THE RELEVANCE OF THE YIELD STRESS/ TENSILE STRESS

RATIO IN MODERN MECHANICAL TESTING REQUIREMENTS

BY
MICHAEL WRIGHT *
ROBERT GLODOWSKI**

SYNOPSIS
As more varieties of high strength steels are being considered in the design of new
structures, a question has arisen over the relevance of the yield-tensile ratio on the
advanced behaviour of steels. The yield-tensile ratio has been a standard requirement
in many Global standards for many years now, and has served its purpose well in
traditionally made lower strength level steels. However, it may not be the optimum
parameter required to define the behaviour of today’s steels in the inelastic zone of the
tensile load-elongation curve.

The shape of the engineering stress-strain (load-elongation) curve varies for different
steel types. High strengths steel microstructures in the market today can have
continuous yield curves, or with extended yield plateaus, or a combination of both of
these curvatures. The region of the engineering stress strain curve between the elastic
limit and the ultimate tensile strength can vary considerably in shape, height and length,
and yet can all appear the same if evaluated simply by using the yield-tensile ratio.

The behaviour of the steels inside the plastic deformation zone is becoming more
important for the design of structures to withstand the impact of unexpectedly high
forces that may occur in an irregular manner, such as seismic events or explosive
forces. The yield-tensile ratio may be too simple to assist in understanding and defining
the required properties of the steel in this region of the stress-strain curve. A more
sophisticated material property measurement may be required.

Keywords:

* Bachelor Applied Science (Materials), University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

Managing Director- Modern Metal Solutions Pte Ltd, Singapore.
Michael@modernmetal.com.sg
** Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines and
Technology, Principal – RJG Metallurgical, LLC., Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
bobglodowski@consolidated.net

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Introduction:
The mechanical properties calculated parameter Yield to Tensile Ratio (YTR) was
introduced to Standards in the 1960’s (1) and is appearing more frequently in materials
specifications, Standards and codes. It is readily determined from certified Standard
Tensile testing results, although it is a calculated figure and not a direct measurement,
and due to this it can be applied in integrity measurement situations.

But what is the “Yield to Tensile Ratio” in reality?

 The term “Yield Point” defines the level of Engineering Stress (load/original cross
sectional area) that needs to be applied to a steel sample so that it ceases to
behave in an elastic manner.
 The term “Tensile” refers to the tensile strength which is defined by the maximum
amount of Engineering Stress that can be applied to a steel before the load starts
to drop and failure occurs.
 A ratio is “the quantitative relation between two amounts showing the
number of times one value contains or is contained within the other“.

This calculated parameter was implemented in the 1960’s to set a minimum level on
how many multiples of the yield point it was necessary to be able to stress a metal
beyond its yield without it failing for it to be considered a “ductile” material. The concept
of the YTR itself is simple and easy to determine. Establishing a required value for pass
or fail, and defining why this particular test value has relevance to the material
performance may be less easy to understand. For example, Table 1 shows
requirements for 6 different steels, all increasing in yield strength, but with the same
YTR requirement. Because this is a ratio, the minimum UTS increases further as Yield
increases, and so the “separation” between the Yield and the UTS is increasing. This is
actually requiring the steel producer to be able to metallurgically manipulate the steel’s
UTS independently of the Yield of the material, which is not an easy thing to achieve.

Table 1: Different Steel Strengths

It needs to be remembered that this parameter was just a “convenient” way to ensure a
level of separation between the yield point and the ultimate tensile strength of a
conventionally produced moderate strength level steel in the 1960’s (2). In this day of
high strength, technically advanced steels, it may not necessarily be the “best” way.
There are other characteristics that need to be considered to give an accurate
representation of the behaviour of a steel under tensile stress after the yield point has
been exceeded.
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Basic Knowledge:
Going back to basics, a unique stress-strain curve exists for each material, and is found
by recording the amount of strain (deformation) experienced under tensile loading of a
known cross sectional area of the material (stress). An example is shown below, with
critical points highlighted on the graphic:

Fig 1: Stress-strain Curve Graphic for a steel (3)

