Professional Documents
Culture Documents
STORY
OF
ENGLAND
Christopher
Hibbert
A TOON
THE
STORY
OF
ENGLAND
Christopher
Hibbert
PICTURE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Royal Collection, St. James's Palace © Her Majesty The Queen. Windsor
Castle, Royal Archives © 1992 Her Majesty The Queen. Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford. John Bethell. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Bodleian Library,
Oxford. Bridgeman Art Library. City of Bristol Museum and Art Gallery.
on View (BTA/ETB). British Library, London. British Museum,
Britain
London. Burghley House, Lincolnshire. Cambridge University Library.
J. Allan Cash. Christ Church, Oxford. Mary Evans Picture Library.
Giraudon, Paris. Glasgow University Library. Guildhall Library, London.
Susan Griggs Agency. Sonia Halliday and Laura Lushington. Michael Holford.
Imperial War Museum, London. A.F. Kersting. Lanark Conservation Trust.
David Lyons, Event Horizons. Mansell Collection. Magdalene College,
Cambridge. Museum of London. National Army Museum, London. National
Maritime Museum, London. National Portrait Gallery, London. National
Postal Museum. Phaidon Archives. Popperfoto. Prado Museum, Madrid.
Public Record Office, Crown Copyright. Frank Spooner Pictures. Society of
Antiquaries. Homer Sykes/Network Photographers. Trinity College Library,
Cambridge. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Dean and Chapter of
Westminster Abbey. Woodmansterne. Adam Woolfitt.
A CIP catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
Author's Note
2 Roman Britain 18
55 BC to 450
3 Anglo-Saxons 26
450 to 1066
4 Norman Rule 42
1066-1154
5 The House of Plantagenet 58
1154-1215
6 Crown and People 70
1215-1381
Maps 190
1 The West Country 2 Southern and Eastern England
3 Northern England 4 Central London
5 Civil War Locations 6 Cathedrals and Country Houses
Genealogies 1 96
1 Anglo-Saxon Kings 2 Normans and Plantagenets 1066 - 1485
3 The House of Tudor 1485 - 1603 4 Stuarts and Hanoverians
1603-1837 5 Descendants of Queen Victoria 1837-
Index 219
AUTHOR'S NOTE
Christopher Hibbert
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Previous page One day towards the middle of the seventeenth century
Prehistoric monoliths at
John Aubrey, a young law student at the Middle Temple,
Stonehenge, Wiltshire.
set out to explore the countryside around his father's estate
in Wiltshire. Near the village of Avebury he came upon an
extraordinary circle of huge stones which seemed to him to
comprise an ancient monument 'as much surpassing
Stonehenge as a cathedral doth a parish church'. Remark-
able as the monument was and long as it had stood there,
however, Aubrey's was the first detailed account of it. Even
so, it aroused little interest. Seventy years later, in his Tour
through the whole Island of Great Britain of 1724-6,
Daniel Defoe did not consider Avebury worthy of remark;
and, later on in the eighteenth century, when a local farmer
decided to clear the ground for ploughing, several of the
larger stones were pushed over into a pit filled with burning
straw and smashed into fragments with sledge hammers.
Stonehenge was treated less cavalierly; but it was not until
recent times that any serious attempt was made to uncover
the secrets of its history. Instead, tales were told of esoteric
ceremonies, of priestly incantations, of human sacrifices
12
reasons why they were so arranged remain a mystery,
though the aUgnment of the Central Stone at Stonehenge
with the Heel Stone - over which the sun rises on midsum-
mer mornings - suggests a sanctuary connected with a sun
cult. At monuments can now be dated with some
least the
bands. These were the Celts, a taller fairer race than the
people who had come before, members of tribes which had
long been settled in present-day France, Belgium and south-
ern Germany and which were now moving west, retreating
from more warlike tribes harassing them from the east.
abstract art decorated not only war shields and the hilts of 2
swords but the backs of bronze looking-glasses and the lids ^
of jewellery boxes. Certainly, when they made their appear- >
ance on the field of battle, they presented an awesome sight <
in their chariots surrounded by warriors wearing no u
03
armour, their hair long, their naked bodies dyed with woad. \^
Yet for most of the time their people seem to have lived at B
peace with one another, marrying not only within their own ^
17
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Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded Britain for
the first time in 55 BC, partly to gather information about
the island of which so little was then known and partly to
punish the Belgae who had helped their fellow tribesmen in
their fight against the conquering Romans in Gaul, the land
LuUingstone, Kent.
ing farms, it has been possible to reconstruct the pleasant 1st century AD,
found at Radnage,
life then enjoyed by the well-to-do under the protection of
Buckinghamshire.
Roman rule. Togas seem to have been worn in the Roman
fashion and shoes or sandals of leather. In cold weather
rooms, attractively furnished and handsomely decorated
with porphyry and marble, bronze ornaments and terra-
cotta figurines, were kept warm by heated flues beneath
mosaic-patterned floors. In those rooms where meals were
eaten there were blue and amber glass dishes and bowls,
silver plates, knives and spoons, oil lamps and candlesticks.
In bedrooms there were mirrors and boxwood combs on
dressing-tables, ointment jars and scent bottles, ear-picks,
24
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ing Roman landmark in the country. K
Overrun and partially demolished by tribesmen from the §
north in 368, the Wall was again attacked in 383 and the ^
sentries in its turrets and the
...
soldiers in its forts were slaugh-
^
2
tered out of hand. By now the Empire itself was beginning «
"^
to crumble into ruins; and in Britain one legion after
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Previous page: The enemies of the Romanized Britons closed in upon them
The Bayeux Tapestry, fj-Qm every side. Fierce tattooed tribesmen rampaged down
embroidered soon after the r r i i i i -i i i i i
Norman Conquest of
^^^^ Scotland; Other marauders sailed across the turbulent
England in 1066. Irish Sea in their light skin-and-wood boats called curraghs,
massacring the farmers and fishermen along the western
coasts; while, surging through the waters of the North Sea,
came the shallow-draught ships of the Saxons, users of the
seax or short-sword, and their northern neighbours, the
Jutes, who fished and farmed in what is now southern
Denmark, and the Germanic tribe, the Angles, who were to
give their name to the English people.
Fair men with long hair and beards, clothed in thick,
coarse shirts and trousers, in cloaks to which skins were
sewn by their women to give them extra warmth when they
were used as blankets at night, these raiders from across the
North Sea carried iron-spiked spears, battle-axes and round
wooden shields covered with hide as well as short-swords.
Ruthless, violent men exulting in their animal energy,
driving their victims before them like terrified sheep, as their
war horns and savage shouts spread terror along the coasts,
they pillaged and looted, raped and murdered, then sailed
home again to their homes on the Continental mainland.
But soon, tempted by the good farmlands of Britain, they
began to settle in the island, establishing small communities
of rough huts around the wooden halls of their thanes.
In446 the Britons made a final, forlorn plea for help from
Rome; then, since no help was forthcoming, they turned -
or so it seems from the confused and incomplete records of
these times - to a powerful chieftain, Vortigern, who pro-
posed bringing over as mercenaries a strong Saxon war
party. These men, led apparently by two Jutish chiefs
named Hengist and Horsa, established themselves on the
Isle of Thanet, an area of rich farmland off the Kentish
coast. At first all went well; but then the settlers, calling over
friends and reinforcements, demanded more and more land
and more generous payments until at length the quarrels
28 between them and the Britons flared into open war. The
Britons were defeated; the Saxons advanced; and, according
to the Venerable Bede, the Northumbrian monk whose
History is our chief source of knowledge for this period, the
cruel times and that, rather than endure them, several fam-
ilies escaped across the Channel to the old Roman province
of Armorica in the first of three stages of migration which
eventually gave a Celtic language as well as the name of
Brittany to this Atlantic peninsula of France. Other families
apparently escaped to the west of Britain where a tribal
leader named Ambrosius, evidently of Roman descent,
offered shelter to the fugitives and to all those prepared to
take up arms in defence of the old culture.
While the invaders continued to advance - one band of
immigrants settling down in the kingdom of the South
Saxons, which has given its name to the present-day county
of Sussex, others establishing the kingdoms of the East
Saxons (Essex) and of the West Saxons (Wessex) - further
to the west along the borders of Wales and in Dumnonia,
the peninsula occupied today by the counties of Devon and
Cornwall, Roman Britain contrived to survive.
According to Gildas, a sixth-century chronicler who emi-
grated to Wales from Scotland where his father's estates
were being constantly overrun by Pictish marauders, the
Romanized Britons and British tribes threatened by the
Saxon invaders flocked to Ambrosius's banner 'as eagerly
as bees when a storm is brewing'. Presumably to protect 29
themselves from the foreign marauders, and their cattle
from raids by other British tribes, they built a series of
earthworks, among them the Wansdyke, a massive ridge
that stretches fifty miles from Inkpen m what is now
Berkshire, across Savernake Forest and the Marlborough
Downs to the Bristol Channel; and, behind this earthwork,
they seem to have withstood attack and even to have won
the occasional battle. It was at this time that there arose the
ruler. King Offa - who built the great earthwork known as Offa, King of Mercia, from
a painting in St. Albans
Offa's Dyke along his western borders to keep out the
Cathedral, whose Abbey
Welsh - controlled for a long time virtually all central, he is said to have founded.
I
A page from the Gospels cerity, he had allowed him to preach to his people and
illuminated on the island within a few months Ethelbert had become a Christian
I
ofLmdisfarneinthe
himself. He provided Augustine with a house for his fol-
I
former priests.
achieved.
As Christianity spread in England, churches were built all
33
as the Church received bequests and grants of land so its
riches and influence grew year by year.
It was this increasingly Christian England, slowly evolv-
ing into a unified state, which was threatened by the Vikings
and the Danes who, well established in the north, were by
the middle of the ninth century posing a threat to the
Saxon
kingdom Wessex whose capital was at Winchester.
of
Here a remarkable young man had come to the throne in
871. This was Alfred, scholar, lawgiver, warrior and king,
the first great statesman to emerge clearly from the mists of
early English history. Of his physical appearance little can
be said with confidence, but his biographer and friend,
Asser, Bishop of Sherborne, painted a portrait of a man of
exceptional gifts, devout and humane, devoted to the
welfare of his people, as brave in battle as he was studious
in scholarship, always careful to make the best use of his
endeavour.
In battle against the Danes at Ashdown in the Berkshire
Anglo-Saxon ring belong- unrecognized fugitive for allowing her cakes to burn by the
ing to King Alfred's sister. fire.
fnumi
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His eldest son, Edward, was stabbed to death while he was
still a boy; another son, Ethelred, who was crowned by St
39
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William, Duke of Normandy, the Conqueror, was then
nearly forty years old; but it is difficult to say much more
about him as a man with any certainty. He seems to have
been about five feet ten inches in height, far taller than his
minute wife, very strong and rather fat with reddish hair
and a harsh, guttural voice. He was violent, domineering,
calculating and avaricious, a man to fear. But he was
abstemious, a pious Christian and, illegitimate himself, a
faithful husband.
