1

HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2 HIGHWAY MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

SUBGRADE SOIL:
Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of
rocks or decay of vegetation, which can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field
or disintegrated by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath
pavement and its special under courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the
pavement is called natural sub grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled
movement of heavy compactors.
Desirable properties
The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
• Stability
• Incompressibility
• Permanency of strength
• Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
• Good drainage, and
• Ease of compaction
Soil Types
The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it
obligatory on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. A survey
of locally available materials and soil types conducted in India revealed wide variety of soil
types, gravel, moorum and naturally occurring soft aggregates, which can be used in road
construction. Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil, Moorum / red soil,
Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil. The following table gives the
general classification of soils with corresponding size range in mm.
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine
>2 0.06 0.02 < 0.02
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• Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size above 2.36 mm with little or no
fines contributing to cohesion of materials.
• Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock.
Visually these are similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.
• Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, and exhibit little
cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a
shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatancy is a specific property of such soil.
• Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry,
and show no dilatancy. Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and
shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves
stain, which is not observed for silts.
Tests on soil
Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the support to the
pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design of
pavement structure. The main function of the sub grade is to give adequate support to the
pavement and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic
and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting
tests.
The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into three
groups:
• Shear tests
• Bearing tests
• Penetration tests
Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. In order to
find out the strength properties of soil, a number of representative samples from different
locations are tested. Some of the commonly known shear tests are direct shear test, tri-axial
compression test and unconfined compression test.
Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ with a load bearing area.
The results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the
stressed soil mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed
could be studied.
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Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded
area is relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is
much greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or
in the laboratory.
California Bearing Ratio Test
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a
method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavements. CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for
pavement design. Empirical tests measure the strength of the material and are not a true
representation of the resilient modulus. It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having
an area of 3 in2 (or 50 mm diameter), is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25
mm/minute. The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and it's ratio to the bearing value of a
standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR.
In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is
used as the CBR. In some case, the ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this
occurs, the ratio at 5 mm should be used. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to
penetration of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test
procedure should be strictly adhered if high degree of reproducibility is desired. The CBR test
may be conducted in re-moulded or undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test is simple
and has been extensively investigated for field correlations of flexible pavement thickness
requirement.
Test Procedure
• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate
and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and
the expansion on soaking.
• The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen
in the mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
• Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia of 50 mm at the rate of
1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed
stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.
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• CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of
2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore,
CBR = [load carried by specimen/load carried by standard specimen] x 100
• Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0
mm penetration, the former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm
penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking. If
the check test again gives similar results, then higher value obtained at 5.0 mm
penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three test
specimens is reported as the CBR value of the sample.
Plate Bearing Test
Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades, bases and in some
cases, complete pavement. Data from the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and
rigid pavements. In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement
layer through rigid plates, relatively large size and the deflections are measured for various
stress values. The deflection level is generally limited to a low value, in the order of 1.25 to 5
mm and so the deformation caused may be partly elastic and partly plastic due to compaction of
the stressed mass with negligible plastic deformation. The plate-bearing test has been devised
to evaluate the supporting power of sub grades or any other pavement layer by using plates of
larger diameter. The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade
reaction in the Westergaard's analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavements.
Test Procedure
• The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter plate
rests horizontally in full contact with the soil sub-grade. The plate is seated accurately
and then a seating load equivalent to a pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg for 75 cm
diameter plate) is applied and released after a few seconds. The settlement dial gauge is
now set corresponding to zero load.
• A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average settlement of about
0.25 cm. When there is no perceptible increase in settlement or when the rate of
settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of soils with high moisture
content or in clayey soils) the load dial reading and the settlement dial readings are
noted.
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• Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials; placed usually at one-
third points of the plate near its outer edge.
• To minimize bending, a series of stacked plates should be used.
• Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate
corresponding to the applied load. Load is then increased till the average settlement
increase to a further amount of about 0.25 mm, and the load and average settlement
readings are noted as before. The procedure is repeated till the settlement is about 1.75
mm or more.
• Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate size should be
dealt properly.
• Calculation: The modulus of subgrade reaction is calculated from the relation.
K = [P/0.125] kg/cm2/cm