O-A: is called the “Region of Proportionality” and is a straight line which indicates that in
this region, stress is linearly proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law) and the body behaves
like a perfectly elastic body. The gradient of the line will be equal to the Elastic Modulus
of the material. Within this zone, if the applied stress is removed, the material will return
to its original shape.
A-B: is the region where the elastic limit occurs, starting the transition from elastic to
plastic deformation behaviour. The elastic limit is difficult to determine in a routine test.
Point B: is called the Yield Strength (or Yield Point if non-uniform elongation occurs).
As you increase the elongation beyond B, the resulting strain will become non-linear to
the stress. That is, it ceases acting in an elastic manner. The elastic limit is therefore the
lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be measured.
Point C: When a material is deformed beyond its elastic limit by increased stress, the
strain increases in a non-linear fashion as the material begins to behave in a plastic
manner. So even if the deforming load is removed, the material will not recover its
original length. The material would follow the dotted line (C-D) on the graph on gradual
reduction of load. The remaining strain at zero stress is known as “permanent set”.
Point E: After the yield point elongation (if any) uniform elongation begins and
continues until the maximum load (Tensile Strength) is achieved.
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Point F: The maximum engineering stress endured by the material is called the ultimate
tensile strength. Beyond Point F, localized strain (necking) occurs with a continuing
reduction of load. The material will eventually fracture.

Generally speaking, if a large deformation takes place between the Yield point (B) and
Ultimate Tensile Strength (F), the material is called “ductile”. If it fails soon after the
elastic limit is crossed, it is called “brittle”.

Fig 2: Stress-strain curves (4).

Curve A on Fig. 2 shows a brittle material. It has broken at the yield point, so the yield
point and ultimate tensile strength will be the same value. It has only elastic behaviour -
there is no plastic behaviour.

Curve B on Fig. 2 shows a high strength material, with only a minimal amount of plastic
behaviour. There is some small separation between the yield point and ultimate tensile
strength.

Curve C on Fig. 2 shows a typical steel curve, with both elastic and plastic behaviour.

Curve D on Fig. 2 shows a fully plastic material, with a very limited elastic response
followed by plastic behaviour as the strain increases continuously with a low application
of stress.

The point of conjecture here is that current Standards & Codes specify how large this
separation between Yield point and Ultimate Tensile Strength needs to be for a material
to be deemed “ductile”? How do you put a figure, or a percentage, onto this? And is this
a true reflection of the material’s ductility??
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The term “ductility” refers to the ability of a material to undergo large deformations
without rupturing. Ductile materials can exceed their elastic limit, and permanently
deform under applied stresses but they do not fail. This prevents a total structural
collapse. Brittle materials will fail suddenly with very little warning, changing loading
within a structure and may lead to progressive total collapse. Ductility includes the
ability to survive large deformations and a capacity to absorb energy by hysteretic
behaviour.

In conventional structural design, the working stress is usually a proportion of the yield
stress (typically 60-80% depending upon the level of loading). This is still well inside the
elastic limit of the material. It is only in cases where the yield point has been exceeded
and plastic behaviour is required to prevent catastrophic failure that the YTR becomes
significant. In the past, the YTR has been identified as a readily measurable and
convenient way to demonstrate a material’s ability to withstand increased stress beyond
the point of plastic deformation. It describes a measure of the material’s capacity to
strain harden.

In Figure 3, all 4 of these curves have the same YTR, but they will all exhibit different
behaviour between the elastic limit and the Ultimate Tensile Stress. As defined by the
YTR alone, they would be identical.

Fig 3: Different Stress-strain curves.

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Historical Practices:
The first limit for Yield to Tensile Ratio (YTR) was introduced in the 1960’s for Tubular
joints. This was set at 0.67 and now is generally acknowledged as being “too severe”,
but still exists as a relic that is handed down through each iteration of the Standard or
Code without being questioned. Other specifications have picked up on the YTR
parameter and added it into their guidelines, but there is not a large body of evidence on
what the optimum YTR level may be for a given product in a set environment.

Table 2: Codes and YTR Limits

Looking at these sample Standards, the YTR requirements can be anywhere between
0.67 and 0.925 depending on code and usage.

Some apparent contradictions are seen here, where the European Code for Pipeline
YTR is 0.88 – 0.93 but if carrying the same dangerous goods in Steel Tankers, the YTR
required is 0.85.

Extending this table out for the given Standards with a defined Yield and YTR, you can
calculate the minimum allowed UTS, and then calculate the “Separation” between the
Yield and the UTS that would make these steels comply with the given standard.