Vikings by origin and Vikings still by inclination - so
William I, the Conqueror, holds one side in a continuing debate - he and his followers
e rs o e orman
iny^jje^j England
^ to deprive
^ the people
island's r- f of their
kings, depicted in the
Bayeux Tapestry, liberty, to kill their brave and noble King Harold, 'the hero
and the martyr of our native freedom'. This was the testa-
reviouspage:
^^q^^^ according to Professor E. A. Freeman whose classic
Elaborate carving on
the south porch of the History Of the Norman Conquest was published in five
ruler who would treat them justly if they gave him their
L
barons and earls thus rewarded with this land became
tenants-in-chief of the King, to whom they were obliged to
swear loyalt}- and for whom they were required, when nec-
essan". to perform military service with an appropriate
number of They were also required, when sum-
knights.
moned, on the Grand Council - the successor of the
to ser\ e
Witan. the council of the Anglo-Saxon kings - from which
Parliament was eventually to develop. The tenants-in-chief
retained as much of the land granted them as they w^ished,
distributing the rest to knights as sub-tenants who in turn
built like a church with a nave and two side aisles, since
Norman churches.
parishes, neighbourhoods within the counties which have
survived virtually unchanged into our own time. There
were relatively few people in the north which had been dev-
astated so remorselessly in the years immediately following
the conquest: in Yorkshire there were perhaps no more than
thirty thousand people, and whole of the north prob-
in the
ably no more than four people to the square mile. But few
counties in the south had fewer than fifty thousand each.
There were about seventy thousand in Devon, ninety thou-
lived in villages, since all but the five largest towns had less
Romanesque doorway
in England.
50
born Lanfranc - whom he had summoned from Normandy
to install as Archbishop of Canterbury - to bring a charac-
teristic Norman efficiency into the administration of eccle-
that his monks thought that he too might die. Stephen, Henry I.
54
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not rake kindly to the thought of Matilda as their Queen.
^
She had lived so long abroad that she seemed to them a for- ^
eigner; moreover they considered her far too autocratic and 7
masterful for a woman. Indeed, in the opinion of one
^
was woman who, ^
observer, Annulf of Lisieux, she a apart
from her undoubted beauty, had 'nothing of the female in
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59
It was claimed by one of the men about his constantly peri-
patetic court that the hands of Henry II, the first of the kings
of theHouse of Plantagenet, were never empty: they always
held either a bow or a book. He was certainly addicted to
hunting, which he pursued with a ferocious energy. At the
same time he had more learning than any European
"
-
_ monarch of his time. From his earliest youth he had been
'imbued with letters and instructed in good manners
Royal sealshowine Kins; ,
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battle.
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beseemmg& a youth
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or his rank and, byj
the time he came to :
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in Canterbury Cathedral, ^^d the Jordan, though evidently not of English. He never
lost his love of literature nor his taste for intellectual discus-
sion which he would carry on far into the night after a long
and it has since been emphasized how far the legal institu-
hand while he walked three paces. His hand was then sealed
by the priest and if after three days a blister the size of a
walnut had appeared he was declared guilty.
In trials by combat, which were still occasionally taking
took place. Women and the old and infirm were excused
from fighting personally and were allowed to appoint
champions on their behalf. So were priests. Priests were also
excused trial by ordeal and were required instead to eat a
62 piece of bread and cheese before the altar. A prayer was
made to God to send down the archangel Gabriel to stop
the throat of the priest if he were guilty. If he managed to eat
the food he was presumed innocent. The clergy had other
privileges, too: when accused of a crime they could be pun-
ished only in ecclesiastical courts and if found guilty there,
while they might be unfrocked, they were more likely to be
sentenced merely to suffer penances. In time this Benefit of
Clergy came to be accepted as a plea against capital punish-
ment in any court and could be claimed not only by priests
and monks but by anyone accused of crime who could
produce evidence that he was an educated man. The ability
to read a few lines of a prescribed text - which illiterate pris-
oners often learned by heart with the help of accommodat-
ing gaolers - was taken as being sufficient evidence of
education.
It was these exceptional privileges enjoyed by the clergy
which brought King Henry into collision with the Church.
His efforts to encourage a common law and to extend the
scope of royal jurisdiction had not aroused much opposi-
tion from the barons, most of whom were happy enough to
see the power of the more unpleasant of their number
reduced for the sake of good order in the realm. But his
Archbishop of Canterbury.
This Archbishop was Thomas Becket, son of a Norman
merchant who had settled in London. A young man of
exceptional gifts and striking personality, he had been
appointed Chancellor of England, the King's chief secre-
tary, before he was forty, the first man born in England to
have held so high an office since the Conquest; and he had
become so intimate a friend of the King that they were said
to be inseparable. A year after Becket became Archbishop,
a canon of Bedford was acquitted on a murder charge in the
The body was buried next day in the crypt and almost
immediatelv the grave became a place of pilgrimage, as it
cally, the captain of his guard had the man flayed alive, and
all his companions hanged, when the castle was captured.
John, who now succeeded to the English throne, bore no
resemblance to his brother, either in character or in appear-
ance, although he was attractive when he chose to be, par-
ticularly to women for whom he had an appetite as keen as
his father's. Scarcely more than five feet tall, he was good
looking with widely-set eyes, long curly hair and a neatly
trimmed beard. But of his character little that was favour-
able was ever said. One Victorian historian described him
as 'a monster of iniquity', another as 'mean, false, vindic-
that he had not only murdered his nephew, son of his older
brother, Geoffrey, who was the rightful heir to the throne,
but had also hanged his wife's admirers from her bedposts.
It was true that John was an ingenious soldier; that, while
67
philistine, and had a well-chosen selection of books; that
gnawing sticks and straw, his face mottled with blue spots.
His violent protests were of no avail. In the end, with the
utmost reluctance, he was obliged to put his seal to the
Charter on 19 June.
69
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Previous page: Despite the importance subsequently attached to the
Effigy of the Black Prince
Magna Carta both in Britain and the United States, the doc-
on his tomb in Canterbury
Cathedral.
ument was less the declaration of human rights it has often
been supposed to be than a statement of the feudal and legal
Head of King Henry III solately to the abbey of Swineshead, which had been
from the effigy on his tomb founded by the Cistercians, an order of monks, an offshoot
in Westminster Abbey.
of the Benedictines, one of the several monastic orders
which had established abbeys in England since the founda-
tion of St Augustine's monastery at Canterbury towards the
end of the sixth century. Here, after finishing one of his
barons in their quarrel to a head; and in 1258 it was demanded of Henry that he
with Henry III.
should appoint a new Great Council of twenty-four
members, half of whom were to be nominated by the
barons themselves. The members of this Council made their
way with their armed retinues to Oxford where they called
upon the King to rule with the advice of a smaller Council
of fifteen nobles and bishops to be appointed by the recently
created Great Council.
Encouraged by his wife and the Pope to defy the barons,
Henry claimed that the Provisions of Oxford, which were a
he saw the size of the enemy host, 'for our bodies are theirs.'
So it proved to be. The resultant clash was a massacre rather
than a battle; and Simon himself was hacked to pieces, the
dismembered parts of his body being despatched for public
display in towns which had supported him. Prince Edward,
now twenty-six years old, took over the administration of
the realm from his father who had been wounded in the
HK Effigy of Eleanor of
Edward, who had taken the cross on the Eighth Crusade,
was in Sicily when news reached him of his father's death in
1272; but since the realm was reportedly tranquil and in
good hands, he made no haste in his journey home, sending
Castile, wife of Edward I,
79
also be seen in the nave of Fountains Abbey and the retro-
choir of Chichester Cathedral.
While the masons were at work at Chichester, Edward I's
in 1308. army, at least three times the size of his own, marched
against him he skilfully outmanoeuvred it, trapped it in a
The King's son who ordered the making of this tomb and
came to the throne as Edward III in 1327 seemed to be in
many ways the very antithesis of his father. Like him he was
extravagant, ostentatious and intemperate; but, whereas
Effigy of Edward II from
the father was craven, the son was extravagantly brave;
his tomb in Gloucester
and, while Edward II had been an actor manque^ Edward III Cathedral, a 14th-century
thought of himself as an Arthurian knight, living in a lost masterpiece.
of Crecy in 1346.
82
After his earlier victories Edward III had returned home
in triumph with wagonloads of plunder, clothes and furs,
feather beds and the spoils of foreign cities. It was said that
'all England was filled with the spoils of the King's expedi-
tion, so that there was not a woman who did not wear some
ornament, or have in her house fine linen or some goblet,
part of the booty' brought home.
Yet the wild extravagance of the victors' celebrations
seemed to some chroniclers wickedly wanton, in particular
the Conquest, with the possible exception of Henry I, to regaha of the Order of the
Garter.
have been able to speak English - 'Honi soit qui mal y
pense' ('shame on him who thinks ill of it'), thus providing
the motto of the oldest extant order of knighthood in
Europe.
This was in 1348, a year in which the festivities at
Windsor seemed all the more reprehensible to the chroni-
clers, for it was the dreadful year in which 'the cruel pesti-
lence, terrible to all future ages, came from parts over the
84
But the Black Death, a fearful visitation which contributed
much to the macabre nature of later medieval literature,
was undoubtedly the main cause of the dramiatic fall in pop-
ulation and of the acceleration of far-reaching changes
already noticeable in English society.
The sharp decline in the population of England naturally
resulted in an acute labour shortage as w^ell as a plentiful
supply of land for the surviving peasants. Many peasants
v^ere able to increase their holdings by taking over the fields
of those who had died; others, who had no land, were able
to demand greater rewards for their services and went off to
other manors if they did not get them. The King, preoccu-
pied with his foreign wars and, in his premature senility,
A peasant harvesting, ir
with his rapacious mistress, Alice Ferrers, allowed the gov-
the years following the
ernment to fall into the hands of his fourth son, John of Black Death.
Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, who was thought to be intent on
gaining a controlling influence over the King's grandson,
later Richard II, or even to be contriving to gain the crown
for himself. In an effort to overcome their financial and
social problems the government in 1351 issued a Statute of
Richard II, the Black
Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for Prince's son, who came to
more wages or for their employers to pay more than the the throne in 1377.
rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace, the local gentry
with judicial powers to try cases relating to public order in
87
Sir Geoffrey Luttrell,
his wife and daughter-in-
law, from his family's
psalter c. 1340.
lashed out at the man with the flat of his sword, knocking
him off his horse to the ground where he was stabbed to
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am your captain. Follow me.' Responding to this plea, they ^
rode away with him towards Clerkenwell where they dis- qs
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Although the wearisome daily round of a farm labourer
changed little during the fourteenth century, society was
slowly being transformed nevertheless, and there was
beginning to be discerned a gradual shift in the balance of
power. Not only were industrious peasants increasing their
holdings in the aftermath of the Black Death; not only were
those who had no holdings successfully pressing for higher
rewards for their labour; but landlords were being obliged
by the labour shortage to let land either for money rent or
for payment in kind, while many of their tenants were
becoming quite prosperous yeomen farmers whose interests
The cloisters of Gloucester Indeed, the decline in arable farming continued long into the
Cathedral, completed
next century as the demand for wool and its price increased
in 1412.
and ship after ship sailed with exports to the Continent. To
create more land for sheep, arable fields were made into
pasture; and whole villages were destroyed and their inhab-
itants evicted to make way for new flocks. At the same time
ous examples of the comfortable houses being built by mer- Lavenham, Suffolk.
increasing use of gunpowder and the power of cannon had De Regi mine Principum,
published shortly after his
rendered the most sturdy defences vulnerable to assault.
death in 1400.