Aggregates
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone
that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to
form compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By
volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70
to 80 percent of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses
for both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured.
Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open
excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often a by-product of other manufacturing industries.
Desirable properties
Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii)
Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should posses high
resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by
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the movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over
the aggregates exposed at the top surface.
Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the
pavement should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels
from one particle to another at different levels causes severe impact on the aggregates.
Shape of aggregates
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less
strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as
possible.
Adhesion with bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be
stripped off in presence of water.
Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water,
impurities there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in
the construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action
Free from deleterious particles
Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be
clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces,
dust, clay balls and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement
concrete mixes must be clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, silt and
other organic impurities.
Aggregate tests
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:
• Crushing test
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• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Soundness test
• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test
Crushing test
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress.
A test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of
aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing
under gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of
aggregate in standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions (Figure 1).
Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a
cylindrical measure of 11.5 cm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is
tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the
test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a
compressive load of 400 kN gradually applied at the rate of 40 kN/min. Then crushed
aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is
expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1), which is the aggregate crushing
value and is equal to [W1/ W2] x 100. A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong
aggregate while above 35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
Abrasion test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether
they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a
preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India
(IS:2386 part-IV). The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due
to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520
mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge consisting of cast
iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along
with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
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sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges
from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of
500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value. A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.
Impact test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel
cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by
vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as
percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = [W1/ W2] x 100.
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent
Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by
conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates,
they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS:2386 part-V. Aggregates
of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105° to
110° C to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by
sieving out all undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in weight should not exceed 12
percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.
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Shape tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher
workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Test procedure had been standardized in India
(IS:2386 part-I)
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to
aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. This test is also specified in (IS:2386 Part-I). However there are
no recognized limits for the elongation index.
Specific Gravity and water absorption
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are
required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the
ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature.
Bitumen adhesion test
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free
from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous
construction. Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can
be dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing
temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated
aggregates. These problems occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. Several
laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an
aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite
simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 40°C temperatures for 24 hours. IRC has specified maximum stripping value of
aggregates should not exceed 5%.
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Bitumen:
Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily
because of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively
low cost. Bituminous materials consists of bitumen which is a black or dark coloured solid or
viscous cementitious substances consists chiefly high molecular weight hydrocarbons derived
from distillation of petroleum or natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in
carbon disulphide. Tars are residues from the destructive distillation of organic substances
such as coal, wood and are temperature sensitive than bitumen. Bitumen will be dissolved in
petroleum oils and tar will not be so.
Production of Bitumen
Bitumen is the residue or by-product when the crude petroleum is refined. A wide variety of
refinery processes, such as the straight distillation process, solvent extraction process etc. may
be used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties. Depending
on the sources and characteristics of the crude oils and on the properties of bitumen required,
more than one processing method may be employed.
Different forms of bitumen
Cutback bitumen
Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations preference is
given to use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used
to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point of view also cutback
bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and the bitumen
will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction
and maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha, kerosene,
diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC),
medium curing (MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and
patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used
for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates.
Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided
condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material. Normally cationic type
emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the
 11

remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in
release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting depends upon the grade of
bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as per IS: 8887-1995. Three
types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS), Medium setting
(MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders for hill road construction,
where heating of bitumen or aggregates are difficult. Rapid setting emulsions are used for
surface dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs and patch
repairs work. Slow setting emulsions are preferred in rainy season.
Bituminous primers
In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which it is spread. The
absorption therefore depends on the porosity of the surface. Bitumen primers are useful on the
stabilised surfaces and water bound macadam base courses. Bituminous primers are generally
prepared on road sites by mixing penetration bitumen with petroleum distillate.
Modified Bitumen
Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of
bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified
bitumen. Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) should
be used only in wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic
variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP: 53-
1999. It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict control
on temperature during construction. The advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows
• Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
• Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
• Better age resistance properties
• Higher fatigue life for mixes
• Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
• Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking
Requirements of Bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should posses following desirable properties.
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• The bitumen should noot be highly temperaturee susceptiblee: during thee hottest weeather
the mix should not becoome too soft or unstable,, and during cold weatheer the mix shhould
not become too brittle causing
c crackks.
• The viscositty of the bituumen at the time of mixxing and com
mpaction shoould be adeqquate.
This can bee achieved by use of cuttbacks or em
mulsions of suitable
s graddes or by heeating
the bitumen
n and aggregaates prior to mixing.
• There shoulld be adequuate affinity and adhesioon between the bitumenn and aggreegates
used in the mix.
m
Tests on
o bitumen
There are
a a numberr of tests to assess
a the prroperties of bituminous
b m
materials. Thhe followingg tests
are usuaally conductted to evaluaate different properties of
o bituminous materials.
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility tesst
3. Softening po
oint test
4. Specific graavity test
5. Viscosity teest
6. Flash and Fire point testt
7. Float test
8. Water conteent test
9. Loss on heaating test
Penetraation test
It meassures the hardness or softness off bitumen by
b measurinng the depthh in tenths of a
millimeeter to which
h a standardd loaded neeedle will pennetrate vertiically in 5 seconds.
s BIS
S had
standardised the eq
quipment andd test proceddure. The pennetrometer consists
c of a needle asseembly
with a total
t weight of 100g andd a device foor releasing and
a locking in any position. The bituumen
is softenned to a pou
uring consisttency, stirredd thoroughlyy and pouredd into containers at a deppth at
least 155 mm in exccess of the exxpected pennetration. The test shouldd be conductted at a speccified
temperaature of 25 C. It mayy be noted that
t penetraation value is
i largely innfluenced byy any
inaccurracy with reg
gards to pourring temperaature, size off the needle,, weight placced on the needle
and thee test temperrature. A graade of 40/50 bitumen meeans the pennetration valuue is in the range
r
40 to 500 at standard
d test conditiions. In hot climates,
c a loower penetraation grade is
i preferred.
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Ductilitty test
Ductilitty is the prop
perty of bituumen that peermits it to undergo
u greaat deformation or elongaation.
Ductilitty is defined
d as the disstance in cm
m, to whichh a standardd sample or briquette of
o the
materiaal will be elo
ongated withhout breaking. Dimensioon of the briqquette thus formed
f is exxactly
1 cm square. The bitumen sam
mple is heatted and pouured in the mould
m assem
mbly placed on a
plate. These
T samplles with mooulds are coooled in thee air and thhen in waterr bath at 277 C
temperaature. The excess bitum
men is cut annd the surfacce is leveledd using a hot knife. Theen the
mould with
w assemb
bly containinng sample is kept in wateer bath of thhe ductility machine
m for about
a
90 minuutes. The sid
des of the moulds
m are reemoved, the clips are hooked on the machine annd the
machinne is operated. The distaance up to thhe point of breaking off thread is thhe ductility value
v
which is reported in cm. Thhe ductility value getss affected by
b factors such
s as pouring
temperaature, test tem
mperature, rate
r of pullinng etc. A minnimum ducttility value of
o 75 cm has been
specifieed by the BIS
S.

Softeniing point tesst

Softeninng point denotes the teemperature at
a which thee bitumen attains
a a parrticular degree of
softeninng under th
he specificattions of test. The test is conducteed by usingg Ring and Ball
 14

apparattus. A brass ring containning test sam

mple of bitum
men is suspended in liqquid like watter or
glycerinn at a given temperaturee. A steel baall is placed upon the biitumen sampple and the liquid
l
medium
m is heated at a rate of 5 C perr minute. Temperature is noted whhen the soft
ftened
bitumenn touches th
he metal plate which is at a specified distancce below. Generally,
G h
higher
softeninng point indiicates lower temperaturee susceptibiliity and is preeferred in hoot climates.

