explanation of resilience, multiple ideas were combined and further clarification and
refinement of what is meant by ‘teacher resilience’ is still required in the literature. Approaching this task from multiple per-
spectives would add robustness to conclusions reached. Authors in the papers reviewed approached their examination of
resilient teachers from different conceptual frameworks, although there was consensus across the papers that multiple indi-
vidual and contextual factors work together in complex, dynamic ways to shape the resilience of individual teachers in a
developmental or cyclical way.
Nearly half the papers (n = 26) did not explicitly examine resilience, but did address the question of what sustains teach-
ers and enables them to thrive rather than just survive, particularly in the early stages of the profession. These papers could
be grouped into three categories that related to the above conceptualisations of resilience: a focus on individual factors; on
contextual factors; and on individual perceptions of, and responses to, specific contexts of teacher work. Individual factors
examined included motivation (Sinclair, 2008; Watt & Richardson, 2008) and self-efficacy (e.g. Chan, 2008; Tschannen-
Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Tsouloupas, Carson, Matthews, Grawitch, & Barber, 2010; Woolfolk Hoy & Burke Spero,
2005). Contextual factors examined included professional development (Anderson & Olsen, 2006), induction and mentoring
(Fantilli & McDougall, 2009; Shank, 2005; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004), relationships with students (e.g. Hirschkorn, 2009) and
with administrators and colleagues (Jarzabkowski, 2002; McCormack & Gore, 2008; Schlichte, Yssel, & Merbler, 2005). The
remaining group of papers focused on teachers’ perceptions of and responses to different contexts such as the passage of
time from pre-service to initial teaching positions (Chong & Low, 2009; Demetriou, Wilson, & Winterbottom, 2009; Flores,
2006; Freedman & Appleman, 2008; Goddard & Foster, 2001; Goddard & O’Brien, 2004; Kaldi, 2009; Manuel, 2003). Other
contexts could be particularly challenging such as teaching in difficult schools (Olsen & Anderson, 2007; Prosser, 2008),
or working as a casual teacher (Jenkins, Smith, & Maxwell, 2009; McCormack & Thomas, 2005).
The above discussion has begun to draw together the varying definitions and explanations of resilience and their under-
lying conceptual frameworks. Continuing to examine different perspectives on teacher resilience will help further interro-
gate this construct.
3.3. Risk factors or challenges
A key question for this review of literature was: What are the key risk factors for teacher resilience? Conceptualisations of
resilience include a common thread of adverse conditions or challenging situations that present as risk factors. The large
body of research on teacher stress, retention and attrition has already documented many factors that provide challenges
for teachers (see, for example, Borman & Dowling, 2008; Buchanan, 2010; Guarino, Santibañez, & Daley, 2006; Hong,
2010; Macdonald, 1999; Scheopner, 2010). While comparing factors identified in the two bodies of literature would be an
interesting and important activity, it is beyond the scope of this paper. On the other hand, focusing solely on protective fac-
tors would limit the current paper. An additional point is that resilience may be evidenced only in times of adversity or when
challenges are present. As Tait (2008, p. 58) indicated, it ‘‘is activated and nurtured in times of stress’’. A full understanding of
teacher resilience also includes an understanding of the personal and contextual challenges or risk factors present for teach-
ers. This section indicates the factors that studies indicated were likely to provide risk or challenge for teacher resilience.
3.3.1. Individual risk factors

According to Day (2008, p. 250) ‘‘teaching demands significant personal investment’’ but few of the papers reviewed ex-
plored personal challenges or difficulties with the most frequent being negative self-beliefs or confidence (Day, 2008; Fleet,
Kitson, Cassady, & Hughes, 2007; Kitching, Morgan, & O’Leary, 2009; McCormack & Gore, 2008). The second most frequent
personal risk factor was difficulty asking for help (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009; Flores, 2006; Jenkins et al., 2009), followed by
a perceived conflict between personal beliefs and practices being used (Flores, 2006; McCormack & Gore, 2008). As the focus
of the search was on factors that sustained teachers, the lack of intensive examination of personal challenges in the literature
examined could perhaps be anticipated.
3.3.2. Contextual risk factors

There was, however, more extensive examination in the literature on the complex contextual challenges of teachers’ lives
and work. These could be grouped according to the contexts of the pre-service programme, the family, the school or class-
room and the broader context of professional work. Challenges associated with pre-service programmes included unsuitable
course structures faced by Indigenous Australian and Torres Strait Islander early childhood teacher education graduates dur-
ing their course (Fleet et al., 2007). Other examples of difficulties included academic workload (Kaldi, 2009) and timetabling
issues (Sinclair, 2008). Family contextual constraints included negative pressure to leave teaching (Olsen & Anderson, 2007),
Table 5
Classroom/school and professional contextual challenges.
Challenge Number of studies

Classroom/school context challenges
Classroom management/disruptive students 12
Meeting needs of disadvantaged students 7
Unsupportive/disorganised leadership staff 6
Lack of resources/equipment 5
Relationships with students’ parents 5
Geographical/social isolation 3
Relationships with colleagues 2
Scrutiny of peers, parents, principal 2
Using material prepared by others 1
Professional work challenges
Heavy workload, lack of time, non-teaching activities 6
Difficult schools, courses or classes 4
Externally imposed regulations 3
Poor hiring practices; insecurity 3
Curriculum/classroom knowledge 2
Unsupportive/no mentor 2
Low salary/poor funding 2
lack of infrastructure at home (Fleet et al., 2007) or balancing work and family commitments (Fleet et al., 2007; Smethem,
2007).
As well as challenges associated with pre-service programmes and with families, there were also those associated with
the work of being a teacher. The most frequently identified challenges (see Table 5) related to two types of teaching contexts:
the more proximal individual school or classroom context (e.g. disruptive students) and the broader professional work context
(e.g. workload).
Behaviour management was the most frequent challenge of the school or classroom context. Howard and Johnson (2004),
for example, interviewed resilient teachers in difficult schools who had all experienced frequent displays of violence and dis-
order, such as children ‘‘throwing furniture, punching, kicking and biting’’ (p. 406) and frequent verbal abuse from the stu-
dents or parents. Demetriou et al. (2009) provided a vivid account of the challenges faced by 817 new graduates and argued
that disruptive students, coupled with a lack of support, could lead to a ‘‘slump in confidence’’ (p. 459), and a decision to
leave teaching. Many teachers in Australia begin their careers as casual, relief or substitute teachers, and beginning casual
teachers have been found to face management difficulties (Jenkins et al., 2009; McCormack & Thomas, 2005). New graduates
could not rely on behavioural strategies that were based on the need for rapport to be developed between the teacher and
students. Their ability to follow through on consequences was limited as they were often in a transitory position. On the
other hand, if they requested help from the school executive this could call into question their ability as a teacher and jeop-
ardise their chances of future work.
The most common professional work context challenge was lack of time due to heavy workloads and non-teaching duties
such as paperwork or meetings (e.g. Castro et al., 2009). High workloads, demoralising policy initiatives and lack of support
negatively influenced teachers’ commitment across all phases of experience in the VITAE project (Day, 2008). Overall in this
study, teachers working in particularly challenging circumstances in secondary schools were at greater risk of losing their
commitment to and motivation for teaching, with heavy workloads, poor student behaviour and unsupportive leadership
cited as the most frequent negative pressures. Almost half of the new Canadian teachers surveyed by Fantilli and McDougall
(2009) reported having thought about leaving teaching as a result of the challenges they faced.
Interestingly, although often facing challenges in their everyday work, many teachers actively sought challenges,
particularly as they gained more experience and confidence. For example, Anderson and Olsen (2006) found graduates with
3–6 years of experience were looking for new roles and responsibilities. Teachers in difficult schools reported finding
challenges ‘‘energizing and exciting’’ (Brunetti, 2006, p. 819). Identifying challenges and their impacts is important, but as
the focus in this review is what sustains teachers, we also identified protective factors or supports for teacher resilience.
3.4. Protective factors or supports
The following section addresses the question: What are the key protective factors for teacher resilience? The literature
was selected with the aim to examine what sustains teachers when difficulties arise, and a range of individual and contextual
protective factors emerged.
3.4.1. Individual protective factors