Bricks were not a new building material. Imported from
the Continent and known as Flanders tiles, they had been
used since the beginning of the thirteenth century when
Little Wenham Hall had been built on the borders of Suffolk
and Essex. This, however, was an unusual example until the
Compton Wynyates,
theMarquess of
Northampton's early
Tudor house in
Warwickshire.
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guage not only of ordinary people but also of the law courts,
'In the name of Fadir Son and Holy Ghost, I Henry of
Lancaster chalenge this Rewme of Ingland and the Corone.'
The Archbishops of York and Canterbury had led him to the
throne vacated by the deposed Richard II and, soon after-
wards, he had been anointed with the oil which the Virgin
Mary had miraculously given to St Thomas in his exile.
man, though the long and prominent nose, the thin eye-
brows, the high smooth brow, the very red and tightly com-
pressed lips and the heavy lantern jaw are features no longer
admired. His energy was legendary and men looking at him
found grounds for hope that his father's reign, which had
opened with usurpation, rebellion, plague and persecution
and had ended in fear, lassitude and gloom, would be fol-
V \ ;'
98
\^^^^'fT^y^ "^sbBIBBiBMBBB t i
victory,Henry was able to impose humiliating terms upon
the French King whose daughter he married and whose heir
he became. The leadership of all Christendom was now
within his grasp and his thoughts turned to a new crusade
against the Infidel. But his health broke down in the
summer of 1422 and at the age of thirty-five he died at
Vincennes. His body was embalmed and brought home to
England to be interred in Westminster Abbey in a resplen-
inspired epitome, Joan of Arc, was to lose all that his father
had fought for by the time the Hundred Years' War ended
ml453.
Henry VI, who was
only eight months old at the time of
was to lose more than France. A kind, simple-
his accession,
o
I
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103
According to a tradition preserved by Shakespeare, when
Henry Tudor was brought to London as a boy to be pre-
sented to Henry VI, the King, struck by the inteUigence of
his looks, declared, 'Lo, surely, this is he to whom both we
and our adversaries shall hereafter give place.'
land for the time being' might well have seemed well
phrased to them, had they ever heard of it. Yet profound
changes were, nevertheless, taking place. The ideas of the
Renaissance, that flowering of art, literature and politics
under the influence of Greek and Roman models, which had 105
begun in northern Italy in the previous century or earUer,
was now spreading across Europe and inducing men and
women to regard themselves and their lives in relation to
the world in which they lived rather than to the superhu-
man world of the old-fashioned theologians and school-
men. This was the age of John Colet, Dean of St Paul's
mother. Lady Margaret Beaufort, foundress of St John's Henry VII, the first of the
College and Christ's College, Cambridge, and had spent Tudor monarchs.
coarsely that he had been 'six miles into Spain'; but his bride
maintained that she was still a virgin at his death. The Pope
was accordingly persuaded to grant a dispensation so that
she could marry his younger brother, Henry, who had by
then become King of England.
Henry VIII was an attractive young man of high intelli- Henry VIII, from a portrait
gence, numerous accomplishments and boundless self- by Hans Holbein.
subjects.
The King pursued his pleasures and interests with a seem-
ingly tireless energy; but to work he brought little of the
SirThomas More, who
was executed in 1535,
with his father, household
and descendants.
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. crying out, 'Make way for my Lord's Grace!' It was natural
that the King should turn to Wolsey when, tired of
Catherine of Aragon, who had given him a daughter but no
living son - and obsessively worried by the biblical text:
Rome and the Dissolution dismantling of the abbeys, the transfer of their properties
of the Monasteries, and lands to the Crown, and their sale, through the Court
Radegund. The money from very few was used for the
endowment of charitable and educational establishments,
as the reforming clergy had hoped, though Trinity College,
Cambridge was founded by the King in 1546, not long after
Christ Church, originally Cardinal's College, had been
founded by Wolsey at Oxford following the demolition of
the Augustinian St Frideswide's Priory.
By the time most of the abbeys had been transferred to
Jane Seymour,
their new owners in 1541, Henry VIII was fifty years old.
Henry VIII's third wife,
The handsome, young man had become grossly fat; his
lithe themother of his heir
fair features had coarsened; he inspired more fear than Edward VI.
admiration. Anne Boleyn, increasingly petulant and hyster-
ical, had been beheaded, condemned to death on charges of
adultery with several men, including her brother; the King's
third wife, Jane Seymour, had died in childbirth, having
given him his longed-for son, Edward; the arrival in
A painting of 1549
depicting Edward VI
and the Pope stunned
by a Bible.
12
3
o
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III
K
o
sermons urging on the Reformation which had brought him 3
a prisoner to the Tower - returned to the pulpit to express ro
Well aware that his fall from power was likely to be as ii3
sudden as Somerset's if the King were to be succeeded by his
half-sister and rightful heir, Mary - the devoutly Roman
Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon - Northumber-
land endeavoured to secure a Protestant succession with the
ready complicity of the dying King. He hastily arranged for
Lady Jane Grey, the King's cousin
the marriage of his son to
and a granddaughter of a younger sister of Henry VIII.
On the afternoon of 6 July 1553, King Edw^ard died at the
age of fifteen, poisoned by the medicines that his physicians
Yet Mary who presided over this bloodshed was not 1553 to 1558.
changing it, as eager to take all the credit for her govern- Parliament.
slap her ladies and even her ministers and councillors when
they annoyed her. They all acknowledged her authority but
often pursued policies in direct opposition to her wishes,
keeping important documents from her sight and encourag-
ing ambassadors to give her misleading reports. Fortunately
they were for the most part themselves men of exceptional
talent. Among them were Sir William Cecil, later Lord
Burghley, industrious, trustworthy, a master of statecraft; William Cecil, 1st Baron
Sir Francis Walsingham, the wily, brilliant organizer of a Burghley, Elizabeth I's
faithful minister.
network of agents unparalleled in Europe; Sir Christopher
Hatton, Lord Chancellor and skilled manipulator of the
House of Commons. Her court was indeed a busy hive of
genius where intellectual gifts and gallantry were valued
more than high birth, where even those who were its most
decorative and dashing denizens, like the handsome and
adored Earl of Leicester, and Sir Walter Ralegh, soldier,
navigator, poet, historian and chemist, were men of excep-
tional ability. Musicians, artists and men of letters were
encouraged at court as well as such adventurers as
Hawkins, Frobisher and Sir Francis Drake who brought
English shipwrights
working on plans in
Elizabeth's time.
19
1 J
where Protestant rebels were in revolt against their Spanish
masters. But the Spanish galleys proved no match for the
more manoeuvrable smaller British ships and, having suf-
victory over the celebrated for its stirring patriotism to the troops assembled
Spanish fleet. at Tilbury - returned to her familiar cheese-paring, denying
money to her crews and adequate support to her naval com-
manders. Yet all over the realm, immense sums were being
spent on houses built by men who had been allowed to
make vast fortunes through the remunerative offices,
"'f^mm
Little Moreton Hall,
Cheshire, a characteristic
half-timbered manor house
of the Tudor period.
House, Lincolnshire.
stone; a few, like Little Moreton Hall, that astonishing
black and white creation in Cheshire to which William
Moreton added the jettied gatehouse in the 1550s, were of
wood; many were in the shape of an E - supposedly in
flattery of Elizabeth - as was Charlecote Park where
121
v^#r#
,, It'->;
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Gtiufo
Fawkes 91
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123
Previous page: In her great bedchamber at Richmond Palace in the early
Contemporary engraving morning of 24 March 1603 Queen Elizabeth turned her
of Guy Fawkes and the
Gunpowder Plot
white and wrinkled face to the wall and died. Three hours
Conspirators, 1605. later, as soon as it was light, a messenger galloped away to
Edinburgh to inform her kinsman King James VI of
Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, that he was
King now, too, of England.
A few years later, after the arrival in London of this
the first of the Stuart monarchs, Ben Jonson's Masque of
Augures was performed in the recently completed
Banqueting House in Whitehall. Nothing could have more
fittingly symbolized the opening of a new age. The
Opening of Parliament.
It was, however, not so much the Catholics as the radical
Protestants whom the King saw as the 'chiefest enemies' of
by Van Dyck.
- who declared, 'I do not like the quarrel and heartily wish g
^
the King would yield.' Many who might have supported the
King, if only out of the simple loyalty displayed by Verney,
hung back: was harvest time for one thing; and, for
it
was forfeit. This meant that those who would have been
happy to stay neutral were virtually obliged to fight in their
own defence; and men whose fortunes might have been lost
had Parliament won, now undertook to raise troops to fight
30
But there were no clear lines of division. Hundreds of fami-
lies were split in their loyalties; many changed from side to
132
The execution of Charles I
England.
Dealing ruthlessly with his other enemies, he imprisoned
or shot mutineers in his army; crushed without mercy a
rebellion in Ireland; routed the Scots who had proclaimed
Charles I's son their King; won a final victory over his
enemies in September 1651 at Worcester; constructed a
fleet with which Admiral Blake defeated the Dutch; sup-
pressed the Levellers who, led by John Lilburne, proposed a
radical political programme not at all to his taste; and furi-
ously dissolved the so-called Rump, the ineffective remnant
of the Long Parliament that had survived a purge by one of Reverse of the Great Seal
Cromwell forcibly
dissolving the so-called
'Rump' of the Long
Parliament in April 1653.
134
^i^^OF BRITTAYM
Cromwell supervising
the destruction of the
monarchy, symbolized
by 'the Royall Oake'.
the father had been defeated, so too might the son be.
future the problem for the monarch was not how to defeat
Parliament but how to influence the rival political parties
that alternately controlled a majority of its seats, until the
135
u-^.
m:
10 E
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HI
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139
Previous page: 'The shouting and joy expressed by all' at King Charles IPs
The iron bridge over
restoration to the throne was, so Samuel Pepys recorded in
the river Severn near
Telford in Shropshire,
his diary, 'past imagination'. There were fireworks and
completed in 1779. bonfires and dancing in the streets; church bells rang and
cannon roared as the King rode into the capital accompa-
nied by an immense retinue of gentlemen in doublets of
cloth of silver and velvet coats, of footmen in purple liver-
ies, and soldiers in buff uniforms trimmed with silver lace.
Not only royalists but all except the most diehard republi-
cans welcomed the return of the monarchy, and they were
not to be disappointed. The new King showed himself
anxious to placate his former enemies as well as to reward
They were given offices at court and in govern-
his friends.
