Pre-Project Report

On

“Improving The Properties Of Earthen Plaster”

Submitted as partial fulfilment for the award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

Civil Engineering
Under the guidance
Of

Er. Riyaz Ahmad Qasab

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Islamic University of Science & Technology,
Awantipora, Kashmir.

Submitted by
1. Aatif Mohammad Dar 2. Mohd Rafiq Mir
3. Aima Ashraf 4. Bisma Manzoor Wani
5. Firdous Ahmad Parray 6. Ubhat Ali

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to the Head of Department Er. Misbah Gull, for
giving us the opportunity and permission to work on the project entitled as
“Improving The Properties Of Earthen Plaster” and to our project guide Er.
Riyaz Ahmad Qasab for his generous help and contribution towards this
project.

We also want to thank our esteemed faculty for their valuable and inspiring
support and want to express our thanks to our friends for always being there
and making it possible to work on the said project.

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 CERTIFICATE

It is hereby certified that the following students:

• Aatif Muhammad Dar.....................CE-14-06

• Firdous Ahmed Parray.................CE-14-29

• Aima Ashraf.......................................CE-14-12

• Mohd Rafiq Mir................................CE-14-54

• Bisma Manzoor Wani....................CE-15-SL-134

• Ubhat Ali...........................................CE-15-SL-131

from the Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic University of Science and Technology,
Awantipora, Kashmir have taken the project entitled as “Improving The Properties Of
Earthen Plaster” under our guidance. The work done and presented by them on the same
is true to our knowledge and is their bonafide work as a group.

Er. Riyaz Ah Qasab

Project Guide

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Contents

TOPIC PAGE NO

 Acknowledgment 02

 Certificate 03

 Introduction 06

 Materials Used 10

 Additives 12

 Clay 12

 Typha Fibre Wool 16

 Vegetable Ash 20

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  Linseed Oil 27

 Soil Analysis 29

 Formulation Of Earth Plaster Mixes 30

 Structural Tests 32

 Compression Tests 38

 Conclusion 43

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INTRODUCTION:
The traditional use of mud plasters and renders to coat and protect walls dates
back a very long time and is found in almost all regions of the world. Finishing a
house with mud plaster when the house itself has been built with earth is a
natural, complementary technique, but mud plasters can also be used for
buildings of stone and fired brick provided they incorporate an earth-based
mortar for the joints.

Earth-based plasters often use earth in combination with other natural materials
such as wheat straw or cow dung, or with mineral additives , to improve the basic
qualities of the earth by acting as stabilisers, hardeners, and waterproofing
agents. Even without additives, however, mud plasters and renders can give
excellent results provided that they are made and applied with skill and care, and
maintained regularly. Today, with low-cost mass housing a priority and with the
increasing interest in the preservation of architectural heritage, the need for
plastering materials which are efficient and economical has awakened a new
interest in earth. Earth-based plasters are completely compatible with traditional
materials and building techniques, and the almost universal availability of suitable
earth for building gives them a distinct advantage over some modern synthetic
plasters.

The main problems that are seen in the traditional earthen plaster are:

 The compressive and shear strength is not as much as other plasters which
leads to a decrease in strength of the overall wall assembly.
 The proportioning of various materials is a very crucial step and even a
slight variation can cause a considerable loss of strength in the scratch coat
and consistency of the finish coat.
 The permeability to water vapour causes crumbling of the plaster and
damping of the component.Mud plastered walls can take in an amazing
amount of vapour and so long as they aren’t sealed on the outside that
vapour will migrate out. However, with the winter we have here, the walls
are cold enough on the inside for the vapour to condense and breed mould.

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  The plaster becomes brittle on drying and may come off or crack due to low
tensile strength.
 Load carrying capacity of the plaster is less.
 Earthen plaster is a rare wall covering in the developed world and there is a
dearth of local experts for construction and repair.
 Clay plasters have good impact resistance – but not to constant
banging/rubbing, bumping,scratching,or scraping so they may not be ideal
for areas of high traffic, or for hospitals or schools.
 Mud plaster is subjected to erosion due to heavy rains and high
windsdriving the rain hard onto walls at an angle will increase erosion
further still. Heavy rain, even for a short time, is much more damaging than
prolonged light rain.
 The seismic vulnerability of earthen plastered buildings is due to high mass
producing high inertial forces and also its very low tensile strength which
leads to brittle failure and sudden collapse.
 Application of the plaster and bonding within the components and with the
wall if not appropriate may lead to crackingcaused by changes in ambient
temperature and humidity and also the shear forces are not transmitted
properly.
 Clay plasters are not standardized material that is time is required to
experiment with specific procedures that work well with specific materials.
Construction timing needs to take the additional time for application and
drying of each coat into consideration.