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 Table 3: Codes, YTR and Calculations

For example, in BS 5400 Pt 3 (Bridges), a steel with:

 Yield 380 MPa needs UTS of 513.5 (YTR 0.74), separation = 133 MPa.
 Yield 400 MPa needs UTS of 482, (YTR 0.83), separation = 82 MPa

So why does a 380 MPa Yield steel for Bridges need a much greater separation
between Yield and UTS than a 400 MPa Steel to be considered fit for service?

Plotting the data points from Table 2, it shows no real trend or logic behind the
separation between the Yield and Tensile when it is plotted against the Yield strength in
Figure 4. It can be large, it can be small.

Fig 4: Yield vs Separation.

And in the case of Rebar specifications, a 500 MPa product in the Brazilian
specifications is much more forgiving that the AS/NZS standards. Which level is correct,
if any? And why are they so different?

Table 4: Rebar Codes YTR Comparison

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What options are available regarding YTR?
Historically, a low YTR has been considered to provide a “high” capacity for plastic
deformation, and so a safe margin against fracture. But in reality, the YTR is an
indication of the level of stress the steel will sustain beyond its yield point to reach UTS,
and it is represented as a factor of the original yield stress. The strain component is not
taken into consideration.

A typical stress-strain curve contains significantly more useful information than is

commonly reported in the numerical output delivered by a Test Certificate, and the
entire shape of curve and critical inflexion points should be noted and understood.
Figure 5 shows a “typical” stress strain curve and has denoted key points on the curve
that bear closer examination. It has divided the length of the curve along the strain axis
into an elastic region, a “yielding” section, a “strain hardening” component and the final
“necking” to failure. The “yielding” and “strain hardening” sections cover the section of
the curve we are discussing post yield but prior to UTS.

Fig 5: Typical Stress Strain Curve.

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What options can be seen in Figure 6 to describe the behaviour of a steel beyond its
Yield point but prior to achieving UTS?

 Yield plateau – this depends on the manufacturing process and the strain history
of the steel and is not an intrinsic material property. It is dependent on the
chemical composition, heat treatment, grain size and strain ageing. But is a yield
plateau a positive feature after the steel has yielded? Test laboratories like it as it
makes the yield point readily apparent. But the chart is telling us that at the Yield
point, the steel is elongating with no increase in applied stress. From the
viewpoint of being able to maintain dimensional values, the yield plateau should
be as short as possible, and preferably have some incline.
 Strain hardening is primarily due to dislocations in the steel. It occurs when the
strength of a metal is increased by permanent deformation. When a material is
deformed beyond its plastic limit, the dislocations will begin to move until they are
stopped by something else in the crystalline lattice, such as grain boundaries or
alloying elements. However, one of the most effective dislocation stoppers is
another dislocation. Where dislocations run on different planes and intersect,
they cannot pass through each other. The dislocations pile up against each
other, and can become intertwined, preventing any further permanent
deformation of that particular grain. This increases the strength of the material
but reduces ductility and formability. But it produces a separation between the
yield point and the UTS that is critical for achieving YTR value.

Fig 6: Plastic Region of Typical Curve.

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Evaluating the stress strain curve depicted here, there are several alternative methods
which could be proposed.

1. Looking firstly at the y-axis for applied stress, to give the steel some strength
beyond yield, there needs to be separation between the Yield point and the UTS.
The numerical figure for this is open to debate, and could be varied depending on
the service environment intended for the steel. But to allow illustration of this
example, this figure could be reasonably set at 100 MPa.
2. To complete the “box”, the x-axis of strain then needs also to be defined. The
length of this box would be defined by elongation of the steel after yielding until it
achieves UTS (the elongation at UTS minus elongation at yield). Again, to allow
an illustration of the concept, this figure could be set at 7.5%.

This would then give minimum acceptable limits for both the stress beyond the yield
point and the elongation beyond the yield point. The shaded area would now represent
that “acceptable” area for a 400 MPa steel to attain its UTS value and be considered
“ductile” under the nominated conditions, Figure 7.

If the nominated conditions were extreme, such as in a Seismic environment, these

limits may be increased – maybe up 150 MPa separation between yield point and UTS,
and 10% elongation between yield and UTS – and would reflect the need for the steel to
be perform at a higher level in the post yield situation.