140
Chapel, opposite St James's Palace refurnished for his
Portuguese wife, Catherine of Braganza. He extended the
royal aviary, the site of the present Birdcage Walk, and he
improved Constitution Hill w^hich is believed to have got its
Paul's Cathedral.
Sir Christopher Wren, Worship in most of these churches was now conducted in
m 1685.
and. lea\-ing no legitimate heir, was succeeded b\' his
145
I'.arly I Sth-ccntiiry view of
the docks and quay at
market were poorly paid, but prices were also low and
remained so until the 1760s; the average worker in both
town and country was better off, if only slightly better, in
time of war, had long since died; and the victories owed as
much to the brilliant statesmanship of William Pitt, Earl of
Chatham, the Prime Minister, as they did to the generals in
the field. George I had also died and had been succeeded by
his son, George II, who, towards the end of his life, was
James Gillray's 1792
content to leave the government largely in the hands of his
caricature of 'the
Bottomless Pitt', a satire ministers. This was a policy not to the taste of his grandson,
on the Prime Minister's George III, an honest and kindly man with a most obstinate
exaggerated attenuation
sense of duty, ill-advised by his mother and his 'dearest
below the waist.
friend' and chief minister, the handsome and unexceptional
Earl of Bute, to exercise to the full such royal powers as
remained to him, particularly in the choice of ministers and
in the exercise of patronage, the right to control the
appointment to various offices, above all to offices pre-
sented to Members of Parliament, by which the Crown
could manipulate voting in both Houses.
George Ill's attempts to rule through the 'King's friends'
rather than through the Whig oligarchy and the Cabinet,
the committee of the leading members of the government,
George III had to consign which the Whigs controlled, soon led the well-meaning
authority to his son as
King into difficulties. One of his most scurrilous and effec-
Prince Regent in 1811
when incapacitated
tive opponents was the demagogue, John Wilkes, the 'most
by porphyria. wicked and agreeable fellow' whom William Pitt had ever
met. A profligate rake of great intelligence who charmed
even Samuel Johnson, Wilkes was both a Member of
Parliament and founder of the North Briton, a waspish
periodical which the government attempted to suppress.
The \'ear before London had been the terrifying scene of the
uorst riots in English history when an anti-Catholic
demonstration, representing an age-old prejudice against
papists as probably traitorous adherents of a foreign reli-
These calls were repeated a few years later when it was 151
feared that repercussions from the Revolution in France
would disturb the stability of England. It was at this time
that Parliament passed the Combination Acts forbidding
the forming of two or more people into a union for the
purpose of obtaining a wage increase or better working
conditions. But it was from the Revolution's heir, Napoleon
Bonaparte, who threatened the country from without,
rather than from such English working-class revolution-
aries as the Luddites, who smashed the machines which
were putting men out of work, that the real danger to the
Horatio Nelson, England's country came; and, while a series of towers - known as
greatest and vainest
Martello Towers, after the tower at Cap Mortella where
admiral.
British troops had fought in Corsica - were built along the
southern and western coasts, urgent efforts were made to
bring the navy up to a strength capable of resisting the
French invasion forces. After Lord Nelson's brilliant
death in 1820.
Exasperating as Wellington so often found the unpre-
dictable 'blackguard', George IV, the Duke was forced to
conclude that he was not only 'devilish entertaining' but 'a
lifetime, Carlton House Terrace being built upon its site and
in its gardens. At the same time the King's favourite archi-
tect, John Nash, was commissioned to build an even finer
palace to take its place. This new palace, Buckingham
Palace, was not finished until long after the King was dead.
But George IV did live to see the realization of most of
Nash's marvellous designs for Regent's Park and Regent
Street in which he took the closest interest. He also saw to
completion Nash's gorgeous Brighton Pavilion which took
the place of an earlier Graeco-Roman style seaside house
and was decorated and furnished for him in an Oriental Si
T
modelled upon
lactones ot the growing towns. 1 here were, to be sure, rac-
a Roman original, tories where the conditions of work were considered
exemplary. For instance in that gloomy area of the Mid-
lands known as the Black Country - where the restored
bottle kilns of the Gladstone Pottery Museum at Longton
provide a vivid impression of the work once undertaken
there - Josiah Wedgwood's employees lived under then-
master's firm paternalistic care in a model village, Etruria,
which had been especially built for them. And in
Cabinet while they were having dinner and to carry off the
heads of the Home and Foreign Secretaries in bags.
Betrayed to the authorities, five of the ringleaders were
hanged. They were spared being drawn and quartered "The Peterloo Massacre' of
1819 in Manchester where
because of public sympathy; but even so the hangman was
several demonstrators i^
attacked in the street and almost castrated. Ten years later, were killed bv veomanrv.
in protests against low wages and farm machinery, there
were serious riots all over England as gangs of men with
blackened faces, sometimes in women's clothes and often
carrying flags and blowing horns, cut down fences,
destroyed machinery and burnt down ricks and barns. Men
who declined to join in the rioting were thrown into village
ponds; and parties of yeomanry called out to suppress it
i' !
^ Sr,
!>^".<?.~
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Previous page:
The Great Exhibition,
inspired by Prince Albert,
was held in the specially
Todmorden, Yorkshire, a
typical Victorian industrial
landscape.
161
more enlightened methods into their own concerns, had
strenuously supported the Factory Act of 1819 which gave
a measure of protection to children employed in industry.
way
Prime Mmisrer. 1834-5 for a paid constabulary in all the counties of England. In
and 1841-6. 1829 Roman Catholics were at last granted full civil and
political rights by the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act.
And, at the general election oi 1830, the ^X'higs under Lord
Grey were returned to power after more than half a century
in opposition and turned their minds to the problem of par-
liamentary reform.
see the King, George IV's brother William IV, that the
problem was resolved. Grey proposed that the King should
number of new peers to ensure the passage
create a sufficient
of the The King, naturally reluctant to do so - since such
Bill.
and shivering with fright before she left for Osborne, ex-
pressed her profound relief that the trouble was over, that
the workmen, misled by professional agitators and the
'criminals and refuse of London', remained loyal after all.
in 1834.
170
1860s new government offices were required along
Whitehall Lord Palmerston received vociferous support
when he insisted that they should be in Italianate rather
Charles Stuart Parnell, the Scottish home, Balmoral, was an absurd idea, just such a
Irish nationalist whose one as might have been expected from this 'wild incompre-
career was ruined after
hg^sible ... half-mad firebrand'. If only Disraeli had lived all
he had been cited in
a divorce case,
would have been different. But Disraeli had died in 1881
and now lay buried in the village churchyard near his
country house at Hughenden.
Had he and his party wished it, Disraeli might have per-
suaded the Queen to regard Home Rule with less hostility.
By his ingratiating tact and fulsome flattery, by the impres-
sion he gave of needing to consult her and have the advice
of her astute mind, he contrived on occasions to change it.
He recognized himself that he often 'laid it on rather thick'
with his coaxing blandishments. But, as he said to Matthew
Arnold, 'You have heard me called a flatterer, and it is true.
son to pay the widow due respects: he kissed Mrs George V (left), and
Edward VIII in a sailor
Gladstone's hand at the funeral and, to his mother's annoy-
suit.
ance, played the part of pall-bearer. Three years later the
Queen, too, was dead; and the age to which she had given a
name died with her.
The term Victorian was already in use in 1875 when
Victoria had over a quarter of a century to live. It has been
taken to imply a regard for hard work and thrift, strict
175
12 I
III
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O
ON
177
The King who came to the throne in 1901 and who gave his
name to the Edwardian era, is remembered for none of the
staid Victorian virtues which might have been expected
from a man born in 1841 but rather for his self-indulgence
Previous page: belle epoque. Beneath the glittering surface of society there
St Paul's Cathedral
was widespread poverty, bitterness and unrest. Yet year by
in the Blitz.
year, by slow degrees, reforms continued to come and the
quality of life for the mass of the people gradually im-
proved, with advances undreamed of a century before in
i
introduced for Members of Parliament who, soon after-
country for heroes to live in'. For a time it appeared that this
promise might be fulfilled. But the post-war boom was over ENLIST TO- DAY
within two years and w^as followed by a long period of
depression, strikes and hunger marches. By 1921 there were
over two million unemployed. The next year Lloyd George
was obliged to resign, never to return to office, and to
witness the eclipse of the Liberals by the Labour Party as the
main opposition to the Conservatives. He was succeeded by
the Conservatives under Bonar Law, followed by Stanley
Baldwin, a square-faced, pipe-smoking, seemingly lethargic
man, then by a Labour government under Ramsay
MacDonald, then m 1924 by Baldwin again.
In 1926 a General Strike was called in support of the
miners who, after its failure, were forced by hunger to
return to work with longer hours and lower wages even
than before. Yet, outside the mining districts, the strike
right).
182
their own, were surprised to discover how much in common
they shared.
It was an opportunity for the 'lasting peace' for which the
King called. But, although Baldwin, too, was a moderate
man, pressing always for conciliation rather than con-
GOLDERS GREEN evokes a vivid image of those days of the 1 930s when Stuart
184 Hibberd wore a dinner jacket to read the news at the
recently built Broadcasting House, when George V's son,
Ill
the future, unfortunate, King Edward VIII, could have been
seen dancing with Mrs Dudley Ward at the Embassy Club,
when Glamorous Night was delighting audi-
Ivor Novello's
ences at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and there were
long queues outside cinemas showing Shirley Temple in
Curly Top.
To most of these pleasure-seekers of the 1930s the eco-
nomic problems of the country seemed far away. Indeed, by
the middle of the decade politicians were informing them, in
the words of Neville Chamberlain, Baldwin's Chancellor of
the Exchequer and soon to become Prime Minister, 'that we
have recovered in this country 80 per cent of our prosper- Churchi in characteristic
attire.
ity'. The story of Bleak House was over, he announced, and
the people could now sit down to enjoy the first chapter of
Great Expectations.
Soon afterwards the Italian Fascist dictator, Benito
Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia and the German Chancellor,
Adolf Hitler, reoccupied the Rhineland of which Germany
had been deprived by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, whose
harsh terms had made a future European war almost
inevitable. In 1938 German troops entered Austria; in 1939
they seized Czechoslovakia; then Hitler turned upon
Children trying out their
Poland; and Chamberlain, who had done all he could to
gas masks at the beginning
avoid fighting by a policy of appeasement, was obliged to of the Second World War.
declare war on Germany, whose well-trained army crossed
the Polish frontier on 1 September after Hitler had signed a
non-aggression pact with Russia.