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AIM OF THE PROJECT:

 The main aim of this project is to improve the properties of mud plaster
such that its use in the rural household becomes easier and effective and its
prevalence in the modern and urban households increases.
 The project also aims at increasing the strength ,flexural as well as tensile of
the earthen plaster.
 Increase in the durability of the plaster along with its resistance to erosion
is to be done.
 Making the plaster impermeable to water vapour to a great extent so as to
reduce damping.
 The impact resistance and bonding with the wall would be aimed at
enhancing.

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:

The project has been taken up by us because we as a team foresee the many
possibilities of enhancing the properties of mud plaster and also remove its
drawbacks. Mud plaster on the whole is a very effective and efficient in numerous
ways.

 It insulates the building components and protects the structural texture and
colour.
 Earthen plasters are less toxic and energy intensive than many other wall
coverings, which makes them appealing to the environmentally conscious.
 Earthen plasters are also easily repaired and inexpensive.

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  Mud plaster reduces the heat inside the building in summer season and
also maintains a cosy atmosphere in the building during winter season due
to its excellent thermal insulating properties.
 Cost of construction can be reduced by 22% as compared to cement plaster.
 Mud being an eco-friendly material is much better as compared to cement
which is a heat generating material.
 It is easy to apply without requiring expensive and elaborate tools, and is
affordable.
 Mud plaster uses local indigenous material which is locally and easily
available.

Thus, we propose the use offew additives to be added so as to make good the
drawbacks of earthen plaster and make it better and outdo the other plasters.

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MATERIALS USED:

Clay: The Binding Agent

Clay is a soil component consisting of extremely fine particles. Most clays consist
of hydrous aluminum silicates, though there is a considerable amount of chemical
variation among the clays. Clay is cohesive and binds to the sand and the straw,
holding the mixture together, as well as securing the mixture to the wall. Clay is
also plastic when wet, which makes the plaster mixture workable.

The composition of traditional mud plasters varies from place to place and is an
important factor in determining durability. The clay content is particularly
significant, because if it is too low the plaster will lack strength and cohesion, and
if it is too high there will be a risk of cracking due to shrinkage, which will weaken
the bond to the wall. A suitable clay content is usually around 10 to 15 per cent,
but values outside this range could also be suitable depending on the type of clay.
Soils with unstable or swelling clays must be used with great care. The sand-to-silt
ratio is also very important in determiningthe quality of a plaster.Traditionally, clay
plasters were often applied in one coat both internally and externally. If applied in
two coats, the first can contain more clay, even if cracks develop, while the
second, containing more sand, is applied in a thinner layer. The second coat will
help toclose the micro-cracks in the first, provided the surface has been lightly
dampened before plastering.

Sand: Structural Strength

Sand provides structure, strength, and bulk to earthen plasters. Sand consists of
tiny mineral granules of rock, its parent material. Predominately composed of
silicon dioxide (quartz), sand is a non-reactive substance. Because sand occurs
naturally in many subsoils, all of the sand necessary may be already found in the

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soil. Sand minimizes cracking as the clay plaster dries we recommend use of
course sand for base plasters and fine sand for finish plasters.

Fiber: Tensile Strength and Reinforcement

Dry straw, hemp fiber, cattails, coconut fiber, and animal hair are all suitable fiber
choices for earthen plasters. Fiber forms a reinforcing meshwork in plasters, which
helps to hold the plaster together. Fiber also provides some flexibility to a dried
plaster. When clay dries it shrinks and tends to crack, but this cracking can be
countered by the fiber. The fiber used in plasters must be clean, dry, and mold-
free.

ADDITIVES TO BE USED

 CLAY

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The composition of traditional mud plasters varies from place to place and is
an important factor in determining durability. The clay content is particularly
significant, because if it is too low the plaster will lack strength and cohesion,
and if it is too high there will be a risk of cracking due to shrinkage, which will
weaken the bond to the wall. A suitable clay content is usually around 10 to
15 per cent, but values outside this range could also be suitable depending on
the type of clay. Soils with unstable or swelling clays must be used with great
care. The sand to-silt ratio is also very important in determining the quality of
a plaster. Traditionally, clay plasters were often applied in one coat both
internally and externally. If applied in two coats, the first can contain more
clay, even if cracks develop, while the second, containing more sand, is applied
in a thinner layer. The second coat will help to close the micro-cracks in the
first, provided the surface has been lightly dampened before plastering.
Finally, lime distemper or whitewash can be applied to give some additional
weatherproofing. This will need to be reapplied periodically .Clay renders are
commonly improved by adding natural fibres such as cereal straw, animal hair,
pine needles, bark, and wood shavings. Long straw or hair is chopped into
short lengths (2 to 5cm) for easier mixing: the function of the fibres is to resist
cracks and facilitate the drying process. They also make the plaster less dense
and improve its insulation properties. The amount of fibres required will vary
depending on soil characteristics and can be from 35 to 70kg per cubic metre
for straw; 50kg per cubic metre is a typical figure. In India, paddy straw
(blusa) is added at a rate of 6 per cent by weight, or 60 to 65kg per cubic
metre. The straw is soaked for several days in water to facilitate a rotting
process, and the complete mixing process can take 10 to 15 days. Another
traditional practice is the addition of cow dung, which improves the cohesion