In the face of challenges such as those already identified what kinds of teachers survive and thrive? Few studies used
quantitative tools to measure the individual factors – most were inferred from qualitative research methods. Table 6 shows
the number of papers reporting each category of individual protective factor. Key personal attributes included altruistic mo-
tives and a strong intrinsic motivation for teaching. Sinclair (2008), for example, examined the motivation and commitment of
over 200 first year Australian teacher education students. Their motivation to teach was multidimensional and hierarchical,
with intrinsic motivations (e.g. working with children, altruism) significantly higher than extrinsic motivations (e.g. career
change, job conditions). Motives such as the status of teachers or perceiving teaching to be an easy job were not evident.
Other studies similarly found a lack of extrinsic motivation in teachers (e.g. Chong & Low, 2009; Morgan, Ludlow, Kitching,
O’Leary & Clarke, 2010).
Another key finding was that resilient teachers possess a sense of self-efficacy, feeling confident and competent, taking
credit for and drawing sustenance from their accomplishments. For teachers to be resilient and effective, they need strong
and enduring sense of efficacy (Day, 2008). ‘‘Teachers’ self-efficacy is a little idea with big impact’’ (Tschannen-Moran &
Woolfolk Hoy, 2007, p. 954), with ‘‘a profound effect on resilience and persistence’’ (Kitching, Morgan, & O’Leary, 2009, p.
54). Efficacy beliefs ‘‘appear to be most easily impacted in the early years of teaching experience and somewhat resistant
to change once established’’ (Tait, 2008, p. 59).
The personal strengths and characteristics of resilient teachers were interrelated. Gu and Day (2007, p. 1311) found that
having an inner motivation to teach, ‘‘an important professional asset of teachers’’, was associated with ‘‘a strong sense of
professional goals and purposes, persistence, professional aspirations, achievement and motivation.’’ Self-efficacy was an
interactive process and a key component of resilience. While high self-efficacy was important for teacher resilience, self-effi-
cacy could be enhanced as teachers encountered and overcame challenges in their teaching.
In another example illustrating the interrelationships between individual characteristics, Yost (2006) examined
multiple views of ten successful early career teachers’ personal and professional qualities. The teachers identified
knowing your students, perseverance, patience, showing enthusiasm, having a positive attitude, being organised, creativ-
ity and being personable. Observations indicated that the teachers were able to meet their students’ needs, create a
Table 6
Individual protective factors.
Protective factor Number of studies

Personal attributes
Altruism; moral purpose; influence of faith 8
Strong intrinsic motivation – sense of vocation 7
Tenacity; perseverance; persistence 7
Positive attitude; enthusiasm; optimism 4
Not primarily motivated by extrinsic rewards 3
Sense of humour 3
Emotional intelligence; emotional stability 2
Gender – females use more active coping strategies 2
Patience 1
Flexibility 1
Willingness to take risks/accept failure 1
Self-efficacy
Sense of competence, pride, confidence 8
Internal locus of control; belief in ability to make a difference 6
Self-efficacy increases with experience 3
Coping skills
Proactive problem-solving skills including help-seeking 5
Able to let go, accept failure, learn + move on 3
Use of active coping skills 3
High levels of interpersonal skills, strong networks; socially competent 6
Teaching skills
Know students; help them succeed; high expectations 4
Skilled in range of instructional practices 3
Confidence in teaching abilities 2
Creative + explore new ideas 2
Professional reflection and growth
Self-insight, self-evaluation, reflection 5
Professional aspirations 5
Professionally proactive - act as mentors, role models, leaders 4
Committed to ongoing professional learning 4
Self-care
Take active responsibility for own wellbeing 3
Significant supportive relationships 3
Type of qualification 1
positive, supportive classroom climate, and use a range of instructional practices along with critical reflection and
problem-solving strategies to cope with challenges. Their principals noted strengths such as the ability to vary instruc-
tion to meet student needs, collaborate successfully with parents and other staff, take on leadership roles and volunteer
to assist at school events.
On a positive note, rather than being regarded as innate attributes (Day & Gu, 2007), the characteristics of resilient teach-
ers can be learnt (Howard & Johnson, 2004). Castro et al. (2009) viewed resilience as a process of adaptation rather than a set
of individual attributes. In this process individuals are regarded as active agents who employ strategies to overcome adver-
sities faced in their environment. Many papers offered recommendations for pre-service programmes, such as developing
various personal attributes and skills, building a climate of resilience at university and remaining connected with graduates
into the early years of teaching. These will be discussed later in this paper, although recommendations for the teachers them-
selves, as active agents, were generally absent from the literature reviewed.
3.4.2. Contextual protective factors

Many papers (n = 40) referred to important contextual supports that could be considered as protective factors for teacher
resilience (see Table 7).
. . . the provision of responsive and differentiated support to meet teachers’ professional and personal learning needs at
different times in their work and lives can help counter declining commitment trajectories, enhancing the continuity
of positive development of teachers’ professional commitment and, thus, their effectiveness (Day & Gu, 2007, pp. 439–
440).
School administrative staff and structures were supportive when leadership was strong, open, and well-organised, re-
sources fairly distributed and encouraging feedback provided. ‘‘Strong caring leadership’’ is a major source of personal sup-
port for teachers (Howard & Johnson, 2004, p. 412). New teachers could be assisted by ensuring they are not required to
teach out-of-field (Bobek, 2002), not assigned the most difficult classes (Hirschkorn, 2009) and that their successes and
Table 7
Contextual protective factors.
Contextual support Number of studies