Chamberlain was not the man to lead his country in such
a crisis; and Churchill, his First Lord of the Admiralty, took
over as Prime Minister, directed the fortunes of his country
with erratic brilliance for five years, and at the general elec-
tion of 1945 was heavily defeated at the polls by voters
anxious that Britain should not return to the politics of the
1920s and 1930s when Churchill, as Home Secretary at the
time of the General Strike, had misguidedly referred to the
workers as 'the enemy'. 185
The leader of the Labour Party which now came to
NEVER WAS so MUCH
power - with an absolute majority in the House of
OWED BY SO MANY Commons for the first time in its history - was Clement
Atlee, a restrained, laconic man who might well have been
mistaken for the manager of a small bank and whose great
gifts were so well concealed by a veneer of imperturbable
diffidence that Churchill is supposed, in a characteristic
respect'. Much was achieved under her leadership which The European flag adopted
was brought to a sudden end by her own party in 1990 by the European
Community in 1986.
when she was succeeded by the comparatively little-
known John Major; but much remains to be done by future
governments.
By the beginning of the 1980s the English were falling
189
I
Liverpool
Anglesey
Beaumarisi
Conway
Chester
Caernarfon
Stoke-on-Trent^
Llangollen Longton
Harlech
Shrewsbury
Ironbridge*
Ludlow (
Worcester
Cardigan
Hereford,
Brecon Gloucester
Carmarthen^
Pembroke
Berkeley
Chepstow
Swansea
Caerphilly
Cardiff^
Bristol
Bath
Bradford-on-Avon*
Steeple Ashton
Wells ^
*Glastonbury
iarnstaple
^ Huish Episcopi
Taunton*
^Cadbury Castle
Yeovil*
Exeter* Dorchester
• Wadebridge
• Flvmouth
I
Truro
30 miles
, ,
30 miles
Sheffield
iChesterfield
Lincoln
>Tattershall
I Nottinghj
Derby •
Fakenhar
Salle
'
King's Lynn
Norwich
Leicester n^i^u-.^^ Great
Bradgate Park • Yarmouth
^ Peterborough
Dudley
Rockingham* • Fotheringhay
• Birmingham jThetford
« Coventry • ^
Kenilworth« Brixworth
^ury St Edmunds ^
,y; •
Warwick-
.
. • Earl's Barton
Northampton*
lampton Framlingham »
Cambridge
.
Aldeburgh*
Stratford-on-Avon ^^^
Bedford •
Long Melford • # Ipswich
Evesham
Little Wenham •
9 Banbury *
Colchester
# Cheltenha
^Woodstock
Chedworth * Aylesbury Chelmsford
Oxford • %
St Albans
•Cirencester •Abingdon
„ London
«Eton •
Avebu ry Reading, Isle of Sheppey
^ ^^^^•^ Greenwich*
^Windmill Hill , Newbury Rochester*
•West Kennett •Silchester Faversham
Devizes
Maidstone* Canterbury
•Basingstoke , Guildford
Dover
•Stonehenge Folkstone ^ •
Tunbridge w/.u.^
t.,„u.;^„„ Wells*
Salisbury* ^Winchester
^ g^.g^ton Hastings
^« '
Isle of Wight
,
30 mUes
Hadrian's Wall
Durham*
Darlington
Whitby*
Grasmere Richmond
Kendal
Rievaulx
Jervaulx^
Scarborough
Ripon
Fountains (
Harrogate • ,York
Wakefield •
Blackstone Edge
Grimsby #
% Manchester .Doncaster
Liverpool
Sheffield
• Chesterfield
• Chester
, , ,
Kensington
Palace •
Apsley House
(Wellington Museum
Hyde Park Comer
Albert Memorial
KNIGHTSBRIDGE Buckingham
Royal Albert Hall
Palace
KENSINGTON Harrods,
Belgravia Square
Brompton
Science Museum Oratory i
Armv/^The Royal
National
Museum >^ Hospital
CHELSEA
1^
Marston Moor 2 July 1644
Adwalton Moor •
2June-13July 1643
•Shrewsbury ^Leicester
11 MiAi.
T
13Julvl643
'
1
« .„ ^^^'^^ ^ -^
50 miles
^ Cathedral
A Countr}' House
Seaton Delaval a
^Carlisle
Durham •
Rvda! Mount
Brantwood
Castle Howard
Ripon» A
Allerton Park A ^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^
•York
Harewood House
(Liverpool
AChatsworth Lincoln
Chester- A Hardvvick Hall
Moreton Hall A
Little .Southwell
Holkham Hal!
Wollaton Hall A SandringhaiTiyk A
Shugborough a Harlaxton A
Hough,o„Hal|A,_^^,A„^„
Manor
Lichfield • Burghley House A
• Peterborough Norwich
Hagley Hall^
(
> Coventry • Elv
Charlecote Park
*Holdenby
*^
Worcester •
ASulgrave ^Woburn Abbey
Hereford • Manor
Sezincote
,St David's
Gloucester ^ A^Blenheim Palace St Albans
• Oxford
Kelmscott
^ Hughenden^ ^Clare„,on,
Lacock Abbey,
Bristol' ^ ,
A London •
Bath
"Littlecote Rochester
\S7p11c*
Wells» t 1
Longleat Canterburv-
•Guildford
Stourhead
^ ^f'^^"^>' Winchester
^Mottisfont Abbey Brighton
MontacuteA Wilto^*
Chichester
i A A Pavilion
.
Exeter Petworth
i
A
Osborne House
Truro
50 miles
rj
Anglo-Saxon Kings
Up to C.800 the most important kings only are listed; from the reign of Egbert
onwards a succession emerges of kings who are effectively rulers of the whole
of England
Matilda I
(1) Emperor Henry V William Stephen
(d.ll67) (d.ll25) Duke of Normandy (1135-1154)
( 2 Geoffrey Plantagenet
) ( d . 1 1 1 9
(Count of Anjou and Maine)
(d.ll51)
Edward I
Joan of Kent John of Gaunt I Blanche Edmund I
Isabella of Castile
Prince of Wales (d.l385) Duke of Lancaster of Lancaster Duke of York
(Black Prince)
(d.l376)
,
(m.l536-d.l537)
(2) James I
(James VI of Scotland)
(1603-1625)
198
1 1 )
Henry Elizabeth I
Frederick V Charles I Henrietta Maria
Prince of Wales (d.l662) Elector Palatine ( 1 625- 1 649 dr of Henry IV of France
(d.l612) of the Rhine (d.l669)
(d.l632)
Charles II
'
Katherine James II I
( 1 ) Anne Hyde Mary I
William
(1660-1685) ofBraganza (1685-1688) (d.l671) (d.l660) of Orange
(d.l705) (d.l701) (2) Mary of Modena
(d.1718')
Charlotte Victoria
(d.l817) (183^-1901)
Descendants of Queen Victoria
George V i
Mary of Teck Victoria Louis of Battenburg
(1910-1936) ,
(d.l953) (d.l950)
Edward VIII Mrs Ernest Simpson George VI Lady Elizabeth Alice Prince Andrew
Duke of "VCindsor (1936-1952) Bowes-Lvon of Battenburg of Greece
(1936 abdicated) (d.l969) (d.l944)
Philip
(Later Duke of Edmburgh)
\ Lady Diana Spe ncer Anne C pt Mark PhiUi 3S Andrew Sa rah Ferguson Edward .
200
5000 1000
• 218 BC Hannibal crosses the Alps • 216 Baths of Caracalla built in Rome
• 49 Foundation of Colchester
• c50 Foundation of London
• 51 King Caractacus defeated
• 61 Rebellion of Iceni under Boudicca
• 70-84 Conquest of Wales and north
• c75 Fishbourne Palace built
4{)() 600
• 751 Eai
byGfean Heruls
letian
Constantine
istantine founds new city of Constantinople
• 376 Visigoths cross Danube
• c397 Saint Augustine's Confessions
is
• c446 Romano-British make last appeal for help from the Emperor Valentinian
• c450 Contact between Rome and Britain severed
lin
re
1 700
• 1729 Pope's
• 1733
BC AD 200
• 218 BC Hannibal crosses the Alps • 216 Baths of Caracalla built in Rome
• 49 Foundation of Colchester
• c50 Foundation of London
• 51 King Caractacus defeated
• 61 Rebellion of Iceni under Boudicca
• 70-84 Conquest of Wales and north
• c75 Fishbourne Palace built
er^r
1050 1100
m
• 1123 St Bartholome]
• 1125 William of A
.1131-2 Tin,
• 1133 Fir.
9*MI
'irst
1150
•
• 1147-9 Second Crusade • 1194-1260 Chartres Cathedral buih • 1234 Moi Isovc
• 1155 Frederick Barbarossa crowned Emperor • 1197 Richard I builds Chateau Gaillard • 1235 Be^Ci
• 1158 Frederick Barbarossa restores in France • cl236
imperial rule in north Italy • 1200 University of Paris granted Charter • 12 Monj
• 1163 Notre Dame, Paris begun #1201 Fourth Crusade begins 2,^e
• 1153 Henry of Anjou invades England • 1214 At battle of Bouvines King P ipD
• 1162 Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury • 1215 Civil war in England; King
• 1170 Becket murdered #1216 French army lands in Ken
• 1173 William the Lion, King of Scotland • 1216 Accession of Henry III
• 1152 Henry of Anjou (Henry II) marries Eleanor of Aquitaine • 1209 King John excommunicated
gPll5 II Augustus of France defeats King John • 1290 Jews expelled from England ,
•t
Ibim
Rome
1
• 1378 Beginning of Great Schism
thedral
CO
IS work on Florence campanile
? Ponte Vecchio, Florence completed
» 1349-51 Boccaccio's Decameron
I • 1356 Ottoman Turks invade Europe
I • 1366 Petrarch's Sonnets
• 1368-1644 Ming dynasty in China
illl
founded
IPs tomb, Gloucester Cathdral begun
47 Pembroke College, Cambridge founded
348 Foundation of the Order of the Garter
1349 Great East Windov^^, Gloucester Cathedral
• c 1 350 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
• 1459 Defe
i
1386 Salisbury Cathedral clock
• 1387 William of Wykeham founds Winchester College
.1387-1400 Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
. 1390 John Gower's Confessio Amantis
. 1392 Wells Cathedral Clock
. cl400 The Wilton Diptych
• 1412-20 John Lydgate's Troy Book
. cl420 Fan vaulting at Gloucester Cathedral
• 1422-1529 Paston family letters
m
ses movable type • 1517 Luther's 95 Theses published
ii •1518 Titian's The Assumption
• 1477 Botticelli's Primavera • 1521 Fall of Aztec Empire
• 1480 Ivan IV defeats Golden Horde • 1521 Diet of Worms signals beginning of Reformation
• 1482 Torquemada appointed Inquisitor General • 1527 Sack of Rome
1 • 1487 Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope • 1529 Turks besiege Vienna
• 1492 Fall of Granada • 1533 Fall of Inca empire
ce • 1492 Christopher Columbus lands in West Indies • 1534 Foundation of Society of Jesus
ij • 1495 Leonardo's Last Supper • 1535 Cartier discovers St Lawrence River
tTIorence • 1498 Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut, India • 1536 Calvin goes to Geneva
tS. Marco, Florence • 1498 Savonarola executed • 1543 Copernicus's De Revolutiotiis
( #1471 Edward IV defeats Earl of Warwick at Tewkesbury • 1542 Battle of Sol way
Oxford founc
Cambridge begun • 1563 Fox
orted' Arthur • ifOR
wmmmm
160C 1625
• 1587 Rose Theatre opened • 1602 Bodleian Library opened 1632 Van Dycl
• 1587 Burghley House completed • 1605 Shakespeare's King Lear and Macbeth • 1633-40 Wi
• 1589 Hakluyt's Voyages • 1605 Bacon's Advancement of Learning
• 1590 Sidney's Arcadia • 161 1 Authorized Version of The Bible
• 1590-6 Spenser's Faerie Queene • cl611 Shakespeare's The Tempest
• 1590 Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great • 1614 Ralegh's History of the World
• cl590 Shakespeare's Henry VI • 1615 Coal used in manufacture of glass
dfc ded • cl592 Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors • 1616 Death of Shakespeare
brid founded • cl594 Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet • 1622 Inigo Jones's Banqueting House fii
und( • 1598 Ben Jonson's Every Man in his Humour • 1627 Queen's Chapel, St Jai
) Royal Exchange opened • 1599 Globe Theatre completed • 1629 Rubens's Feace c
wn
Prime Ministers
Reign of King George 11 Robert Peel 1841 Stanley Baldwin 1924
(1727-1760) (Tory) (Conservative) November)
(4
Robert Walpole .