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and plasticity of soils of low clay content. Sometimes the dung is applied to
mud plaster which is partially dry to help stop the development of cracks. A
traditional waterproofing in India, known as Gohber leaping, consists of one
part cow dung and five parts earth by weight, made into a fine paste with
water and applied to fill up surface cracks. Another practice is the addition of
horse urine, which acts as a hardener and improves impermeability and
impact resistance.

Figure 4 Rammed earth walls can be built in many ways; all can be protected with mud
render or plaster

Clay renders are commonly improved by adding natural fibres such as cereal
straw, animal hair, pine needles, bark, and wood shavings. Long straw or hair
is chopped into short lengths (2 to 5cm) for easier mixing: the function of the
fibres is to resist cracks and facilitate the drying process. They also make the

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plaster less dense and improve its insulation properties. The amount of fibres
required will vary depending on soil characteristics and can be from 35 to
70kg per cubic metre for straw; 50kg per cubic metre is a typical figure. In
India, paddy straw (blusa) is added at a rate of 6 per cent by weight, or 60 to
65kg per cubic metre. The straw is soaked for several days in water to
facilitate a rotting process, and the complete mixing process can take 10 to 15
days. Another traditional practice is the addition of cow dung, which improves
the cohesion and plasticity of soils of low clay content. Sometimes the dung is
applied to mud plaster which is partially dry to help stop the development of
cracks. A traditional waterproofing in India, known as Gohber leaping,
consists of one part cow dung and five parts earth by weight, made into a fine
paste with water and applied to fill up surface cracks. Another practice is the
addition of horse urine, which acts as a hardener and improves
impermeability and impact resistance. Clay renders are commonly improved
by adding natural fibres such as cereal straw, animal hair, pine needles, bark,
and wood shavings. Long straw or hair is chopped into short lengths (2 to
5cm) for easier mixing: the function of the fibres is to resist cracks and
facilitate the drying process. They also make the plaster less dense and
improve its insulation properties. The amount of fibres required will vary
depending on soil characteristics and can be from 35 to 70kg per cubic metre
for straw; 50kg per cubic metre is a typical figure. In India, paddy straw
(blusa) is added at a rate of 6 per cent by weight, or 60 to 65kg per cubic
metre. The straw is soaked for several days in water to facilitate a rotting
process, and the complete mixing process can take 10 to 15 days. Another
traditional practice is the addition of cow dung, which improves the cohesion

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and plasticity of soils of low clay content. Sometimes the dung is applied to
mud plaster which is partially dry to help stop the development of cracks.

 TYPHA FIBRE WOOL

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Typha latifolia (Common Cattail, or Broadleaf Cattail) is a common perennial
marsh, or wetland plant in temperate, tropical, and subtropical climates throughout
the Northern Hemisphere. Plants are typically 1.5-3 meters (5 to 10 feet) high, with
2-4 cm (.75-1.25 inch) wide leaves, and stems the height of the plant bearing long
flower spikes with an upper male staminate section and a lower female pistillate
section.
Mature flower stalks resemble the tail of a cat. Typha spadixes that provide the
typha fiber-wool are obtained from Typha latifolia is widely present in water
stream ecosystems.

PROPERTIES AND USES

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Typha has many potential uses and very high potential for the building industry,
due to its physical structure. Because approximately 85 % of the plant mass
consists of aerenchyma tissue, the leaf mass has high porosity (Figure 1D), a (low)
density of approximately 30 kg m-3, and lower thermal conductivity (λ = 0.032 W
m-1 K-1) than polystyrene (λ = 0.04 W m-1 K-1). Highly efficient insulation
boards can be produced by combining the leaves with a simple mineral binder
(magnesite). A significant advantage of using cattail biomass as thermal insulation
is the very low production of dust. Cattail leaves can also be used as reinforcing
fibre for various building materials.The seeds account for approximately one-
quarter of the total dry mass. The so-called “seedparachutes” are very light and
their structure is such that they create a strong network when mixed into clay
mortar. When they are added as reinforcing fibres to lean clay plaster (with a low
clay fraction), the strength of the plaster is improved. The high polyphenol content
of the Typha plant makes it not only a durable component of building materials, but
also an agricultural crop that is resistant to adverse weather conditions, moulds and
insect infestations.
The natural fibres reinforce the clay and should increase its tensile (bending)
strength as well as its compressive strength. Increasing the mass of natural fibre in
the clay plaster mixture provides further improvements in strength. Both the
integration of fibre particles into the mix and the crack resistance of the plaster are
improved by including natural fibres with a large range of lengths. By interlacing
themselves, the cattail seed fibres build a strong network which remains stable over
a long period of time.
Other positive qualities of Typha for this application are its near-invisibility when
mixed into clay mortars, its high content of polyphenols (natural tanning agents in