School/administrative support 21
Mentor support 14
Support of peers and colleagues 14
Working with the students 13
Characteristics of pre-service programme 3
Support of family and friends 2
contribution to the school are recognised (e.g. Sumsion, 2004). Visible and continued practical support in instructional
leadership and behaviour management is crucial (e.g. Goddard & Foster, 2001), but Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy
(2007) also found meaningful feedback from school leaders was so infrequent that it was irrelevant in shaping teachers’
efficacy judgements.
Mentor relationships could provide valuable support for early career teachers, especially if the mentor was positive, pro-
social, professional (e.g. Olsen & Anderson, 2007) and from the same teaching area (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Well-designed
and well-funded mentor programmes where graduates have some input can offer benefits such as increased retention rates,
enhanced self-reflection and problem-solving abilities, higher levels of self-esteem, positive attitude and confidence, and re-
duced feelings of isolation and stigma regarding asking for help in both pre-service and early career teachers (e.g. Fantilli &
McDougall, 2009). Where formal mentor programmes were unavailable or ineffective, new teachers would seek out their
own mentors (Castro et al., 2009) with a powerful, positive impact (Yost, 2006).
Peers from the pre-service course could provide informal support for new teachers (e.g. Freedman & Appleman, 2008).
Anderson and Olsen (2006) suggested that work colleagues are an important source of hope and inspiration, assisting edu-
cators to cope with work difficulties and sustain their commitment, particularly in very challenging situations (Brunetti,
2006). Colleagues could boost morale (Howard & Johnson, 2004) and others’ positive outlook could be contagious (Jarzab-
kowski, 2002).
School students were not originally envisaged by the reviewers as sources of contextual support but the papers reviewed
showed that students could provide supports as well as challenges for teacher resilience. Brunetti’s (2006) inner city teachers
had a deep respect for the way their students dealt with and overcame difficult circumstances and felt a powerful respon-
sibility and commitment to them. Positive student–teacher relationships sustained teachers in the face of challenges
(Kitching, Morgan, & O’Leary, 2009).
3.5. Relationship between risk and protective factors
Many challenges or risk factors and many supports or protective factors have been identified and most papers in this re-
view attempted to illustrate the complex, dynamic relationships between them. Some studies looked at the relationship be-
tween particular factors, others identified factors most relevant over time at different career stages, and some explored the
interrelationship of specific characteristics to form typologies of teachers.
Considering the relationship between particular individual and contextual factors, Yost (2006, p. 70) found that a per-
ceived unsupportive school administration could induce ‘‘high efficacy teachers’’ to move to a school where they saw a better
fit between themselves and the school philosophies and practices. According to Yost, a positive, supportive school environ-
ment, however, may not be enough to assist a struggling teacher to achieve success. In contrast, two related Irish studies
found that positive events in teachers’ lives ‘‘had a much stronger lifting of teachers’ self-efficacy than the lowering effect
of negative events’’ (Kitching et al., 2009, p. 54). Morgan, Ludlow, Kitching, O’Leary, and Clarke (2010), in their study of
700 beginning primary school teachers in Ireland, confirmed these findings. The presence or absence of positive experiences
had a stronger impact on teacher efficacy than negative experiences. In addition, the frequency of experiences (at the local
level) was a stronger influence than their intensity. Therefore, it was concluded that removing negative experiences is not
enough to promote the commitment and efficacy of early career teachers since frequent positive experiences (such as posi-
tive relationships with students) are far more influential. Teachers were able to cope with negative experiences, as long as
they had regular, local positive experiences in their schools and with their students.
Another approach to address the complex relationship between individuals and contexts was to identify different stages
or phases in teaching careers and specific factors prominent in each phase. For instance, the VITAE project outlined six pro-
fessional life phases relating to experience, rather than age or responsibilities (Day, 2008). The six phases were: 0–3 years –
commitment: support and challenge; 4–7 years – identity and efficacy in the classroom; 8–15 years – managing changes in
role and identity: growing tensions and transitions; 16–23 years – work-life tensions: challenges to motivation and commit-
ment; 24–30 years – challenges to sustaining motivation; and 31+ years – sustaining/declining motivation, coping with
change, looking to retire (pp. 247–9). As teachers moved through the phases, they reported increased perceived effective-
ness, but each phase presented different challenges. For example, beginning teachers (0–3 years) were in the phase Commit-
ment: Support and Challenge. An important feature in this phase was developing their sense of self-efficacy in the classroom,
with the support of school or departmental leaders facilitating this, and poor pupil behaviour having a negative impact.
The second phase (Identity and Efficacy – 4–7 years) was characterised by a sense of increased confidence about their
effectiveness as teachers, but managing heavy workloads had a negative impact. Similarly, Anderson and Olsen (2006)
found that teachers in the first and second year of their career spoke about their feelings of being tired and over-
whelmed and needing ‘‘survival support’’ such as mentoring and observing and being observed by more experienced
teachers. Their focus was on classroom management and logistics. Teachers in their 3rd to 6th years expressed different
interests and were looking outside their classrooms for new challenges such as leadership roles and exploring larger,
macro issues.
In other studies identifying stage differences, Goddard and Foster (2001, p. 353) reported six stages and emphasised the
powerful influence that initial teaching experiences have on the rest of a career. Similarly, Hirschkorn (2009) investigated
beginning teachers and found differences as they moved through their first practicum, second longer practicum, first
teaching appointment and second appointment. Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007) examined the broader stages
of novice and experienced teachers and found differences in the sources of their self-efficacy. For example, newer teachers
tended to rely on comparing themselves with observed teachers or obtaining affirming comments from others. More
experienced teachers could rely on memories and previous experiences of success to assist them in judging themselves
as competent teachers.
In a final approach to address the complex relationship between individual and contextual factors, several studies re-
ported how various characteristics clustered together to form typologies. Reporting all the details of these is beyond the
scope of this paper, but each found types of teachers who would be more resilient and those less likely to be resilient
and more in need of specific interventions. Klusman et al.’s (2008) large, quantitative study of German teachers identified
four types of teacher self-regulatory behaviour. These were: (H) type: healthy–ambitious, high scores on both occupational
engagement and resilience; (U) type: unambitious, low occupational engagement but high resilience; (A) type: excessively
ambitious, high on engagement and low on resilience; and (R) type: resigned, low engagement and low stress resistance.
Healthy-ambitious (H-type) teachers had the lowest ratings on emotional exhaustion, the highest ratings on job satisfaction,
and their students reported a significantly more positive, motivating experience. These were seen as those with the best
adaptive pattern, whereas the excessively-Ambitions (A-type) who strived for perfection but had difficulty with emotional
distancing were seen to be at long-term risk both professionally and personally.
In another study examining the interrelationship of specific factors, Watt and Richardson (2008) examined characteristics
such as motivation, professional engagement and career aspirations of over 500 students in 1-year Australian teacher edu-
cation programmes and found three distinct profiles. The profiles were the same across genders and programme (primary/
elementary, secondary, etc.). Highly Engaged Persisters (45%) saw more intrinsic rewards in teaching and aspired to stay in
teaching for their entire career. Highly Engaged Switchers (27%), on the other hand, were from more affluent backgrounds
and typically decided to try teaching for 5 years and keep other options open. A third group, Lower Engaged Desisters (28%),
were reported to have become disaffected during their university studies and were not comfortable with the fit between
themselves and teaching as a career path because of bad practicum experiences or the realisation of the work involved in
teaching. This group was more concerned with extrinsic rewards from teaching.
Other typologies relating to commitment and retention were reported. Smith and Ingersoll (2004, p. 688), in their survey
of 3235 beginning US teachers, examined three groups based on their career trajectories: Leavers (14%; beginning teachers
leaving the profession at the end of their first year), Movers (15%; beginning teachers moving to a different school at the end
of their first year) and Stayers (71%; beginning teachers remaining in the same school to teach for a second year). New
teachers were more likely to leave or move if they were employed as part-time, itinerant or substitute teachers, or were
in special education. Olsen and Anderson’s (2007, p. 9) interviews with fifteen early career urban teachers also revealed three
groups but they were labelled differently: Stayers (40%) planned to continue teaching indefinitely; Uncertains (40%) could
not speculate about their future or planned to leave after teaching for a while; and Leavers/Shifters (20%) wanted to move
into other education roles and were already preparing for the future by taking on multiple education-related roles.
Smethem’s (2007) interviews with eighteen beginning teachers also revealed a similar typology. Career Teachers (50%) were
committed to teaching as a long-term, permanent career with ambitions for remunerated promotion; Classroom Teachers
(22%) were content to remain for a long career in the classroom with pupils; and Portfolio Teachers (28%) saw teaching
as a temporary career (p. 470).
Finally, the Vitae Project in the UK, as already indicated, described different stages of professional teaching careers (Day,
2008), but went beyond this to examine each stage in detail, finding different types of teachers within each stage in relation
to their identity, motivation, commitment, and effectiveness (Sammons et al., 2007). Over the whole of the teachers’ lives
they could also be divided into subgroups depending on the balance between their professional, socially situated and per-
sonal identities: Stable Positive or Negative and Unstable Positive or Negative. Each dimension of identity could be subjected
to various positive or negative influences and the way teachers managed these affected whether they were stable or unsta-
ble, positive or negative. The scenario where the dimensions are in balance (stable positive) was the most optimal, but even
within this group some could be at risk of less commitment if they perceived it to be difficult to balance personal and pro-
fessional roles (stable negative).
Despite evidence of phases and typologies, Olsen and Anderson (2007) regarded the career development of teachers to be
idiosyncratic rather than normative. One implication of this is that quality professional development must respond to teach-
ers’ needs, interest and aspirations (Anderson & Olsen, 2006; O’Sullivan, 2006; Patterson, Collins, & Abbott, 2004).
3.6. Implications from the literature
A gap noted in the studies reviewed was a discussion of implications for prospective and practicing teachers themselves.
If resilient teachers are those who are confident, proactive and professionally reflective (see Table 6), it was interesting to see
that the onus for enhancing resilience seemed to be on pre-service programmes and employers as indicated below.
3.6.1. Implications for pre-service teacher education programmes