1727 Lord John Russell 1846 James Ramsay MacDonald 1929
Earl of Wilmington 17.41 (Whig) (Labour coalition from 1931)
Henry Pelham 1743 Earl of Derby 1852 Stanley Baldwin 1935
Duke of Newcastle 1754 (Tory) (23 February) (Conservative)
Duke of Devonshire 1756 Earl of Aberdeen 1852
Duke of Newcastle 1757 (Tory Coalition) (19 December) Reign of King Edward Viil
Viscount Palmerston 1855 (1936)
Reign of King George ill (Liberal) Stanley Baldwin 1936
(1760-1820) Earl of Derby 1858 (Conservative)
Duke of Newcastle 1760 (Conservative)
Earl of Bute 1762 Viscount Palmerston 1859 Reign of King George Vi
George Grenville 1763 (Liberal) (1936-1952)
Marquess of Rockingham 1765 Earl Russell 1865 Stanley Baldwin 1936
Earl of Chatham 1766 (Liberal) (Conservative)
Duke of Grafton 1768 Earl of Derby 1866 Neville Chamberlain 1937
Lord North 1770 (Conservative) (Conservative)
Marquess of Rockingham 1782 Benjamin Disraeli 1868 Winston Churchill 1940
(27 March) (Conservative) (27 February) (Coalition)
Earl of Shelburne 1782 William Ewart Gladstone 1868 Clement Attlee 1945
(4 July) (Liberal) (3 December) (Labour)
Duke of Portland 1783 Benjamin Disraeli 1874 Winston Churchill 1951
(2 April) (Conservative) (Conservative)
William Pitt (the You nger) 1783 William Ewart Gladstone 1880
(19 December) (Liberal) Reign of Elizabeth 11
• 1729 Pope'^
• 1733
,
1750 1800
#
i e of the Alamo •1861-5 American Civil War . 1 879 Edison's electric light .1917 USA enter
I
1844 French war in • lS6nurgene\'s Fathers and Sons • 1882 Daimler's petrol engine • 1917 Russian R
Morocco • 1864 Pasteur invents pasteurization #1888 Van Gogh's Sunflowers • 1922 Mi
• 1847 Liberia becomes • 1865 Lincoln assassinated • 1894 Dreyfus Case • 1924
independent • 1867 Typewriter invented • 1895 Marconi's wireless ;
• 1848 Communist Manifesto • 1867 Marx's Das Kapital • 1896 Chekhov's The Seagull • ]
• 1850 Taiping rebellion • 1869 Suez Canal opened • 1898 Curies discover radium
\ • 1851 Verdi's Rigoletto • 1870 Franco-Prussian War • 1900 Boxer Rebellion
• 1851 Melville's Moby Dick • 1873 Tolstoy's Anna Karenina • 1904 Freud's Psychopathology
• 1852 Napoleon III • 1874 First Impressionist Exhibition of Everyday Life
;r Bolivar proclaimed Emperor • 1876 Bell's telephone • 1905 Russian-Japanese War
no • 1856 Flaubert's Madame • 1876 Wagner's Ring cycle performed • 1905 Einstein's theory of relativity
S( oert Bovary • 1876 Degas's Dancing Class • 1905 Cezanne's Les Grandes Baig
n Paris • 1860 Garibaldi proclaims • 1879 Dostoyevsky's The Brothers • 1907 Picasso's Les Demoiselles
ndependence Victor Emmanuel King of Italy Karamazov • 1915 D.W. Griffith's B/rf/?
3>olished in British Empire • 1876 Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India •1917 Battle of P
mik
930 1970
<• 1929 Vote for women over 21 • 1969 North Sea oil discovered
• 1929 Second Labour government • 1973 Joined European Common Market
• 1 93 1 National government led by Ramsay Macdonald • 1974 Miners' strike
• 1938 Chamberlain and Hitler at Munich • 1981 Social Democratic Party founded
• 1939-45 Second World War . 1982 Falklands War
introduced • 1940 Battle of Britain • 1983 Conservatives re-elected
)mme and Jutland • 1944 D-Day invasion of France • 1990 Mrs Thatcher
asschendaele • 1945 Labour government under Attlee resigns; John Major
jf Versailles 1951 Festival of Britain becomes Prime
First Labour government • 1956 Invasion of Suez Minister
:
and Lovers • 1953 Bacon's Study after Velazquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X
I Heartbreak House • 1954 Amis's Lucky Jim
erford and Chadwick split the atom • 1956 Osborne's Look Back in Anger
)t's The Wasteland • 1962 Coventry Cathedral consecrated
ce's Ulysses 1976 Lasdun's National Theatre
16 Baird invents television • 1983 Burrell Collection Museum,
• 1930 Waugh's Vtle Bodies Glasgow opened
• 1932 Broadcasting House built • 1983 William Golding wins Nobel
• 1935 Watson-Watt devises radar Prize for Literature
Prime Ministers
Reign of King George 11 Robert Peel 1841 Stanley Baldwin 1924
(1727-1760) {Tory) {Conservative) November)
(4
Robert Walpole Mil Lord John Russell 1846 James Ramsay MacDonald 1929
Earl of Wilmington 1741 {Whig) {Labour coalition from 1931)
Henry Pelham 1743 Earl of Derby 1852 Stanley Baldwin 1935
Duke of Newcastle 1754 {Tory) (23 February) {Conservative)
Duke of Devonshire 1756 Earl of Aberdeen 1852
Duke of Newcastle 1757 {Tory Coalition) {19 December) Reign of King Edward VIII
Viscount Palmerston 1855 (1936)
Reign of King George ill {Liberal) Stanley Baldwin 1936
(1760-1820) Earl of Derby 1858 {Conservative)
Duke of Newcastle 1760 {Conservative)
Earl of Bute 1762 Viscount Palmerston 1859 Reign of King George VI
George Grenville 1763 {Liberal) (1936-1952)
Marquess of Rockingham 1765 Earl Russell 1865 Stanley Baldwin 1936
Earl of Chatham 1766 {Liberal) {Conservative)
Duke of Grafton 1768 Earl of Derby 1866 Neville Chamberlain 1937
Lord North 1770 {Conservative) {Conservative)
Marquess of Rockingham 1782 Benjamin Disraeli 1868 Winston Churchill 1940
{17 March) {Conservative) {17 February) (Coalition)
Earl of Shelburne 1782 WiUiam Ewart Gladstone 1868 Clement Attlee 1945
{4 July) {Liberal) {3 December) (Labour)
Duke of Portland 1783 Benjamin Disraeli 1874 Winston Churchill 1951
(2 April) {Conservative) (Conservative)
William Pitt (the Younger) 1783 William Ewart Gladstone 1880
{19 December) {Liberal) Reign of Elizabeth II
Chichester, 22; Cathedral, 109, 113, 115 Dudley Castle, 114 183
8 Crecy, Battle of, 82 Dunstan, St, Archbishop of Elizabeth I, Queen (1533-
(Christianity, 32-4, 37 Cripps, Sir Stafford (1889- Canterbury (924-88), 36 1603), 116-20, 124, 127
churches, 33, 49, 50 1952), 186 Durham, 45; Cathedral, 50 Elizabeth of York, Queen
Churchill, Sir Winston Cromwell, Oliver (1599- (1465-1503), 101, 106
(1875-1965), 179, 185, 1658), 131-2, 133-4 Earls Barton, Saxon church, Ellesmere Port, 155
187 Cromwell, Richard (1626- 33 Ely Cathedral, 134
Cirencester, 22 1712), 134 East India Company, 118, Ely, Reginald, 101
Civil War, 129-33 Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of 149, 151 enclosure of land, 113
Claudius Roman Emperor
I, Essex (I485?-1540), 110, Eden, Sir Anthony, later 1st Erasmus, Desiderius
(10 BC-AD 54), 20 111 Earl of Avon (1897- (c. 1466-1536), 106
Claremont, 149 crusades, 65, 76 1977), 187, 188 Essex, 3rd Earl of (1591-
220 Clement VII, Pope (r.l523- Culloden, Battle of, 148 Edgar the Atheling 1646), 131
Ethelberr, King of Kent Cornwall(d.l312), 80 Hadrian, Roman Emperor Holbein, Hans the younger
(552P-616), 32 Gay, John (1685-1732), 148 (76-138), 24 (1497/8-1543), 107
Ethelfleda, 'the Lady of the General Strike, 182, 185 Hadrian's Wall, 24 Holden, Charles (1875-
Mercians' (d. 918?), 36 Geoffrey de Mandeville Hagley Hall, 149 1960), 184
Ethelred II, 'the Unready', (d.ll44), 56 Hakluyt, Richard (1552- Holdenby House, 120
KingofEngland(968?- Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count 1616), 118 Holkham Hall, 149
1016), 37 ofAnjou (1113-50), 54 Hampden, John (1594- Hoppner, John 1758- (
Eton College, 96 George I, (1660-1727), 147, 1643), 131, 132 1810), 153
European Economic 150 Handel, George Frederick Horsa(d.455),28
Community, 188 George II (1683-1760), 150 (1685-1759), 148 Houghton Hall, 149
Evelyn, John (1620-1706), George III (1738-1820), Hardie,JamesKeir(1856- Hughenden, 174
141,142 150, 151, 152 1915), 181 Huish Episcopi, 95
Evesham, Batde of, 75 George IV (1762-1830), Hardwick Hall, 120 Humfrey, Duke of
Exeter, 22, 45 152-3; Prince Regent, 152 Hargreaves, James (d.l778), Gloucester (1391-1447),
George V( 1865-1936), 180 155 101
Fairfax, 3rd Baron (1612- George VI, 151 Harlaxton Manor, 170 Hunt, William Holman
71), 131 Gibbons, Grinling (1648- Harlech Castle, 76 (1827-1910), 171
Faversham Abbey, 57 1720), 141 Harold II Godwinson, King
Fawkes, Guy (1570-1606), Gibbons, Orlando (1583- of the English (1022?-66), Iceni,21
125 1625), 118 38,44 Iffley church, 49, 50
Ferdinand II, King of Gilbert, Sir Alfred (1854- Harvey, William (1578- India, 118, 149, 172,173,
Aragon (1452-1516). 1934), 163 1657), 124 187