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the cattail plant) which assure long-term natural microbiological protection of the
plant and make the plaster resistant to mildew, and the pleasing interior design
effects that can be achieved. The positive effect of Typha on the whole of the life-
cycle energy analysis for the building material must be emphasized. Typha-
reinforced clay mortars improve on common mineral mortars because they are 100
% recyclable and their production costs (financial and in terms of energy) are low.
Typha reinforced clay mortars and plasters may be classified as highly sustainable
and nature-friendly building materials.

PROCEDURE

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After harvesting the typha spadixes were also allowed to dry in open-air, inside
plastic containers protected from the wind with a fine aluminum mesh on top till
complete expansion of seeds. The expansion process of the typha seeds is
spontaneous under certain conditions of warm temperature and dry relative
humidity, and provide a ready-made dry fiber that can be easily added to mortar
formulations dry mixture as a reinforcement, in order to mitigate the chance of
occurrence of shrinkage cracking during the drying of the plaster.
For analysis four mortars are formulated with the same volumetric proportions of
clayish earth and sand, respectively 1:3. One of the mortars, referenced as REF,
was formulated without any fiber addition to be taken as a reference mortar, while
the other three mortars were added with different amounts of typha wool fibre.
Mortars referenced as T20, T40 and T80 were added with
volumes of 20%, 40% and 80% of typha fiber-wool respectively.
The mortars were prepared with the minimum amount of water
needed in order to achieve a good workability.The optimum
clay/sand ratio was between 0.43 and 0.66 by weight.

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  Vegetable ashes as Supplementary
Cementitious Materials

Introduction

Approximately 140 billion metric tons of biomass are produced every year
in the world from agriculture. Widely available, renewable, and virtually
free, waste biomass is an important resource. This volume of biomass can be
converted to an enormous amount of energy and raw materials. Equivalent
to approximately 50 billion tons of oil, agricultural biomass waste converted
to energy could substantially offset fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gases
emissions and provide sources for renewable energy. Residues from crops
take the form of residual stalks,straw, leaves, roots, husk, nut or seed shells,
waste wood and animal husbandry waste. Annual availability of residue is in
the range of 3.7 billion tonnes. The major quantity of wastes generated from
agricultural sources are sugarcane bagasse, paddy and wheat straw and
husk, wastes of vegetables, food products, tea, and oil production. Due to
industrial processing, these bio-wastes are fired and the remaining ashes are
generally at present considered a waste. There is, however, a general lack of
fundamental understanding of the mechanisms for hydration of agricultural
wastes as pozzolan, despite the extensive research work carried out.

Availability

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Approximately 140 billion metric tons of biomass are produced every year
in the world from agriculture. The ashes resulting from firing agricultural
wastes such as rice husk, sugar cane and others can be used as
Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM). They can be mixed with lime
alone or in ternary mixtures with Portland cement and lime. If fired at
temperatures around 600– 700 °C the agricultural ashes exhibit good
reactivity. Despite extensive research work carried out on the use of
agricultural ashes as source of SCMs, few success stories are reported on
practical applications on an industrial scale. Details of the firing technology
should be re-assessed, with special emphasis on the scale at which the
technology begins to be economically suitable. Further research is also
needed to understand the mechanisms of structural transformation of
amorphous silica during calcination, and the impact of the ashes on cement
hydration in blended systems.

Technology presentation

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Description

The principle behind the pozzolanic reaction of agricultural wastes is the

reaction of reactive SiO2 present in the ash with calcium hydroxide formed
during cement reaction, as described in Eqs. (1) and (2) to form further
hydrates. This enables cement substitution by the pozzolanic material.

Normal substitution rates are up to 30% of cement (wt.) although this data
depends on the type and characteristics of the pozzolan.