Based on their empirical findings, recommendations for pre-service teacher education programmes were made in 22 pa-
pers (see Table 8). In general, however, these were extrapolated from reported risk and protective factors, and were not the
outcome of specific interventions. For example, Woolfolk Hoy and Burke Spero (2005, p. 353) suggested that teacher educa-
tors prepare students ‘‘to seek and create support for themselves in the early years of teaching.’’ Flores (2006) argued that
teacher education programmes need to provide opportunities for students to reflect on and discuss their beliefs and values
about teaching and learning. Specific personal skills such as managing stress could be taught (Chan, 2008), and assisting with
self-regulation and coping behaviours could enhance occupational wellbeing and quality of classroom instruction (Klusmann
et al., 2008). Resilience-building activities in pre-service and induction programmes should include teaching social skills,
assertiveness training, self-regulation, and empathy (Tait, 2008).
Two authors raised some possibly contentious points about selection of prospective teachers. Tait (2008, p. 72) argued
that, given the expense of recruiting, training and inducting teachers and the high attrition rate, ‘‘admissions procedures
for pre-service programmes could include measures of resilience as a possible indicator of teaching success and long-term
commitment to the profession.’’ In a similar vein, Sinclair (2008) argued that measures of motivation on entry could assist in
attracting students who have strong, multiple motivations to sustain their commitment despite coursework or practicum
difficulties. Such measures have yet to be developed.
3.6.2. Implications for employers

The most frequent implication suggested by the papers reviewed for schools and employing bodies (see Table 9) was the
need for employers, policy makers and teacher educators to facilitate processes leading to positive career trajectories (e.g.
Sumsion, 2004). Support includes ensuring that new teachers, who are more strongly influenced by contextual factors, have
successful classroom experiences, sufficient resources and constructive, supportive feedback in a school environment that is
positive, participatory and collegial (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007).
Induction ‘‘needs to go beyond the mere practical advice and socialisation process’’ and ‘‘include opportunities for self-
questioning and reflection not only on teachers’ own practice but also on the values and norms underlying the educational
settings in which they work’’ (Flores, 2006, p. 2049). Providing new teachers with ‘‘reasonable’’ teaching assignments in their
area of expertise and avoiding last minute hiring would assist in the retention of novices (Tait, 2008). Specific strategies for
school principals were recommended, such as leadership training on how to promote a collaborative school culture, and how
to set up mentors and collaborative teams (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). Jarzabkowski (2002) demonstrated the benefits of
formal and informal staff interaction through activities such as birthday celebrations and social outings. Shank (2005) sug-
gested that all teachers could benefit from collaborative learning groups within schools.
A contentious issue in relation to employers was differentiated pay for teachers. Day (2008, p. 258) warned against use of
‘‘crude measures of performativity’’ which ‘‘saps rather than builds morale.’’ Others took the opposing view that employers
Table 8
Implications for teacher education courses.
Implication Number of papers

Support from staff during pre-service, practicum placements and early years 8
Strategies for developing personal philosophies and skills 7
Creating a supportive climate 5
Strategies for teaching and classroom management skills 5
Professional workplace issues and work-life balance 4
Support from fellow students 3
Table 9
Implications for employers.
Implication Number of papers

