TMR7 Experimental Methods in Marine Hydrodynamics – lecture in week 34

General Modelling and Scaling Laws

• Dimensionless numbers
• Similarity requirements
• Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing
• Froude scaling
• Hydroelasticity
• Cavitation number

1 Chapter 2 in the lecture notes

 Dimensionless numbers

• ”Without dimensionless numbers, experimental progress in

fluid mechanics would have been almost nil;
It would have been swamped by masses of accumulated
data” (R. Olson)
• Example:
Due to the beauty of dimensionless numbers, Cf of a flat,
smooth plate is a function of Re only
(not function of temperature, pressure or type of fluid1)

1As long as the fluid is Newtonian, which means that it has a linear stress/strain rate,
with zero stress for zero strain

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 Types of similarity

• Geometrical similarity
• Kinematic similarity
• Dynamic similarity

What are the similarity requirements for a model test?

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 Geometrical Similarity

• The model and full scale structures must have the same
shape
⇒ All linear dimensions must
λ = LF LM
have the same scale ratio:

• This applies also to:

– The environment surrounding the model and ship
– Elastic deformations of the model and ship

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 Kinematic Similarity

• Similarity of velocities:
⇒ The flow and model(s) will have geometrically similar
motions in model and full scale
Examples:
- Velocities in x and y direction must have the same ratio, so
that a circular motion in full scale must be a circular
motion also in model scale
- The ratio between propeller tip speed and advance speed
must be the same in model and full scale:
VF VM VF VM
= or = ⇒ J= JM
nF (2π RF ) nM (2π RM )
F
nF DF nM DM
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 Dynamic Similarity
• Geometric similarity
and
• Similarity of forces
⇒ Ratios between different forces in full scale must be the same in model
scale
⇒ If you have geometric and dynamic similarity, you’ll also have
kinematic similarity
• The following force contributions are of importance:
– Inertia Forces, Fi
– Viscous forces, Fv
– Gravitational forces, Fg
– Pressure forces, Fp
– Elastic forces in the fluid (compressibility), Fe.
– Surface forces, Fs.

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 Inertia Forces (mass forces)

dU 3 dU dx 3
Fi ∝ ρ L =ρ L ∝ ρU 2 L2
dt dx dt

• ρ is fluid density
• U is a characteristic velocity
• t is time
• L is a characteristic length (linear dimension)

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 Gravitational Forces

Fg ∝ ρgL 3

⇒ Just mass times acceleration

• g is acceleration of gravity

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 Viscous Forces
dU 2
Fv ∝ µ L ∝ µUL
dx
• µ is dynamic viscosity [kg/m·s]
- a function of temperature and type of fluid

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 Pressure Forces

F p ∝ pL 2

⇒ Force equals pressure times area

• p is pressure

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 Elastic Fluid Forces

Fe ∝ ε v E v L 2

• εv is compression ratio
• Ev is the volume elasticity (or compressibility)
• εv· Ev=elasticity modulus K [kg/m·s2]

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 Surface Forces

Fs ∝ σL
• σ is the surface tension [kg/s2]

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 Froude number Fn
• The ratio between inertia and gravity:
Inertia force Fi ρU 2 L2 U 2
= ∝ =
Gravity force Fg ρgL 3
gL
• Dynamic similarity requirement between model and full
scale: U 2 U 2
M
= F
gLM gLF
UM UF
= = Fn
gLM gLF

• Equality in Fn in model and full scale will ensure that

gravity forces are correctly scaled
• Surface waves are gravity-driven ⇒ equality in Fn will
ensure that wave resistance and other wave forces are
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 Reynolds number Re

• Equal ratio between inertia and viscous forces:

Inertia forces Fi ρU 2 L2 ρUL UL
=∝ = == Re
Viscous forces Fv µUL µ ν

µ
• ν is the kinematic viscosity, ν = [m2/s]
ρ

• Equality in Re will ensure that viscous forces are correctly

scaled

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 Kinematic
viscosity of
fluids
(from White: Fluid Mechanics)