2(3CaO·SiO2) + 6H2O →3CaO·2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2…………. (1)

2(2CaO·SiO2) + 4H2O →3CaO·2SiO2.3H2O +Ca(OH)2……………. (2)

Another alternative could be to combine pozzolan with slaked lime

(Ca(OH)2) obtained from the hydration of quicklime (CaO). The bio-silica
(SiO2) in agricultural wastes comes from concentrating it through firing.
There are plants that are known to bear amorphous silica in their structure.
The most commonly used crop wastes are rice husks, sugar cane bagasse or
straw (leaves of the sugar cane which are removed as part of industrial
processing), and to a less extent others such as wheat and bamboo. The
agricultural ashes exhibit good reactivity when the silica occurs in an
amorphous form. This happens if the material is fired at temperatures
around 600–700 °C, where silica remains amorphous. If the temperature
goes above 700 °C, silica starts to occur as crystalline phases whose phase
composition depends on the firing temperature and the cooling regime.
Rice husk ash is by far the most studied material. The husks of the rice plant

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 contain a significant amount of silica. During firing, the silica is
concentrated to levels above 90% wt. in the ash, thus enabling the
production of a material with great potential reactivity.

Fig shows the ash percentage and the silica content of this for several plants.

The husks are used as fuel in industrial boilers coupled to power generation
units, but they are also fired under various other conditions, such as
incinerators, or even in open pit fires. The reactivity of the rice husk ash
depends on the amount of amorphous silicon present and its specific
surface. Wastes from sugar production are the second most studied
materials. Depending on the industrial processing of the plant there are two
main wastes: bagasse and waste leaves. Bagasse is produced through
squeezing the stalks, while the waste leaves are collected and processed at
pre-processing plants prior to bringing the sugar cane to the industrial
mills. Bagasse is often used as fuel in co-generation processes associated
with the sugar industry. The fuel is fired at the boilers of the sugar refinery,
and ashes are collected as waste. Depending on the efficiency of the system,

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 the ashes can contain greater or lesser amounts of unburnt material, which
compromises reactivity. In normal boilers, the temperature of the firing
chamber is above 1200 °C, thus the resulting ash is rich in crystalline
phases such as quartz and cristobalite, which are less reactive. However, a
study on sugar cane wastes shows that sugar cane bagasse ash can yet yield
good results when fired at temperatures in the range 800–1000 °C, which
are closer to the actual temperatures at boilers, and sugar cane leaves ash
did not prove to be sensitive to temperature. The fall in reactivity in co-
generation ashes resulting from sugar cane wastes could be related to
contaminants introduced in the system during harvesting and handling of
the wastes. The presence of coarse quartz particles is reported both in
ashes collected at the boilers and at the cyclones. If these quartz particles
could be removed, the reactivity of the resulting material could be
enhanced. If firing takes place at lower temperature and controlled
residence time, the resulting ashes have more amorphous silica, however
lower temperatures compromise the efficiency of the material as a fuel.

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Fig. 3. XRD diagrams of cane straw ash fired at industrial boilers and under controlled
temperature [23]. Legend: Cb, cristoballite; CAR, carbon; Ca, calcite; Qz, quartz; SCBA, sugar
cane bagasse ash; ASH 1, sugar cane straw ash 1; ASH 2, sugar cane straw ash 2.

High firing temperature favors formation of high temperature silica phases

such as cristobalite, which compromise the reactivity of the material. Rice
husk ash has been used as cement substitute in cementitious systems in
proportions between 0 and 30% by mass. The high internal porosity of rice
husk ash prompts an increase in water demand in fresh concrete, thus
affecting the rheology. The optimal level for concrete replacement is around
0–20% by mass. In these proportions, addition of rice husk ash can increase
up to 20% of the strength of concrete and yet provide improved resistance to
chloride penetration. Further substitutions are hindered by the highwater
demand of the system. If properly treated and finely ground, rice husk ash
can be used as mineral admixture for the production of high strength
concrete . Bagasse ash has also been used as cement substitute in
proportions between 0 and 20% by mass. The slightly lower reactivity of this
material compared with rice husk ash can be improved by a combination of
strict control of calcination temperature and grinding to values of D80 below
60 μm and Blaine specific surface areas above 300 m2/kg. This material
was able to substitute up to 20% of Portland cement in high-performance
concrete with properties similar to concrete made solely with Portland
cement, and with improved fresh state properties and resistance to
penetration of chloride-ions. Among other vegetable ashes, wheat ash has

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received some attention. The main waste of wheat is the straw, which
contains high amounts of silica, especially in the leaves. If fired under
controlled conditions, wheat straw shows good pozzolanic reactivity.
Processing technology is crucial in terms of producing a good product.

Production procedure:

The following technologies are most commonly used:

• Industrial boilers, which use biomass as fuel. The sugar industry and power
generation industry are the main users of agricultural wastes. Bottom and fly
ash are produced as waste of this process.