Specific gravity test

In pavinng jobs, to classify
c a biinder, densitty property is
i of great use.
u In most cases bitum
men is
weighedd, but when
n used with aggregates, the bitumeen is convertted to volum
me using deensity
values. The density
y of bitumenn is greatly influenced by
b its chemiical composition. Increaase in
aromatiic type mineral impuritiees cause an increase
i in sppecific graviity.
The speecific gravity
y of bitumenn is defined as the ratio of mass of given volum
me of bitum
men of
known content to the
t mass off equal volum
me of waterr at 27 C. The specifiic gravity caan be
measureed using eitther pycnom
meter or prepparing a cubbe specimen of bitumen in semi sollid or
solid staate. The specific gravityy of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.022.
Viscosiity test
t fluid property of bituuminous matterial and it is a measure of resistannce to
Viscosiity denotes the
flow. At
A the appliication tempperature, thiis characterristic greatlyy influencess the strengtth of
resultinng paving miixes. Low orr high viscossity during compaction
c or mixing has been obseerved
to resullt in lower sttability valuues. At high viscosity, it resist the coompactive effort
e and theereby
resultinng mix is heeterogeneouss, hence low
w stability values.
v Andd at low visccosity insteaad of
providinng a uniform
m film over aggregates, it will lubricate the agggregate particcles. Orificee type
viscomeeters are ussed to indirrectly find the viscositty of liquidd binders likke cutbackss and
emulsioons. The visccosity expreessed in secoonds is the tiime taken byy the 50 ml bitumen maaterial
 15

to pass through thee orifice of a cup, underr standard teest conditionns and specified temperaature.
Viscosiity of a cutback can be measured
m wiith either 4.00 mm orificee at 25 C or 10 mm orifice
at 25 orr 40 C.

Flash and
a fire poin
nt test
At highh temperaturres dependinng upon the grades
g of bittumen materrials leave out
o volatiles.. And
these volatiles
v catcch fire whichh is very haazardous andd therefore it is essentiaal to qualifyy this
temperaature for eacch bitumen grade.
g BIS deefined the flash point as the temperaature at whicch the
vapour of bitumen momentarily
m y catches fire in the form
m of flash unnder specifieed test condittions.
The firee point is deefined as thee lowest tempperature undder specifiedd test conditiions at whicch the
bituminnous materiaal gets ignitedd and burns..
Float teest
Normallly the consiistency of biituminous material
m can be
b measuredd either by penetration
p teest or
viscositty test. But for
f certain raange of consistencies, thhese tests aree not applicabble and Floaat test
is used.. The apparaatus consists of an aluminnum float annd a brass coollar filled with
w bitumen to be
tested. The specimeen in the moould is cooleed to a tempperature of 5 C and scrrewed in to float.
The total test assem
mbly is floatted in the waater bath at 50
5 C and thhe time requuired for watter to
pass its way through the specim
men plug is noted
n in secoonds and is expressed
e as the float vallue.
Water content testt
It is deesirable that the bitumeen contains minimum
m w
water contennt to preventt foaming of
o the
bitumenn when it is
i heated abbove the booiling point of water. The water in a bitumen is
 16

determiined by mixiing known weight

w of speecimen in a pure
p petroleuum distillatee free from water,
w
heatingg and distillling of the water. The weight of the water condensed and collected is
expresssed as perceentage by weight
w of thhe original sample.
s Thee allowable maximum water
w
contentt should not be
b more thann 0.2% by weight.
w
Loss on
n heating test
When the
t bitumen is heated it loses
l the vollatility and gets
g hardenedd. About 50ggm of the saample
is weighed and heaated to a tem
mperature off 163 C for 5hours in a specified oven
o designeed for
this testt. The sample specimenn is weighedd again after the heating period and loss in weigght is
expresssed as percentage by weeight of the original sam
mple. Bitum
men used in pavement mixes
m
should not indicatee more than 1% loss inn weight, but for bitumeen having peenetration values
v
150-2000 up to 2% loss
l in weighht is allowedd.