Figure 7 –Acceptable Under under given criteria

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Returning to our theoretical steels from Figure 3, it was shown that the “brittle” steel had
a very limited area under the curve in this nominated region. Of course the ductile steel
would have a very a much larger area under the curve. The “continuous curve” and
“Yield plateau” steel would also have a larger area than the brittle steel, but lower than a
true ductile product. Calculation of the area under the curve by Integration may even
allow a numerical figure to be put to this concept of “ductility beyond yield”.
Brittle
Ductile
Continuous
Yield Plateau

Figure 8 – Area under the StressStrain Curve post Yield

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Discussion:
Modern structural steels are looking to reduce weight (or “dead load”) in structures while
increasing strength levels to give greater economical efficiency in design. Mobile
structures / vehicles are always seeking lightweight designs that may only be realised
using high strength steels. The full exploitation of these steels is being hampered by the
YTR, which is increasingly being seen as an outdated conservative (but convenient)
measurement from the 1960’s and appropriate only for steels from that Technical era.

There is a need for a separation between Yield and UTS for design integrity. But to what
extent does this need to be a factor of the yield value. Why does this degree of
separation need to be intrinsically linked to the yield stress? It could just be a straight
numerical figure. But it would need to be supported by a minimum level of strain
required to produce this separation.

Improvements in production techniques and new developments in alloying design have

allowed the large scale production of high strength steels by techniques such as
Thermo-mechanically Controlled Processing (TMCP), Accelerated Cooling (AC) or
Quench & Temper (QT) routes. (5)These processes result in various microstructures that
will actually alter the shape of the stress strain curve of a steel. The combination of
strength and toughness in modern steels is primarily achieved by promoting a fine grain
size for a given microstructure. These steels can have yield strengths up to 1000 MPa,
and so a “typical” YTR of 0.75 would mean the UTS would need to exceed 1333 MPa.
Modern processing routes have a stronger effect on impeding the movement of
dislocations in the steel which governs yield strength than they do on the UTS.

This means that the yield strength can be moved independantly to the UTS at this stage
of the process by metallurgically sophisticated processing. However it can be difficult
and there are limits to how much this seperation of UTS and YS can be managed. For
each steel grade, there is likely an optimum YTR, and significant deviations fom that
ratio might suggest a microstructural problem. However, the does not mean that the
optimum, or characteristc, value for each grade of steel should be the same, nor does it
mean that a fixed value of YTR insures an acceptable or unacceptable level of
perfomance in the final application.

The region of the stress-strain curve beyond the yield point of a steel is coming under
closer scrutiny now with the development of new design methodologies for steel
structures such as the Generalised Capacity Curve, Reference Resistance Design,
and the Continuous Strength Method (6) which formally permit the full plastic
resistance of a structure to be attained and exceeded. These developments are based
on significant advances in computational modelling that can now treat great structural
and material complexities. However, to become an effective and widespread design
tool, any such new methodology requires reliable knowledge of the post-yield strain
hardening characteristics of the material. At this point in time, these properties are
seldom known with certainty, are not defined in any structural steel materials standard
and are not guaranteed by any steel manufacturer.
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Current knowledge of steels behaviour beyond the yield point is coming under scrutiny
and needs to be understood better. In the future a traditional YTR requirement may
impede steel development and most likely be inadequate for these higher computational
modelling programs.

Conclusion:
The YTR was introduced to Standards in the 1960’s and is now ready to be superseded
by more discerning measurements of a steels behaviour beyond its Yield point. In
modern steelmaking, it does not meet its required task in providing reasonable
confidence of a steels behaviour, and is stifling the development on new high strength
steels. It has become a barrier in the International Standards to actual production of
steels, and is difficult to satisfy and yet is rarely questioned by either the steel producer
of the end user. It is a relic inside the Standards that needs to be set aside.

References:
1. “Structural Integrity Assessment procedures for European Industry” British Steel
plc 1986.
2. “Brief Historical Overview of Yield Strength Determination in ACI 318”, Conrad
Paulson, 2013
3. “Stress-Strain Curve for Metallic Wire”, “Studypage.in”
4. “How does one interpret stress-strain graphs that show yielding, as shown in the
details?” QUORA
5. “Significance of the Yield Stress/tensile Stress ratio to Structural Integrity”, British
Steel plc 1986.
6. “On the gradient of the yield plateau in structural carbon steels”, Sadowski,
Rotter, Stafford, Rienke & Ummenhofer, “Elsevier”, 2017

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