• Rotary clinker kilns, which can use biomass pellets as alternative fuels.
The pellets are fed directly to the cement kiln and fired at temperatures

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around 1500 °C. The ashes can complement the chemical and
mineralogical composition of clinker.

• Fluidized bed boilers, with different pre-processing procedures for

biomass. These facilities can operate at lower temperature and high
combustion efficiency. The properties of the resulting ash depend on how it
was processed prior to firing.

• Rudimentary incinerators. Several ideas have been developed to produce

reactive ash in incinerators. The proposals have a low level of mechanization
and thus a very low output of ash.

 LINSEED OIL
Linseed oil has been used in paints and can be used in wood,earth,
concrete, plaster. Linseed oil products are water resistant and have
moderate water permeability.

Linseed oil is a drying oil, meaning it can polymerize into a solid form. Due to
its polymer-forming properties, linseed oil can be used on its own or blended
with combinations of other oils, resins or solvents as an impregnator, drying
oil finish or varnish in wood finishing, as a pigment binder in oil paints, as a

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plasticizer and hardener in putty, and in the manufacture of linoleum. When
linseed oil has set, it is quite porous to water vapor and allows moisture to
evaporate. When applying linseed oil, first a coat of 100% oil is added. With
each additional application, it is diluted with water or turpentine oil. The
second coat can consist of linseed oil diluted with water or turpentine oil.
After three or four coats, the surface will repel water like linoleum.

Variations in linseed oil include stand oil, boiled linseed oil and raw linseed oil.
Boiled linseed oil has been used previously in mud plasters. Boiled linseed oil
is a combination of stand oil, raw linseed oil and metallic dryers that
accelerate the drying process.

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SOIL ANALYSIS AND PLASTER COMPOSITION
SOIL ANALYSIS
Intent To analyze and describe the soil used in the earth plaster
mixes.Background information Soils are classified based on their Atterberg
Limits (see below) and on particle size as determined by sieving:

gravel > 4.7mm sand > 0.76mm silt > 0.002mm clay < 0.002mm

Some clay mineral grains are larger than 0.002mm and some soils finer
than 0.002mm have no clay minerals. Atterberg Limits are used to describe
the shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit of a soil. As water is added
to a dry soil, the soil changes from solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid.
The moisture content in the soil at the threshold between semi-solid and
plastic is called the plastic limit. The moisture content in the soil at the
threshold between plastic and liquid is called the liquid limit. Subtracting
the plastic limit from the liquid limit yields the plasticity index.

A large Liquid Limit indicates high compressibility and high shrink swell
tendencies (clay rich soils). A large Plasticity Index indicates low shear
strength (clay rich soils). Clayey soils generally have a PL > 20, and a LL >
40. The Plasticity Index can be lowered by adding sand and raised by
adding clay.

The following particle size analysis and Atterberg Limits were performed
on the base soil, before the additions of sand and chopped straw that make
it into a viable plaster. Many different kinds of clayey soils have been used
successfully for earth plasters by altering the additions of sand and
chopped straw.

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FORMULATIONS OF EARTH PLASTER MIXES
Earth plaster mixes vary widely depending on location, available soils,
practitioner and application method. Hand applied plasters have a generally
higher ratio of straw while machine applied plasters have more sand because
straw clogs the application nozzle. We experimented with several local soils
and chose one with a high percentage of clay (see particle analysis above). The
soil also contained a relatively high percentage of silt – more than would be
desirable in an optimum earth plaster. We chose to work with this soil, in spite
of its high silt content, in order to replicate field conditions and test a
moderately strong earth plaster rather than a very strong earth plaster.

The clay rich soil was soaked in water to yield a clay slip and then mixed with
plaster sand provided by the Shamrock Company of Petaluma and chopped rice
straw as reflected in the charts below. The mixes below are representative of
the types of plasters currently in use in straw bale construction. For the larger
scale structural tests we chose a representative earth plaster near the center of
the spectrum that could be applied by hand or by machine.

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STRUCTURAL TESTS
SHRINKAGE
This test is designed to measure the shrinkage of an earth plaster. Clay (the
binder in earth plaster) is a hydrophilic material that expands when wet and
contracts as it dries. The expansive properties of clay can be tempered in a
plaster by additions of aggregate (sand) and/or fiber (chopped straw). Different
clays are naturally more or less expansive. This test measures the overall
shrinkage of a particular plaster, sample C. This test can be used to predict
cracking behavior and/or to examine the relative performance of different
earth plaster mixtures – with differing proportions of clay soil-sand-fiber or
with differing clay soils.

Test Protocol This test is akin to ASTM D4943-95, but was designed to be
carried out in the field by a layperson with limited specialized equipment (See
Building with Earth, by John Norton, 1997).