Facilitation of supportive structures 9
Supportive induction 8
Specific ideas for principals 7
Differentiated pay 6
Differentiated PD 5
Support for casual teachers 4
could consider merit pay and differentiated jobs (Margolis, 2008). Similarly, employing bodies needed to realise that not all
beginning teachers were planning a lifelong career in the profession and providing opportunities for challenges and leader-
ship with appropriate rewards might extend their time in the profession (Watt & Richardson, 2008).
4. Discussion
4.1. Issues and challenges emerging from this review
The aim of this paper was to provide an overview of research relating to teacher resilience from the past decade, with
particular attention to methods used to investigate teacher resilience, the ways resilience has been conceptualised, what
is understood about risk and protective factors and the relationship between them, and implications for pre-service teacher
education programmes and employers. The papers reviewed originated from different theoretical frameworks, yet the find-
ings overall supported the notion of resilience as a complex, idiosyncratic and cyclical construct, involving dynamic pro-
cesses of interaction over time between person and environment. In addition, resilience is evidenced by how individuals
respond to challenging or adverse situations and the contexts in which they work have been shown to provide both protec-
tive and risk factors. In drawing this conclusion, the review has elucidated a number of issues and challenges related to the
conceptualisation of resilience as multifaceted and complex, to the notion of resilience as being idiosyncratic and dynamic,
to the nature of methodologies used to examine resilience, and to the need to consider the multiple contexts of resilience.
These challenges point to areas for future examination and empirical research.
Conceptualising resilience as a multifaceted and complex construct, as is evidenced in the current literature, presents
challenges for concise yet comprehensive definitions. Further clarity of definition is needed, with continuing contributions
from multiple theoretical perspectives to add breadth and depth. Is it possible to create a single definition of resilience and
how is it defined according to different perspectives? Not only are there multiple possible risk and protective factors that are
at play, the relationship between these has been shown to be complex. For example, Sumsion’s (2003, p. 152) study illus-
trated the ‘‘role of personal qualities, and contextual features, and the interplay between them.’’ Flores (2006, p. 2048) re-
ported that ‘‘... the process whereby teachers altered their attitudes toward, and their practices and views of, teaching
was complex and dependent on the interplay between idiosyncratic and contextual factors.’’ Personal lives and working con-
ditions may change in unpredictable ways, and whether an individual will display resilience or be unable to manage these
conditions ‘‘will vary depending on his/her scope of experience at the time of change, perceived competence and confidence
in managing the emerging conditions, views on the meaning of engagement, and the availability of appropriate support
within the context of change’’ (Sammons et al., 2007). Conceptualising such a multifaceted, complex construct is an ongoing
challenge. The field could benefit from drawing comparisons with conceptual and experimental work relating to resilience in
the workplace from the disciplines of organisational psychology and in other professions such as nursing.
As also indicated in the above examples, the literature revealed the notion of resilience as being dynamic and largely idi-
osyncratic. For example, in relation to important individual factors such as motivation and self-efficacy, as teachers experi-
ence success in their work, this builds their self-efficacy which then leads to greater persistence. ‘‘... the development of
teachers’ self-efficacy consistently interacts with the growth of their resilient qualities. It is by nature a dynamic, develop-
mental process - the key characteristic of resilience’’ (Gu & Day 2007, p. 1312). Sinclair (2008) suggested that for pre-service
and beginning teachers there is a constant testing out and reassessment of their ‘‘motivational expectations’’ as they expe-
rience their coursework and practicum placements. ‘‘The outcome of this process is a continuation of current levels of moti-
vation and commitment; enhanced or reduced motivation and/or commitment; personal benefits such as enjoyment,
satisfaction and confidence; and confirmed or changed career choice’’ (p. 98). The dynamic and idiosyncratic nature of resil-
ience presents a challenge for researchers and practitioners. Studies reviewed where teachers’ experiences have been sys-
tematically examined and compared over time at different career stages, and studies where teachers have been grouped
into typologies provide a possible way forward in response to this challenge.
The review also revealed methodological challenges. Examining a construct with multiple dependent variables, that var-
ies for individuals over time and contexts, and may only be visible in the face of adversity, presents challenges in how to
examine or measure it. Most studies relied on participants self-reports in the form of in depth interviews to explore teachers’
experiences and some developed surveys or used established measures of related constructs such as self-efficacy or burn out.
Robust measures of teacher resilience have yet to be developed. Still in its early stages, research on teacher resilience could
benefit from more longitudinal, mixed methods studies with large samples, to complement the smaller scale studies that
have teased out characteristics associated with teacher resilience in specific contexts.
The need to consider multiple contexts that may influence teacher resilience also presents challenges as well as oppor-
tunities for future research. For example, the potential support group of family and friends outside teaching was surprisingly
rarely mentioned in the papers reviewed considering their well-documented importance in various aspects of life, including
career choice (e.g. Beltman & Volet, 2007; Beltman & Wosnitza, 2008). Kaldi (2009) reported that people around student
teachers such as friends, family, mentor or pupils in schools were not rated as strong sources of emotional and intellectual
support. However, Yates, Pelphrey, and Smith (2008) found that parents and siblings were influential in the success of
graduating teachers. In the VITAE study, for two-thirds of the teachers who expressed a positive sense of agency, resilience
and commitment, personal support from family was the most common factor (95%) affecting this (Day, 2008). All the
experienced, resilient teachers interviewed by Howard and Johnson (2004) had strong support groups that included a
diverse network of caring friends and family – not generally connected with teaching. How best to harness this support
and understand the role it may play in development of teacher resilience remains a challenge.
A final challenge is perhaps an ethical one. If resilience could be clearly defined and measured, should there be selection
processes in place in pre-service programmes to identify those who exhibit more individual protective factors, or pro-
grammes to develop such factors in practising teachers as teaching is known to be a challenging profession? In fact some
authors expressed frustration that the challenges teachers have experienced for years still remain. Goddard and Foster
(2001) identified challenges associated with early career teaching that reflected the same problems cited in a study nearly
20 years earlier. However, from an ethical standpoint, while individuals may be able to develop aspects of resilience this does
not obviate employers from their responsibility to improve the conditions of teachers’ work and day to day working prac-
tices. Implications for employers drawn from this review pointed to providing support mechanisms for beginning teachers
including mentors, comprehensive and ongoing induction programmes and ‘reasonable’ teaching assignments. In general,
more substantial links between preparation programmes, employing authorities and individual schools are recommended,
so new teachers are able to access support from a variety of sources according to their needs (e.g. Manuel, 2003).
4.2. Further research
Perhaps reflecting the early stages of research on teacher resilience, a key omission noted in this review was of interven-
tion studies. No work was located where researchers intentionally modified pre-service or early career experiences then sys-
tematically examined and compared the impact of different strategies. The majority of studies described characteristics and
perceptions of teachers at certain career stages. Further research is needed to understand the role of pre-service programmes
and of teachers themselves in developing resilience. It was surprising that none of the selected papers asked teachers directly
what they thought resilience was. A few papers suggested how self-efficacy or coping skills might be developed and this area
requires further investigation.
Freedman and Appleman (2008) raised some interesting questions about the role and responsibilities of pre-service pro-
grammes in relation to teacher education programmes – particularly those preparing teachers for difficult teaching assign-
ments. How long can a teacher education or induction programme support and sustain new teachers? They suggested that
although they can strengthen a new teacher’s knowledge base, they cannot ward off the difficulties they will face: ‘‘The chal-
lenges of many high-need, urban schools and the current bleakness of the educational landscape can press cruelly against
even the strongest programs’’ (p. 124). Rather alarmingly, Sinclair (2008) found that first year teacher education students
did not report any impact of their pre-service coursework on their motivation or commitment as teachers. The students were
in a 4 year programme so this could change. However, many programmes are 1 year and there is a potential difficulty for
short programmes to have any impact on student teacher beliefs and practices compared with their previous 12 years of
experiences as a school student. Further research is needed to address such questions.
Mentor programmes for early career teachers were frequently reported in the literature as sources of support. Sumsion
(2003) raised some interesting questions regarding mentoring, such as why some staff avail themselves of mentors and oth-
ers do not, or how other staff who do not have mentors might feel about the relationship when the mentor is a senior em-
ployee, or how to implement effective mentoring when resources are limited. Should mentoring relationships focus on
providing support, or should they aim to challenge and provide opportunities for critical reflection? Sumsion cautioned
against assuming that mentoring and professional development would automatically provide a panacea to attrition and
questions such as these could be topics for future research.
Finally, it would also be useful to examine resilience from a cross cultural perspective. Interestingly, the majority of stud-
ies identified in this review were from predominantly western cultures. On the one hand this may in part be a response to
issues of teacher attrition and retention evident in those countries; however, it does raise the question of whether teacher
resilience may be understood differently in countries and cultures where the teaching workforce is more stable. Cross cul-
tural perspectives could offer further insights about the nature of teacher resilience and the role of contexts in building resil-
ient teachers.
4.3. Conclusion
In conclusion, the area of teacher resilience is an emerging one. A limited number of studies have directly examined resil-
ience but empirical work has shed light on the many risk and protective factors that relate to teacher resilience. In particular,
in the studies reviewed, self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation were seen as key individual protective factors. Contextual pro-
tective factors such as formal mentor programmes and collegial support provided in the workplace additionally contributed
to teacher resilience. The relationships between risk and protective factors played out in complex ways in different settings,
over time and for different individuals. What might be a challenge for one individual in a particular context may not be so for
another person. Further research to disentangle the key factors and to provide exemplars of how they play out in different
settings, as well as interventions to determine the relative impact of and how to enhance the identified factors is needed.
Such research will build on the studies reviewed in this paper and may serve to reduce high attrition rates but also ensure
that those who stay in the profession do not just survive, but thrive as confident and healthy professionals.
Acknowledgements
The research reported in this paper is part of a project called Keeping Cool: Building Teachers’ Resilience, funded by the
Australian Learning and Teaching Council Ltd. (ALTC), an initiative of the Australian Government Department of Education,
Employment and Workplace Relations. The views expressed in the project do not necessarily reflect the views of the ALTC.
We would like to acknowledge the support of our other team members, Andrew McConney, Lina Pelliccione and Marold
Wosnitza, and the assistance of Miriam Brooker, Frank Bate and Cate Roberts in the preparation of this paper.
Appendix A
Details of papers reviewed.
Reference Focus Setting, Method, data Categories of risk Categories of