106, 107 Gilbert, William (1540- Hastings, battle of, 39 Industrial Revolution, 154-5
feudalism, 46-7 1603), 124 Hatton, Sir Christopher Ireland, 104, 166, 173-4,
Fielding, Henry (1707-54), Gildas(516?-570?), 15,29 (1540-91), 117, 120 175,181
148 Gladstone Pottery Museum, Hawkins, Sir John (1532- Ireton,Henry (1611-51),
Fishbourne, 23 156 95), 117 131
Flambard, Rannulf Gladstone, William Ewart Hawksmoor, Nicholas Ironbridge, 156
(d.lI28),53 (1809-98), 167, 172,173, (1661-1736), 142 Isabella of Angouleme,
Flamsteed, John ( 1 646- 174-5 Heath, Edward (b. 1916), Queen (d. 1246), 73
1719), 141 Glasier, John, 101 188 Isabella of France, Queen
Fotheringhay Castle, 1 19 Glastonbury, 16 Hengist (d.488), 28 (1292-1358), 82, 98
Fountains Abbey, 43, 80, Glorious Revolution, 144 Henry of Blois (d.ll71), Isabella, Queen of Castile
110 Gloucester, 22, 72; 55 (1451-1504), 106
Fox, Charles James (1749- Cathedral, 81,95 Henry I (1068-1 135), 53-4,
1806), 150 Goldsmith, Oliver (1728- 82 Jacobites, 144, 147, 148
Foxe, John (1516-87), 115 74), 148, 154 Henryll (1133-89), 57-65 James I (1566-1625), 124-6
Foxe, Richard (1448?- Gordon, Charles George Henry III (1207-72), 72-5, James II (1633-1701), 143,
1528), 104 (1833-85), 173 87 147
Framlingham Castle, 1 14 Gordon, Lord George Henry IV (1367-1413), James IV, King of Scotland
France, battle of Quebec, (1751-93), 162-3 Bolingbroke, 96; King, 97 (1473-1513), 106
149; English claims to Grand Tour, 149 Henry V (1387-1422), 97-9 James V, King of Scotland
throne of, 82, 98; Gray, Thomas (1716-71), Henry VI (1421-71), 96, 99, (1512-42), 119
HundredYearsWar, 81- 148 100, 104 Jane Seymour, Queen
2;Napoleonic Wars, 152; Great Britain, 156 Henry VII (1457-1509), (1509?-37), 111
Seven Years War, 149; Great Exhibition, 169, 186 101-5, 107,119 Jarman, Edward (d.l668),
Treaties of Utrecht, 145; Great Fire, 142, 145 Henry VIII (1491-1547), 145
war with, 72 Greenwich, see London 107-12 Jeffreys, George, 1st Baron
Eraser, Simon (1726-8), 162 Gregory, Gregory de Eigne, Herschel, Sir William (1738- Jeffreys, 143
Frobisher, Sir Martin 170 1822), 154 Jervaulx Abbey, 110
(1535?-94), 117 Grey, 2nd Earl (1764-1845), Herstmonceux Castle, 95 Jews, 68, 73, 76, 134, 167
162,163,164 Hibberd, Stuart (1893- JoanofArc, St(c.l412-31),
Gainsborough, Thomas Grey, Lady Jane (1537-54), 1983), 184 99
(1727-88), 148, 153 114 Hilda, St (614-80), 32 Joan, Countess of Salisbury,
Gama, Vasco da 1460- ( Grey,Johnde(d.l214), 68 Hilliard, Nicholas (1537- 83
1524), 106 Griffith, Sir Henry, 120 1619), 118 John of Gaunt, Duke of
Garter, Order of the, 83 Grosseteste, Robert Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945), Lancaster (1340-99), 85,
Gaulle, Charles de( 1890- (d.l253),79 185 87, 101
1970), 188 Gunpowder Plot, 125 Hogarth, William (1697- John, King (1167P-1216),
Gaveston, Piers, Earl of Guthrum (d.890), 34 1764), 148 65. 66-72 221
Johnson, Samuel (1709-84), Lawrence, Sir Thomas 79; Midland Hotel, St Lyttelton, 1st Baron (1709-
150, 151, 154 (1769-1830), 153 Pancras, 170; National 73i, 149
Jones, Inigo (1573-1652), Le Notre, Andre (1613- Gallery, 153; National
124, 140 1700), 141 Theatre, 187; Natural McAdam, John ^756-
Jonson, Ben (1573?-1637), Leicester, Lord Robert History Museum, 170; 1836^ 155
124 Dudley, 1st Earl of Pall Mall, 141; Macaulay, Baron (1800-
Jutes, 28 (1532P-88), 117, 120 Parliament, Houses of 1859), 144
Leo X, Pope 'r.1513-21 , 170; Piccadilly Circus, MacDonald, Ramsay (1866-
Kelmscott, 171 109 163; Public Record 1937), 181, 182
Kenilworth Castle, 48, 120 Levellers, 133 Office, 48, 73; Royal Macmillan, Harold, later 1st
Kett, Robert (d.l549), 113 Lewes , Battle of, 49; Castle, Albert Hall, 170; Royal Earl of Stockton (1894-
Keynes, John Maynard, 74 Courts of Justice, 170; 1986), 188
later Baron Keynes (1883- Lilburne, John fl614r-57;, Royal Exchange, 145; Magna Carta, 68, 72
1946,, 183 133 Royal Festival Hall, 186; Maiden Castle, 15
Kingston upon Hull, 95 Lincoln, 22; Cathedral, 78 Royal Hospital, Chelsea, Major, John (b.l943), 189
Kirkstall Abbey, 110 Lindisfarne, 32 140; Royal Institution, Malory, Thomas (d.l471),
Kitchener, 1st Earl ^850- Little Moreton Hall, 121 154; Royal Naval 101
1916), 173 Little Wenham Hall, 95 College, 141; Royal Manchester Town Hall, 170
Knights Templar, 79 Llewelyn ap Gruffydd Observatory, 141; St Margaret of Anjou, Queen
Knowsley Park, 52 (d.l282), 76 Bartholomew the Great, (1430-82), 99
Lloyd George, David, later Bartholomew's
50; St Margaret Tudor, Queen of
Labouchere, Henry fl798- 1st Earl Lloyd-George Hospital, 124; St James's Scotland (1489-1541),
1869j, 175 (1863-1945), 179, 180, Palace, 141, 142; St 106
Labour Party, 182, 186 181, 182 James's Park, 141; St Marlborough, 1st Duke of
Lacock Abbey, 110 Locke, John (1632-1704), James's Square, 141; St (1650-1722), 52, 144,
Lancaster, Sir James 141 John Clerkenwell, Priory- 145
(d.l618), 118 Lollards, 86 Church of, 88, 113; St Marlowe, Christopher
Lancaster, Thomas, Earl of London, anti-Catholic riots, John in the Tower, 50; St (1564-93), 118
'1277?-1322), 80 151; capital of Roman John's Gate, 113; St Marston Moor, Battle of,
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Britain, 21; Christianity, Margaret's Westminster, 132
Canterbury (1005P-89), 32; destruction of 113; St Pancras Station, Martello towers, 152
51 Londinium port, 21; and 170; St Paul's Cathedral, Martin, Kingdey (1897-
Langton, Stephen, Norman invasion, 45; 106, 142; St Paul's, 1969), 183
Archbishop of population increase, 37, Covent Garden, 140; Mary Queen of Scots (1542-
Canterbury ^d.l228), 68, 147; topography: Albert Savoy Palace, 87; Science 87), 119, 124
-3 Memorial, 169; All Museum, 170; Mary I Tudor, Queen
Lasdun, Sir Denys 'b.l914), Hallows by the Tower, Shaftesbury Avenue, 163; •(1516-58), 114-16
187 33; Apsley House, 153; Smithfield, 88, 114; Soho, Mary II Stuart, Queen
Laski, Harold 1893-1950), Banqueting House, 124, 141; Somerset House, (1662-94), 143", 145
183 132; Birdcage Walk, 141; 113; Temple Church, 79; Mary Rose, 107
Latimer, Hugh '1485?- Buckingham Palace, 153, Tower, see separate entry; Matilda, Empress (1102-
1555), 112, 114 167; Carlton House Tower Hill, 88; Trafalgar 67), 54, 55
Laud, William, Archbishop Terrace, 153; Chapel Square, 153; Victoria and Matilda, Queen, wife of
of Canterbury (1573- Royal, 142; Charing Albert Museum, 104, Henry I (1080-1118), 54
1645), 128 Cross, 76; Chiswick 170; Wellington Matilda, Queen, wife of
Launceston Castle, 49 House, 149; Constitution Museum, Apsley House, King Stephen (1132?-52),
Lavenham, 95 Hill, 141; Covent Garden, 153; Westminster, 74, 55, 57
law. Corn Laws, 156, 167; 140;Downing Street, 147; 106; Westminster Abbey, Maugham, William
Court of the Star Ely Place, 115; Eros, 163; see separate entry; Somerset (1874-1965),
Chamber, 105; criminal, Fishmongers' Hall, 88; Westminster Hall, 96; 183
162; Edward I, 76; Geological Museum, 170; Whitehall, 171; Whitehall May, Hugh (1621-84), 141
Factories Act, 162; Henry Greenwich Park, 141; Palace, 105 Melbourne, 2nd Viscount
II, 60, 62; Inns of Court, Hay ward Gallery, 187; Long Melford, 95 (1779-1848), 164, 168
''9; Justices of the Peace, Hyde Park, 141; Imperial Longieat, 110 Mellitus, St, Archbishop of
105; Law of Englishry, War Museum, 169; Inns Lucy, Sir Thomas (1532- Canterbury (d.624), 32
46; penal code, 148; Poor of Court, 79; Kensington, 1600), 121 Mill, John Stuart (1806-73),
Law, 165; Statute of 169; Kensington Gardens, Luddites, 152 172
Labourers, 85 169; Lambeth Palace, 86; Ludlow Castle, 49, 107 Millais, Sir John (1829-96),
Law, Andrew Bonar (1858- London Bridge, 87; Mall, Lydgate, John (1370?- 171
222 1923), 182 The, 141; Middle Temple, 1451?), 101 Miller, Sanderson (1716-
80), 149 (d.796), 31 Pevensey, 24, 39 Charles I, 130; Charles
Milton, John (1608-74), Osborne House, 167 Philip II, King of Spain II, 143; Gunpowder Plot,
142, 189 Oswald, St, King of the (1527-98), 115 125; Ireland, 125, 181;
Monck, George, 1st Duke of Northumbrians (605?- Pilgrim Fathers, 124 James II, 143; Mary
Albemarle (1608-70), 134 42), 32 Pilgrimage of Grace, 1 10 Tudor, 114