Description of Test The earth plaster was packed in a wooden box with interior
dimensions of 2" wide x 2" high x 24" long. The box had sides, but no top or
bottom and the inside surfaces of the box were smooth to avoid bonding
between the wood and the plaster. The plaster was mixed to the same
consistency that is used for application in the field, tamped firmly into the box
and the top surface was screeded off level with the top of the box.

The sample was completely dried (56 days). The shrinkage was measured by
pushing all of the sample (including separated lumps) tightly up to one end of
the box and measuring the gap created by the shrinkage.

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Results of Shrinkage Testing The shrinkage for sample C was 0.1875 inch (3/16
inch) in the 24 inch mold. The whole sample held together and a crack opened
all on one end of the mold.

EROSION
This test was designed to show the relative erosion rates of three types of
plaster – one with high sand content and no straw (sample G), one with a
medium sand content and a medium straw content (sample C), and one with a
low sand content and a high straw content (sample B).

Test Protocol
No comparable test protocol was found in a search, so a test was designed for
the stated purpose, and is not based on any ASTM specification. The test was
designed to be carried out in the field by a layperson with limited specialized
equipment (See Building with Earth, by John Norton, 1997).

Description of Test
A fully dry earth plaster block (12 inches x 12 inches x 2 inches) was placed at a
30° angle, supported on the high end by a brick . Water was dripped at a rate of
1 gallon per hour from a height of 4.5 feet onto the center of the block. The
block was positioned above a catchment trough so that the dripped water
could be collected and the block was not sitting in water. The test was
conducted outside on a slightly windy day and the water dripped in an irregular
circle, approximately 6 inched in diameter. At regular intervals, the depth of the
eroded indentation in the block was recorded, along with descriptions. The test
ended when the block collapsed or disintegrated. At the end of the test, the

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total amount of the dripped water was collected and measured. One block of
each sample was tested.

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Preliminary Conclusions
The results from the EBNet testing indicate similar strength among the earth
plaster mixes that might be considered workable; that is, all mixes except for
the extremes of no sand (mix A) and no straw (mix G). At the extremes, the
mixes with more straw and less sand tended to “fail” due to their flexibility, and
would reach the 1/8 inch height reduction more easily. Indeed, many of the
A,B and C samples would never reach a point of ultimate failure, but would just
flatten out as more load was applied. The mixes with more sand and less straw
exhibited brittle failure, with the no-straw mix G showing less strength.

The results from the AME testing generally agreed with the EBNet earth plaster
results. Since AME defined failure as the point of non-linearity, the values are
somewhat lower. The relationship between the AME failure stress on C and E
(136psi and 92psi) is similar to the relationship between the EBNet ultimate
stress on C and E (198psi and 153psi). Again, the general tendency is that
higher straw yields greater strength (until the extreme is reached).

The results from the AME portland cement-lime plaster were lower than
expected, probably due to the use of non-type S lime, as previously discussed.
The tested values were about 280psi compared to expected values of about
500-600psi for plaster with type S lime. Also, the final group was tested at 57
days, and we would expect significant strengthening of the cement-lime plaster
over months and years due to the gradual carbonation of calcium hydroxide
into calcium carbonatePreliminary Conclusions

The results from the EBNet testing indicate similar strength among the earth
plaster mixes that might be considered workable; that is, all mixes except for
the extremes of no sand (mix A) and no straw (mix G). At the extremes, the

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mixes with more straw and less sand tended to “fail” due to their flexibility, and
would reach the 1/8 inch height reduction more easily. Indeed, many of the
A,B and C samples would never reach a point of ultimate failure, but would just
flatten out as more load was applied. The mixes with more sand and less straw
exhibited brittle failure, with the no-straw mix G showing less strength.

The results from the AME testing generally agreed with the EBNet earth plaster
results. Since AME defined failure as the point of non-linearity, the values are
somewhat lower. The relationship between the AME failure stress on C and E
(136psi and 92psi) is similar to the relationship between the EBNet ultimate
stress on C and E (198psi and 153psi). Again, the general tendency is that
higher straw yields greater strength (until the extreme is reached).

The results from the AME portland cement-lime plaster were lower than
expected, probably due to the use of non-type S lime, as previously discussed.
The tested values were about 280psi compared to expected values of about
500-600psi for plaster with type S lime. Also, the final group was tested at 57
days, and we would expect significant strengthening of the cement-lime plaster
over months and years due to the gradual carbonation of calcium hydroxide
into calcium carbonate.