participants sources factors or protective factors
(ECT = early challenges or supports
career teachers)
Anderson Teachers’ USA; urban; ECT; Qualitative; semi- Challenge as Stages of
and Olsen perspectives on N = 15 structured positive professional life;
(2006) their professional interviews; school/
development classroom administrative
observations support; support
of peers and
colleagues
Bobek (2002) Resilience USA; urban/rural; Qualitative; Personal
conceptualised; ECT; N = 12 young interviews attributes; self
resources important adults who had efficacy; teaching
in development of experienced skills; professional
resilience adversity reflection and
growth; self care;
school/
administrative
support
Brunetti Resilience USA; urban - inner Mixed methods; Challenge as Personal
(2006) conceptualised; city high school; scales: positive; attributes; self-
what motivated experienced; Experienced classroom/school efficacy; school/
teachers to remain N=9 Teacher Survey context; administrative
challenging (ETS); interviews support; support
teaching positions of peers and
colleagues
Castro et al. Resilience USA; ECT; high Qualitative; semi- Professional work Personal
(2009) conceptualised; needs areas: rural, structured challenges; attributes; coping
challenges/concerns urban, special interviews classroom/school skills; high levels
faced during first needs; N = 15 context of interpersonal
year of teaching and challenges skills, strong
strategies employed networks; self-
to overcome care; mentor
obstacles support
Chan (2008) Roles of emotional Hong Kong; urban Quantitative; Personal
intelligence and prospective and scales: Emotional attributes; self-
self-efficacy in in-service Chinese Intelligence Scale, efficacy; coping
coping with teacher teachers; N = 273 General teacher skills
stress self-efficacy scale)
and Chinese ways
of coping
questionnaire
Chong and Perceptions of Singapore; urban; Quantitative; Personal
Low student teachers at n = 605 on entry questionnaire; attributes;
(2009) different points as to programme; Scales;
(continued on next page)

Appendix A (continued)
career teachers)
they socialised to n = 425 on exit; longitudinal: 3
become teachers. n = 116 at end of time points over 2
1st year of years
teaching
Day (2008) Resilience UK; mixed Qualitative; Challenge as Stages of
conceptualised; settings; variety interviews; positive; personal professional life;
variations over time of experience; longitudinal: twice challenges; self-efficacy;
in teacher N = 300 teachers a year over 4 years professional work support of peers
effectiveness, and from 100 schools challenges; and colleagues
contributing classroom/school
factors; teacher context
professional challenges
identities and life
phases
Day and Gu Resilience UK; mixed Qualitative; Personal
(2007) conceptualised; settings; interviews attributes; self-
personal, situated experienced (24+ longitudinal: twice efficacy; internal
and policy-related years of service); a year over 4 years locus of control;
circumstances N=2 professional
which affect reflection and
teachers’ resilience growth;
and quality importance of
retention; teacher students; school/
professional administrative
identities and life support; support
phases of peers and
colleagues
Demetriou Emotional UK; mixed Mixed methods; 2 Classroom/school Personal
et al. responses of new settings; variety surveys; context attributes;
(2009) teachers to of experience; interviews challenges importance of the
adversity and N = 305 secondary students; support
challenge in school science; of peers and
classroom, N = 512 ECT; colleagues
strategies used, n = 11 newly
consequences for qualified and
teacher retention recently qualified
and implications for teachers
teacher training
Fantilli and Major challenges Canada; mixed Mixed methods; Personal Mentor support;
McDougall new teachers faced settings; ECT; on-line survey; challenges; school/
(2009) in first years of N = 54 interviews professional work administrative
teaching, existing challenges; support; support
and possible classroom/school of peers and
supports available, context colleagues
induction and challenges
mentorship
Fleet et al. Factors that Australia; N = 25 Qualitative; Personal Personal
(2007) supported and enrolled in a 3 participatory challenges; attributes;
constrained year pre-service research characteristics of self-efficacy;
Aboriginal and intensive block paradigm: oral pre-service professionally
Torres Strait programme for narratives, ethno programme proactive; mentor
Islanders gaining Indigenous case study, support; support
university students yarning sessions of peers and
career teachers)
qualifications to colleagues
become teachers
Flores (2006) Participants’ Portugal; urban/ Qualitative; semi- Personal Personal
perceptions of their rural; ECT; N = 14 structured challenges; attributes; self-
experiences as 1st teachers from 2 interviews; professional work efficacy; teaching
and 2nd year different schools documents; challenges; skills; importance
teachers longitudinal: twice classroom/school of the students;
a year for 2 years context school/
challenges administrative
support
Freedman Tracked the USA; ECT; larger Qualitative; case Support of peers
and identities of cohort of N = 26; study; and colleagues
Appleman graduates from a n=3 observations;
(2008) programme documents,
preparing teachers e-mail,
for disadvantaged conversations,
urban school personal meetings,
interviews
questionnaire;
longitudinal over 5
years
Goddard and Extent new teachers Canada; mixed Qualitative; Professional work Stages of
Foster considered settings; ECT; interviews; challenges; professional life;
(2001) themselves N=9 documents classroom/school high levels of
prepared for the context interpersonal
‘real world’ of challenges skills; professional
schools reflection and
growth; school/
administrative
support; support
of peers and
colleagues
Goddard and Whether differing Australia; mixed Quantitative; Type of
O’Brien rates of burnout settings; ECT; survey: Educators qualifications:
(2004) arise in beginning N = 123 Survey version of additional
teachers with the Maslach qualifications
different pre-service Burnout Inventory associated with
backgrounds MBI; longitudinal: higher burn out
2 time points over than single
6 months teaching
qualification
Gu and Day Resilience UK; mixed Mixed methods; Personal
(2007) conceptualised; settings; early, semi structured attributes; self-
range of internal middle and late interviews; efficacy;
and external career; N = 3; Part student professional
protective factors of a larger (VITAE) achievement data; reflection and
impacting on study of N = 300 based on large growth;
teachers’ lives and teachers study data – 5 yr importance of the
positive role project students; school/
resilience plays administrative
support; support
of peers and
colleagues