Tests for Biitumen with IS codes

Type off test Test Meethod
Penetrattion Test IS: 1203-1978
Ductilityy test IS: 1208-1978
Softeninng Point test IS: 1205-1978
Specificc gravity testt IS: 1202-1978
Viscositty test IS: 1206-1978
Flash annd Fire Pointt test IS: 1209-1978
Float Teest IS: 1210-1978
Determiination of waater content IS: 1211-1978
Determiination of Looss on heatinng IS:1212--1978

HIGHW
WAY CONS
STRUCTIO
ON:
Constrruction proccedure of Eaarth roads:
It is thee type of road
d prepared from
fr the natuural soil
Materiaal: The soill survey is carried outt and suitabble borrow pits are loccated withinn the
mic haulage distances. The borrow
econom w pits are usually selected outsidde the widtth of
pavemeent.
Locatioon: The centter line of thhe road edgees are markeed in the groound along the
t alignmennt, by
driving pegs Refereence pegs aree driven to follow
f the deesired verticaal profile of the road.
 17

Clearing site
Excavating and construction of fills to bring the road to a desired shape
Shaping of subgrade
Pavement construction
Opening to traffic
Gravel Roads
Gravel roads are considered as un-metalled road. They are actually intermediate between
earthen and metalled road. The carriageway of these roads is made by compacting a mixture of
gravel and earth. The mixture usually consists of 26% sand, 13% clay and 61% as gravel which
may be in the form of crushed and is obtained from soft stone.
Gravel road, may be constructed form the natural sand-clay mixtures having considerable
percentage of gravel. Gravel can also be constructed like water bound macadam roads having a
gravel macadam surface composed almost entirely of pebbles. To attain proper compaction, the
gravel should be graded from fines to pebbles and should also contain adequate binding
material in the fines.
Gravel roads are considered superior than earth roads. These roads are provided camber
ranging between 1 in 25 to 1 in 30 and can cater for about 100 ton rubber tire vehicles or about
50t of iron tire vehicles per lane per day.
Gravel roads may be constructed in form of trench, developed on the formation equal to the
desired width of the carriage way. Depth of the trench is dependent upon the thickness of the
gravel pavement to be provided. Since there is better lateral confinement for the gravel
pavement, this method of construction is preferred.
In case of feather edge type construction, gravel layer is laid on the top of the prepared sub-
grade without any trench. In this type of construction, thickness of gravel varies from
maximum at the centre of the road to minimum at pavement edges.
Material for Gravel Roads
Gravel used should be obtained from hard tough and durable type of stone, to enable resist
wear and tear and to withstand traffic action. Experience has shown that gravel having
maximum size of 12.5mm to 20mm gives the best results provided that specified gradation is
adopted. Soft varieties of stones can also be used in the construction of gravel roads. Rounded
pebbles are not preferred because of their poor interlocking.
 18

Construction Steps for Gravel Roads

• Necessary cutting and embankments are carried out along the road alignment and
subgrade is prepared as it has been adopted in earthen roads.
• Usually these roads are constructed in form of trenches. Trench is formed on the top of
the formation as desired. Compaction of the trench base is done by sprinkling water
with a view to obtain hard consolidated base for the gravel pavement layers.
• Crushed aggregate, having proper gradation and maximum size of abut 20 mm is
stacked along the road alignment.
• Crushed gravel aggregate is spread in loose thickness of about 11 cm at the centre.
Thickness of gravel layer is kept maximum at the centre and minimum at edge to
develop proper camber in the road surface. The layer is rolled with light plane roller (8
ton) to get a rolled thickness of about 7.5cm. During rolling, surface is slightly
sprinkled with water.
• If traffic on the road is expected to be quite heavy, comparatively thick gravel pavement
layer be provided which may be obtained in form of two or more gravel layers.
• In the top layer of gravel, proper camber in the surface is checked and corrected as
required.
• During rolling, it should be checked that surface gets properly compacted, but gravel
pebbles do not get crushed under the roller. Rolling is started from edges and is
proceeded towards the centre. Each pass of the roller should be over lapped by at least
half of its widths in the next pass.
• Before the road is opened to the traffic, the rolled surface of the road should be slightly
sanded so as to provide a cover of about 6mm to 12mm over the whole surface.
• The road should be opened to traffic after a day or two of final rolling.
• As in the case of earth roads, the efficient surface drainage is very essential for gravel
road.
• Grade and camber should be maintained by carrying out periodical repairs. Clay
particles in the binder are blown off in dry weather. To prevent this, the surface of the
road should be sprinkled with water in the absence of binder. The pebbles become loose
and are dislocated. In rainy season, the surface of the gravel road may become muddy
 19