To obtain equality of both

Fn and Rn for a ship model
in scale 1:10: νm=3.5x10-8
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 Mach number Mn
• Equal ratio between inertia and elastic fluid forces:
Fi ρU 2 L2
∝
Fe ε v E v L2
• By requiring εv to be equal in model and full scale:
 ρU 2 L2   ρU 2 L2 
 2 
= 2 
 ε v E v L M  ε v Ev L F
UM UF
= = Mn
Ev , M Ev , F
ρ ρ

• Ev ρ is the speed of sound

• Fluid elasticity is very small in water, so usually Mach
number similarity is not required
– It is only when Mach numbers get close to 1 that it is important to
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consider compressibility effects. When Mach<0.7, incompressible
flow is assumed
 Weber number Wn
• The ratio between inertia and surface tension forces:
Inertia forces Fi ρU 2 L2 ρU 2 L
= ∝ =
Surface tension forces Fs σL σ
• Similarity requirement for model and full scale forces:
 ρU 2 L   ρU 2 L 
  =  σ=0.073 at 20°C
 σ M  σ F

UM UF
= = Wn
σM σF
( ρ L) M ( ρ L) F

When Wn>180, we assume that a further increase

in Wn doesn’t influence the fluid forces
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 Scaling ratios used in testing of ships and
offshore structures
Symbol Dimensionless Number Force Ratio Definition
Re Reynolds Number Inertia/Viscous UL
ν
Fn Froude Number Inertia/Gravity U
gL
Mn Mach’s Number Inertia/Elasticity U
EV ρ
Wn Weber’s Number Inertia/Surface tension U
σ ρL
St Strouhall number - fv D
U
KC Keulegan-Carpenter Number Drag/Inertia U AT
D

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 Froude Scaling
UM UF LF
= ⇒ UF = UM = UM λ
gLM gLF LM

Using the geometrical similarity requirement: λ = LF LM

If you remember this, most of the other scaling relations

can be easily derived just from the physical units

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 Froude scaling table
Physical Parameter Unit Multiplication factor

Length [m] λ
Structural mass: [kg] λ3 ⋅ ρ F ρ M
Force: [N] λ3 ⋅ ρ F ρ M
Moment: [Nm] λ4 ⋅ ρ F ρ M
Acceleration: [m/s2] a F = aM
Time: [s] λ
Pressure: [Pa=N/m2] λ ⋅ ρF ρM
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 Hydroelasticity

• Additional requirements to the elastic model

– Correctly scaled global stiffness
– Structural damping must be similar to full scale
– The mass distribution must be similar

• Typical applications:
– Springing and whipping of ships
– Dynamic behaviour of marine risers and mooring lines

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 Scaling of elasticity
F
FL3
δ∝
δ EI

Hydrodynamic force: F ∝ CρU 2 L2

δF δM
Geometric similarity requirement: = ⇒ δ F = λδ M
LF LM
Requirement to structural rigidity:
 U 2 L4   U 2 L4 
 =   ⇒ ( EI )=
F
( EI )M λ 5
 EI F  EI M
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 Scaling of elasticity
– geometrically similar models
• Geometrically similar model implies: IF = IM λ 4

• Must change the elasticity of material: E F = EM λ

• Elastic propellers must be made geometrically similar,

using a very soft material: EM = EF λ
• Elastic hull models are made geometrically similar only on
the outside. Thus, E is not scaled and I M = I F ⋅ λ−5

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 Cavitation

• Dynamic similarity requires that cavitation is modelled

• Cavitation is correctly modelled by equality in cavitation
number:
( ρ gh + p0 ) − pv
σ=
1/ 2 ρU 2

• To obtain equality in cavitation number, atmospheric

pressure p0 might be scaled
• pv is vapour pressure and ρgh is hydrostatic pressure
• Different ”definitions” of the velocity U is used

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 General Modelling and Scaling Laws

• Dimensionless numbers
• Similarity requirements
• Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing
• Froude scaling
• Hydroelasticity
• Cavitation number

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