career teachers)
Hirschkorn Journey through Canada; urban; Qualitative; Professional work Stages of
(2009) teacher education pre-service to individual and challenges; professional life;
and into first year of ECT; N = 1 male group interviews; classroom/school importance of the
teaching of one reflective journals; context students; mentor
teacher; focus on school challenges support; school/
the role played by observations; administrative
student-teacher informal support; support
relationships conversations; of peers and
longitudinal over 3 colleagues
years
Howard and Resilience Australia; 3 urban Qualitative; Challenge as Personal
Johnson conceptualised; disadvantaged interviews positive; attributes; self-
(2004) experiences of schools; classroom/school efficacy; coping
teachers who were experienced; context skills; high levels
coping very well N = 10 challenges of interpersonal
under highly skills, strong
stressful conditions networks;
importance of the
students; school/
administrative
support; support
of peers and
colleagues;
support of family
and friends
Jarzabkowski Perceptions of social Australia; urban; Qualitative; Personal
(2002) benefits of teacher variety of ethnographic case attributes; school/
collegiality for experience; N = 22 study; participant administrative
teachers – single primary observation; support; support
themselves; school interviews; of peers and
individual and longitudinal: over colleagues
organisational 1 year
benefits of social
interaction
Jenkins et al. Challenges of early Australia; ECT; Qualitative; online Personal School/
(2009) career teachers casual teachers; discussion forum challenges; administrative
engaged in casual N = not specified posts professional; support; support
work classroom/school of peers and
context colleagues
challenges
Kaldi (2009) Prospective Greece; pre- Quantitative; Professional work Teaching skills
teachers’ service; N = 170 scales: sources of challenges;
perceptions of self- stress in teaching; classroom/school
competence in questionnaires context
teaching and challenges
relationship
between personal
well-being,
emotions and stress
about teaching and
teaching
competencies
during teaching
career teachers)
practicum
Kitching, How routine Ireland; mixed Mixed methods; Personal Stages of
Morgan everyday positive settings; variety diary of incidents; challenges; professional life;
and and negative of experience; scales: self- professional work personal
O’Leary experiences N = 56; (n = 17 in efficacy, self challenges; attributes; self-
(2009) impacted on study 1; different esteem; classroom/school efficacy
teachers’ n = 39 in study 2). longitudinal over 2 context
motivation to teach months challenges;
importance of the
students
Klusmann Whether differences Germany; mixed Quantitative; Personal
et al., 2008 in occupational settings; scales: attributes; self-
well-being (level of experienced Occupational efficacy; coping
emotional mathematics Stress and Coping skills; teaching
exhaustion and job teachers; Phase 1 Inventory; skills; importance
satisfaction) and N = 1789 Phase 2 adaptation of of the students
instructional N = 318 (sub- Maslach Burnout
performance can be sample) Inventory;
explained by German version of
teachers’ self- Work Satisfaction
regulatory patterns Scale of Job
(occupational Diagnostic Survey;
engagement and student ratings of
resilience) teacher
instructional
behaviour
Le Cornu Role that initial Australia; pre- Qualitative; open- Personal
(2009) teacher education, service; N = not ended attributes; self-
particularly specified (2 questionnaires; efficacy;
practicum cohorts) feedback re professional
experiences, can practicum reflection and
play in developing experiences growth; mentor
resilience in including Learning support; support
prospective Circles of peers and
teachers colleagues
Malloy and Resilience USA; rural school; Mixed methods; School/
Allen conceptualised; variety of case study; administrative
(2007) extent to which K-8 experience; survey; support
rural school has N = 28t observations;
developed interviews;
resiliency building documents
culture
Manuel Ways beginning Australia; urban Qualitative; case Professional work Personal
(2003) teachers negotiate disadvantaged; studies; journals; challenges; attributes;
transition from ECT; N = 6 surveys; classroom/school professional
student to interviews; context reflection and
professional; longitudinal: 7 challenges growth; self-care;
explore the time points from characteristics of
dimensions of early end of pre-service pre-service
career teachers’ to end of 5th year programmes;
decisions to support of peers
continue in the and colleagues
profession, and

career teachers)
illuminate the
factors that
influence their
decision to leave
Margolis Career satisfaction USA; urban; Qualitative; Challenge as Professionally
(2008) and motivation of experienced (4–6 discussion board; positive proactive; support
teachers with 4–6 yrs); N = 7 field notes; e- of peers and
years of experience; mails interviews; colleagues
partnerships longitudinal:
between interviewed start
universities and and end of year
schools
McCormack Teacher Australia; mixed Mixed methods; Personal
and Gore socialisation settings; ECT; interviews challenges;
(2008) (outside of the N = 27. professional work
classroom) and its challenges;
effects on early classroom/school
career teacher context
induction, challenges
professional growth
and retention;
applies Foucault’s
conception of power
relations
McCormack Casual teachers’ Australia; rural; Qualitative; Classroom/school Mentor support;
and motivations, ECT; NSW DET questionnaires; context professional
Thomas induction staff and uni reps; focus groups; challenges learning; support
(2005) programmes, N = 73 interviews of peers and
problems, job colleagues
satisfaction and
workplace
transition
Morgan, Relative importance Ireland; mixed Quantitative; Stages of
Ludlow, of positive versus settings; ECT; scales: affective professional life;
Kitching, negative events for N = 700 significance of personal
O’Leary, early career primary recurring events, attributes; self-
and Clarke teachers; whether commitment to efficacy;
(2010) they are proximal or teaching, teacher importance of the
distal, frequency efficacy students
versus intensity and
how they sustain,
motivate or create
obstacles
Olsen and Why early career USA; urban; ECT; Qualitative; 3 Personal Typologies;
Anderson teachers stay in, N = 15 interviews; challenges mentor support;
(2007) shift from, or observations; school/
consider leaving the longitudinal over 1 administrative
urban schools in academic year support; support
which they teach of peers and
colleagues
O’Sullivan How veteran Ireland; mixed Qualitative; Coping skills;
(2006) physical education settings; questionnaires; school/
teachers have experienced interviews; life administrative
career teachers)
negotiated their physical history approach support; support
lives as teachers education of peers and
within the cultural secondary colleagues
norms and teachers; N = 66
expectations Irish
educational system
and the role of PD
experiences over
course of their
teaching lives
Oswald, Teacher beliefs Australia; urban; Quantitative; Not risk factor as Importance of the
Johnson, about the key experienced; scales such but teachers students
and factors in N = 1180 undervalued their
Howard development of own role in
(2003) children’s developing
resilience; teacher student resilience
efficacy and related
strategies to foster
resilience
Patterson Strategies used by USA; urban Qualitative; Personal
et al. urban teachers and schools with high interviews; attributes; coping
(2004) teacher leaders to student documents; skills; teaching
build their personal achievement observations skills; professional
resilience scores despite reflection and
adversity; growth; self care;
experienced; n = 8 school/
teachers; n = 8 administrative
leaders support
Prosser Emotional labour Australia; urban; Qualitative; Support of peers
(2008) associated with experienced; interviews and colleagues
maintaining N=3
teacher-student
relationships in
difficult
environments and
how teachers
sustain themselves
Sammons Influences on UK; mixed Mixed methods; Not a risk factor Professional life
et al. teachers’ settings; interviews; as such but phases; support of
(2007) professional and experienced; surveys; teachers matter peers and
personal lives, their N = 300 assessment data more in colleagues; also
identities and on pupils’ accounting for see Day (2008),
effectiveness; attainments in differences in Day and Gu
connections with English and pupil progress (2007); Gu and
school contexts mathematics; than schools Day (2007)
longitudinal over 3
academic years
Schlichte Perceptions of USA; special Qualitative; Mentor support;
et al. extent of collegial education interviews school/
(2005) and administrative settings; ECT; administrative
support and related N=5 support; support
stress factors of first of peers and
year special colleagues