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COMPRESSION TESTS
Three or more two-inch cube samples of each of the seven earth plaster mixes
specified above (mixes A through G) were tested for compressive strength.
These samples were field-tested with the “nutcracker” apparatus described
above. The preliminary results of these tests were used to select two earth
plaster mixes for further testing by testing lab. Also, two-inch portland
cementlime plaster cubes were tested for compressive strength at three dates
at the testing lab.

Test Protocol Compression testing of plaster cubes at the testing lab was
conducted according to ASTM C109 “Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. Cube Specimens).” Testing
was conducted using a calibrated United universal testing machine. Field-
testing using the “nutcracker” was based on ASTM C109.

Description of Tests The lab tests are adequately described above in the
protocol description. Four portland cementlime samples were tested at 18
days, four were tested at 29 days and four were tested at 57 days. Six samples
earth plaster mix C and six earth plaster mix E were tested at 57 days.

For the nutcracker tests, refer to the detail photo of the compression
configuration. The two-inch cube samples were placed on the 2x4 tube steel
inserted between the two-inch pipes. The samples were located so that both
the upper surface of the sample and the bottom flange of the lever arm beam
were level at the point of application of the load. In this way, load was applied
uniformly to the sample from the bottom flange of the beam. The bottom of
the beam was also nearly level with the hinge, ensuring that the load was

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applied vertically to the sample. Before applying load, the samples were
cleaned of loose material so the contact surface was as even as possible.

As described in the overview, loads were applied by adding free-weights to a

steel rod attached to the end of the lever arm beam 50 inches from the hinge.
Since the sample was 10 inches from the hinge, the lever advantage was 5,
meaning a one pound load at the end delivered five pounds to the sample. To
account for the self-weight of the system, an initial measured scale reading of
30 pounds at the beam end was considered as equivalent to an initial applied
load of 30 pounds on a weightless beam. It should be noted that since this was
a scale reading, the friction loss in the system (assuming friction was an
absolute and not a proportional value) was already accounted for in the initial
30 pound reading. In other words, 30 pounds read on a scale 50 inches from
the hinge represented 150 pounds of actual load delivered to the sample 10
inches from the hinge. Further free-weight added to the beam end added a
straight 5:1 mechanical advantage to the sample, with friction already taken
into account in the initial 30 pound reading.

Weight was added in 2.5 pound increments to the lever end with at least 5
seconds between loads. Load delivered to the sample equaled 5 times the
applied load (including the 30 pound initial load). Compressive stress in the
sample equaled the sample load divided by the loaded surface area (width
times length). Failure was defined as a 1/8 inch height reduction (6.25%). If
the sample received load beyond the failure point, the final load is shown in
the results. All the samples were tested after 30 days.

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Results of Compression Testing

EBNET - COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TESTS

ALL UNITS IN POUNDS AND INCHES COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN PSI

Lever Arm Ratio = 5.00

Age of all samples - 30 days

Failure Definition = Sample heigSSht reduced by approximately 1/8"

Note: the lever load includes an initial scale measured self weight value of 30
lbs.

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Preliminary Conclusions
The results from the EBNet testing indicate similar strength among the earth
plaster mixes that might be considered workable; that is, all mixes except for
the extremes of no sand (mix A) and no straw (mix G). At the extremes, the
mixes with more straw and less sand tended to “fail” due to their flexibility, and
would reach the 1/8 inch height reduction more easily. Indeed, many of the
A,B and C samples would never reach a point of ultimate failure, but would just
flatten out as more load was applied. The mixes with more sand and less straw
exhibited brittle failure, with the no-straw mix G showing less strength.

The results from the AME testing generally agreed with the EBNet earth plaster
results. Since AME defined failure as the point of non-linearity, the values are
somewhat lower. The relationship between the AME failure stress on C and E
(136psi and 92psi) is similar to the relationship between the EBNet ultimate
stress on C and E (198psi and 153psi). Again, the general tendency is that
higher straw yields greater strength (until the extreme is reached).

The results from the AME portland cement-lime plaster were lower than
expected, probably due to the use of non-type S lime, as previously discussed.
The tested values were about 280psi compared to expected values of about
500-600psi for plaster with type S lime. Also, the final group was tested at 57
days, and we would expect significant strengthening of the cement-lime plaster
over months and years due to the gradual carbonation of calcium hydroxide
into calcium carbonate.

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CONCLUSION
Our project is to enhance the otherwise very low thermal insulation
property of cement plaster, creating a new plaster able to meet real market
and end user demands. The ideology is based on adding some suitable
material from a wide range of insulating materials to the cement plaster
which will enhance its thermal insulation property In mud plaster our
project is to add a material which will enhance the bond between mud
plaster and underlying wall or add a material that will increase the
impermeablity of mud plaster. This will increase the design life of mud
plaster which is the major problem with mud plaster.

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