Monmouth, Duke of (1649- Owen, Robert (1771-1858), Pitt, William, 1st Earl of Rome, Treaty of, 188
85), 143 161 Chatham (1708-78), 150 Romney, George (1734-
Montacute, 121 Oxford, 74, 115; Cathedral, plague, 84, 94, 142 1802), 153
Montague, Richard (1577- 111; Folly Bridge, 79, Plassey, Battle of, 149 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
1641), 129 155; St Frideswide's Poitiers, Battle of, 82 (1828-82), 171
Montfort, Simon de. Earl of Priory, 111; Sheldonian police, 162 Royal Society, 141
Leicester (1208P-65), 73, Theatre, 140; University, Prasutagus, King of the Iceni Rubens, Peter Paul (1577-
74, 75 78, 101, 111, 170 (d.c.60), 21 1640), 124
More, Sir Thomas (1478- Pre-Raphaelites, 171 Runnymede, 69
1535), 107, 111 Palladio, Andrea (1518-80), Preston, Battle of, 132 Rupert of the Rhine, Prince
Moreton, William, 121 149 Pride, Thomas (d.l658), (1619-82), 131
Morris, William (1834-96), Palmerston, 3rd Viscount 133 Ruskin, John (1819-1900),
171 (1784-1865), 167, 171 Protestantism, Edward VI, 78, 170, 171-2
Mortimer, Roger, 8th Baron Pankhurst, Emmeline 112; Elizabeth I, 116; Russell, Lord John, later 1st
of Wigmore (1287?- (1858-1928), 179 Henry VIII, 112; Ireland, Earl Russell (1792-1878),
1330), 81 Parliament, 47; Bill of 181; martyrs, 114; 163, 167
Morton, John, Archbishop Rights, 144; Charles I, Puritans, 118, 124, 127,
of Canterbury (1420?- 127-8; Charles II, 133; 129, 142 St Albans, 16, 22, 49;
1500), 104 Chartist petitions, 166; Purcell, Henry (1658?-95), Cathedral, 101
Mottisfont Abbey, 110 Civil War, 128; 142 St Albans, Henry Jermyn,
Mussolini, Benito (1883- Combination Act, 152; Pym, John (1584-1643), 128 1st Earl of (d.l684), 141
1945), 185 constitutional monarchy, St George's Chapel,
144-5; Corn Laws, 156; Quebec, battle of, 149 Windsor, 96
Napoleon Bonaparte, later Edward I, 76, 77; Edward Salisbury Cathedral, 50, 78
Napoleon I, Emperor of IV, 100; Great Council, railway, 160-1 Salisbury, 3rd Marquess of
France (1769-1821), 152 74, 104; Great Ralegh, Sir Walter (1552?- (1830-1903), 175
Naseby, Battle of, 132 Exhibition, 169; 1618), 117, 125 Salle, 95
Nash, John (1752-1835), Gunpowder Plot, 125; Reformation, 109, 113 Salvin, Anthony (1799-
153 Henry IV, 92; Henry VIII, Renaissance, 105, 124 1881), 170
Nash, Richard ('Beau' Nash; 109; House of Commons, Restoration of the Sandringham, 178
1674-1761), 148 78, 117, 180; House of Monarchy, 140 Sapper, pseud, of
Nasser, Gamal Abdul Lords, 78, 104, 163, 180; Reynolds, Sir Joshua (1723- H.C.McNeile (1888-
(1918-70), 187 James I, 125, 127; Long 92), 148, 154 1937), 183
Nelson, Horatio, 1st Parliament, 128, 133; the Richard I, 'Coeur de Lion' Savoy, Peter, Count of. Earl
Viscount Nelson (1758- monarchy, 134; 19th- (1157-99), 65-6 of Richmond (d.l268), 87
1805), 152 century Acts, 161, 162-5, Richard II (1367-1400), 85, Saxons, 28, 29, 31, 36
Netley Abbey, 73 172, 178; Privy Council, 88, 96, 97 Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1552-
New Forest, 52, 53 104; religion, 144; Richard III (1452-85), Duke 1616), 149
New World, 106 reform, 162-3, 172; of Gloucester, 100, 101; Scotland, 76, 77, 80, 133,
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642- Rump, 133; 20th-century King, 101 146
1727), 142 Acts, 180; Wilkes, 150 Richard, Duke of York Scott, Sir George Gilbert
Nightingale, Florence Parnell, Charles Stewart (1411-60), 99 (1811-78), 170, 171
(1820-1910), 172 (1846-91), 174 Richmond Castle, 49 Scott, Sir Walter (1771-
Normans, 39, 44-6 Paston family, 94 Ridley, Nicholas (1500?- 1832), 153
Northumberland, 1st Duke Paxton, Sir Joseph (1801- 1555), 115 Seaton Di^laval, 145
of (1502P-53), 113, 114 65), 169 Rievaulx Abbey, 110 Selwyn, George (1719-91),
Norwich, 37 Peasants' Revolt, 86-9 road transport, 155 162
Novello, Ivor (1893-1951), Peel, Sir Robert (1788- Roberts, Frederick Sleigh, Sezincote, 149
185 1850), 162, 164, 166 later 1st Earl Roberts Shaftesbury, 7th Earl of
Pepys, Samuel (1633-1~0'> . I 832-1914), 173 (1801-85), 163-4
Oakham Castle, 49 140 KciLkingham Castle, 49 Shakespeare, William
O'Connor, Feargus (1794- Perrers, Alice (d.1400), 85 Roman Catholicism, anti- (1564-1616), 118, 121
1855), 167 Peterloo Massacre, 157 Catholic riots, 151; Bill of Shaw, George Bernard
Offa's Dyke, 31 Petty, Sir William (1623- Rights, 144; Catholic (1856-1950), 183
Offa, King of the Mercians 87), 141 Emancipation Acts, 162; Shore, Jane (d.l527?), 100 223
Shrewsbury, Countess of Fork, 104; Parliament Wadebridge, 96 Chapel, 107; Stone of
(1518-1608), 120 and, 77, 78; Petition of Wales, 76 Scone, 77
Sidney, Sir Philip (1554-86), Right, 127; poll taxes, 85, Wallace, Sir William Whigs, 147, 150, 162, 163,
118 89; window tax, 145 (1272?-1305), 77 167
Silchester, 16, 22 Telford, Thomas (1757- Walpole, Sir Robert, later Whitby, Synod of, 32
Simnel, Lambert (fl.l487- 1834), 156 1st Earl of Orford (1676- Wilberforce, William (1759-
1525), 105 Tewkesbury, Battle of, 100 1745), 147-50 1833), 164
Siraj-ud-Dawlah (c.l732- Thatcher, Margaret Walsingham, Sir Francis Wilhelm II, German Kaiser
57), 149 (b.l925), 188, 189 (1530?-90), 117 (1888-1941), 175
Skelton, John (1460P-1529), theatres, 184 Walworth, Sir William Wilkes, John (1727-97), 150
107 Theobalds, 120 (d.l385), 88 William I, The Conqueror
Sluys, Battle of, 82 Theodore, St, Archbishop of Wansdyke, 30 (1027?-87), 39, 44-5, 48,
Smith, Adam (1723-90), Canterbury (602?-90), 33 Warbeck, Perkin (1474-99), 50-2
154 Thomas Becket, St, 105 William II, 'Rufus' (d.llOO),
Smythson, Robert, 120 Archbishop of Canter- Ward, Winifred Dudley, 51-3, 96
Somerset, Edward Seymour, bury (1118?-70), 63-4 185 William III, (1650-1702),
1st Duke of (1506?-52), Thynne, Sir John (d.l580), Warham, William, 143, 144, 146
112, 113, 114 110 Archbishop of William IV (1765-1837),
'South Sea Bubble', 147 Tintagel, 30 Canterbury (1450?- 163, 168
Southampton, 37 Tolpuddle Martyrs, 157 1532), 109 William of Ypres (d.ll65?),
Spanish Armada, 119 Tories, 147, 162, 163, 166 wars, of American 55
Spence, Sir Basil (1907-76), Torrigiani, Pietro (1472- Independence, 150-1; Wilson, Harold, later Baron
186 1528), 104 Anglo-Scottish, 77, 80-1; Wilson of Rievaulx
Spenser, Edmund (1552?- Tostig, Earl of Northumbria Barons', 72, 74; Boer, (b.l916), 188
99), 118 (d.l066), 38 173; Civil War (1642-9), Winchester, 34, 37, 45;
Stamford Bridge, Battle of, Tower of London, Chapel 129-33; Crimean, 171, Cathedral, 53, 101
38 of St John, 50; construc- 172; Falklands, 188; Windmill Hill, 13
Steeple Ashton, 95 tion, 48; Peasants' Revolt, Hundred Years, 82, 99; Windsor Castle, 154; feast-
Stephen, King (1097?- 87; prisoners, 53, 99, Napoleonic, 152; Roses, ing hall, 83; George IV,
1154), 55, 57 113, 127 99, 101, 105; Seven 154; King John, 69; St
Stephenson, George (1781- trade, Britain becomes Years, 149; Spanish George's Chapel, 96;
1848), 155 leading trading nation, Succession, 145; World Waterloo Chamber, 153
Stockmar, Christian 146; Chinese opium, 172; War I, 181; World War Wolfe, James (1727-59),
Friedrich, Baron (1787- slave, 145, 147; wool, 81, 11, 185; Zulu, 173 149
1863), 169 94, 120 Warwick, Richard Neville, Wollaton Hall, 120
Stonehenge, 11, 13, 14 trade unions, 152, 172 Earl of (1428-71), 99 Wolsey, Thomas (1475?-
Stourhead, 149 Trafalgar, Battle of, 152 Washington, George (1732-, 1530), 108, 109, 110,
Stourport, 155 Trevithick, Richard (1771- 99), 151 11 1
Strafford, 1st Earl of (1593- 1833), 155 Waterhouse, Alfred (1830- women's suffrage, 179
1806), 153 United Nations, 187 Wedgwood, Josiah (1730- wool, 81, 95, 120
Studley Royal, 110 Utrecht, Treaties of, 145 95), 156 Worcester, Battle of, 133
Suez Canal, 173, 187 Wellington, 1st Duke of Wren, Sir Christopher
Sulgrave Manor, 121 Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (1769-1852), 152, 153, (1632-1723), 140, 142
Surrey, Earl of (1517?-47), (1599-1641), 126 160, 163 Wright, Sir Almoth, 179
107 Vanbrugh, Sir John (1664- Wells Cathedral, 78 Wyatt, Sir Thomas the elder
Swineshead Abbey, 72 1726), 145 West Indies, 145, 150 (1503-42), 107
Swynford, Catherine, Verney, Sir Edmund (1590- West Kennett, 13 Wyatt, Sir Thomas the
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