career teachers)
education teachers
Shank (2005) How a Collaborative USA; setting not Qualitative; Mentor support
Inquiry Group (CIG) stated; variety of interviews;
approach to experience; N = 7 observations; field
mentoring can notes; longitudinal
support new and over 1.5 years
experienced
teachers
Sinclair Pre-service teacher Australia; 4 year Mixed methods; Pre-service Personal
(2008) motivation, course in 1 secular scales programme attributes;
commitment, and and 1 religious Motivational challenges professional
retention over time university; pre- Orientations to reflection and
service; N = 211 Teach Survey growth;
(MOT-S); importance of the
questionnaires; students;
longitudinal: start characteristics of
and end of 1st pre-service
semester programme
Smethem Beginning teachers’ UK; ECT; N = 18 Qualitative; Personal Typologies;
(2007) views on work, new teachers of survey; challenges; support of peers
issues of modern languages interviews; professional work and colleagues
motivation, coping journals; challenges;
with change, impact longitudinal: classroom/school
of induction and representatives of context
intentions for career cohorts over 4 challenges
development years
Smith and Impact of induction USA; mixed Quantitative; Typologies;
Ingersoll and mentoring settings; ECT; mixed settings; mentor support;
(2004) programmes on N = 3, 235 surveys: SASS support of peers
retention of (Schools and and colleagues
beginning teachers Staffing Survey)
and TFS (Teacher
Follow up Survey);
longitudinal: start
and end of school
year
Sumsion What accounts for Australia; child Qualitative; Personal
(2003) resilience some care; experienced; interviews; attributes; coping
children’s services N=1 documents skills; professional
staff to adverse reflection and
structural factors growth; self-care;
mentor support;
support of peers
and colleagues
Sumsion Teachers in full day Australia; child Qualitative; Professional work Personal
(2004) care constructions care; experienced; interviews; challenges; attributes;
of resilience and N=7 drawings classroom/school professional
thriving context reflection and
challenges; growth; school/
challenge as administrative
positive support; support
of peers and
colleagues
career teachers)
Tait (2008) Impact of resilience, Canada; urban; Scales: Stress Personal
personal efficacy ECT; N = 22 Resilience Test attributes; self-
and emotional (SRT); interviews; efficacy; coping
competence on written metaphors skills; high levels
first-year teachers’ of interpersonal
sense of success, skills; self-care
confidence, and
commitment to the
profession.
Tschannen- Self-efficacy beliefs USA; mixed Quantitative; Stages of
Moran and of novice and more settings; variety scales: Teachers professional life;
Woolfolk experienced of experience; Sense of Efficacy self-efficacy;
Hoy teachers about their N = 255 Scale (TSES) school/
(2007) capabilities in (Tschannen- administrative
teaching Moran and support for new
Woolfolk Hoy, teachers; support
2001); of peers and
questionnaire colleagues
Tsouloupas Links between USA; mixed Quantitative; Importance of the
et al. burnout and settings; variety questionnaires; students
(2010) emotional of experience; scales: (Perceived
exhaustion, teacher N = 610 Self-Efficacy in
efficacy in handling Classroom
student Management
misbehaviour, and (PSECM),
attrition + migration Emotional
Regulation
Questionnaire;
emotional
exhaustion
subscale from the
Maslach Burnout
Inventory–
Educators Survey
Watt and Richardson Types of Australia; pre- Quantitative;
(2008) beginning service; N = 510 scales: Factors
teachers and Influencing
differences on Teaching Choice
constructs of Scale (FIT-Choice
motivations, Scale)
perceptions and
aspirations
Typologies
Woolfolk Changes in teacher USA; mixed quantitative; reduced self- self-efficacy;
Hoy and efficacy during early settings; pre- questionnaires; efficacy/ teaching skills;
Burke years of teaching service and ECT; scales: Teacher confidence; school/
Spero and common factors longitudinal over Efficacy Scale, professional work administrative
(2005) emerged that might two years; N = 53 Bandura Teacher challenges; support; support
be related to these prospective Self-Efficacy Scale, classroom/school of peers and
teachers (year 1) OSUTeaching context colleagues
and N = 29 Confidence Scale challenges
practicing
teachers (year 2)

career teachers)
Yates et al. Factors that USA; pre-service; Qualitative; Personal
(2008) contributed to the N = 8 African interviews, attributes;
persistence of eight Americans observations; characteristics of
male African documents pre-service
American pre- programme;
service teachers in mentor support;
their studies support of family
and friends
Yost (2006) Major obstacles USA; mixed Qualitative; Classroom/school Personal
successful novice settings; ECT; interviews; context attributes; coping
teachers faced N = 10 observations; challenges skills; high levels
during first year of questionnaire; of interpersonal
teaching; what longitudinal in skills; teaching
teacher education 2nd and 5th year skills;
or other factors of teaching professionally
shaped their current proactive;
views and characteristics of
successes; use of pre-service
critical reflection as programme;
a problem-solving mentor support
tool
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Educational Research Review 6 (2011) 185–207

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Educational Research Review

Thriving not just surviving: A review of research on teacher resilience

(1) What methodologies have been used to examine teacher resilience?

2.1. Parameters for the review

3.1. Overview of research methods

Country of Research Number of studies

Type of data source Number of studies

3.2. Conceptualisations of resilience

3.3. Risk factors or challenges

3.3.1. Individual risk factors

3.3.2. Contextual risk factors

Challenge Number of studies

3.4. Protective factors or supports

3.4.1. Individual protective factors

Protective factor Number of studies

3.4.2. Contextual protective factors

Contextual support Number of studies

3.5. Relationship between risk and protective factors

3.6. Implications from the literature

3.6.1. Implications for pre-service teacher education programmes

3.6.2. Implications for employers

Implication Number of papers

Implication Number of papers

4.1. Issues and challenges emerging from this review

4.2. Further research

Details of papers reviewed.

Reference Focus Setting, Method, data Categories of risk Categories of

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