and binding material in it may get exhausted by sticking mud to the wheels of traffic
passing over the road.
Construction procedure of WBM roads:
General guideline and Procedure for Water Bound macadam:
1) Thickness of a compacted layer should be 100 mm for 90-45 mm, size aggregates and
75 mm for 63-45 mm or 53-22.4 mm size aggregates.
2) Screenings should generally be of the same material as coarse aggregate. However, if
the use of screenings is not feasible, some other non-plastic material, such as, moorum or
gravel (other than rounded river borne material) having liquid limit and plasticity index below
20 and 6 respectively may be used provided fraction passing 75 micron sieve does not exceed
10 per cent.
3) Binding maternal need not be used if the layer is to serve as base (or is to receive black
topping), or where crushable type of screenings, like, moorum is used.
4) It is a good practice to lay a sub-base of granular/stabilised material before laying
WBM. This is particularly important where the sub grade is of clayey type.
5) Where the WBM is to be laid directly over sub grade, a 25 mm thick layer of stone
screenings (Grading B) - "inverted choke" - should be spread on the prepared sub grade before
the application of aggregate is taken up. In case of fine sand or silty or clayey sub grade it is
advisable to lay 100 mm thick insulating layer of screening or coarse sand on the top of fine
grained soil. A preferred alternative to inverted choke is the use of appropriate geosynthetics
mesh.
6) Arrangements for water, rollers in working order and templates/ other tools and
equipment for checking the quality of the materials and work must be available at site before
the work of laying is started.
7) The quantities of coarse aggregates and screenings will vary, depending on the actual
grading.
8) Arrangements for lateral confinement of aggregates must be provided. This can
conveniently be done by raising the shoulders in stages equal in thickness to each layer of
WBM.
9) The coarse aggregate should be spread uniformly and evenly on the prepared sub-grade
/sub-base by using templates placed across the road about 6 m apart. The thickness of each
 20

compacted layer should not be more than 100 mm in grading 1 and 75 mm for grading 2 and 3.
Wherever possible, mechanical devices should be used to spread the aggregates uniformly so as
to minimise the need for manual rectification afterwards.
10) The spreading should be done from stockpiles or directly from vehicles. No segregation
of large or fine aggregates should be allowed.
11) The surface should be checked frequently while spreading and rolling so as to ensure
the specified regularity of slopes and camber.
12) The coarse aggregate should not normally be spread more than three days in advance
of the subsequent construction operations. Three wheeled power rollers at 80 to 100 kN or
tandem or vibratory rollers at 80 to 100 kN static weight should be used for rolling. Except on
supper elevated portions, where the rolling should proceed from inner edge to outer edge,
rolling should begin from the edge gradually progressing towards centre. Successive passes
should uniformly overlap the proceeding by at least one half widths.
13) In case screening are to be applied, rolling should be discontinued when the aggregate
are partially compacted with sufficient void space to permit application of screening. During
rolling slight sprinkling of water may be allowed. Complete rolling is indicated by a loose stone
piece getting crushed under the roller without sinking.
14) After the coarse aggregate has been rolled, screening to completely fill the interstices
should be applied gradually over the surface. Screening should not be damp or wet at the time
of application. These should not be dumped in piles but applied at a uniform rate, in three or
more applications, so as ensure filling of all voids. Dry rolling should be done while the
screenings are being spreadso that vibrations of the roller cause screenings to settle into the
voids of coarse aggregate. Dry rolling should accompanied by brooming. These operations
should continue until no more screenings can be forced into the voids of coarse aggregate.
15) Spreading, rolling and brooming of screens shall be carried out in only such lengths
which are likely to be completed within one day's operation.
16) After screenings have been applied, the surface should be copiously sprinkled with
water, swept with hand brooms and rolled. This operation should be continued with additional
screenings, applied as necessary, until the coarse aggregates has been thoroughly keyed, well
broomed, firmly set in its full depth and a grout has been formed of screenings.
17) The base or sub grade should not get damaged due to use of excessive quantities of
 21

water. In case lime treated soil sub-base, construction of water bound macadam should be taken
up only after sub-base has picked up enough strength.
18) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening. Continue
rolling till full compaction is achieved.
19) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to dry
overnight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or binding material,
lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.
20) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The compacted
WBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next pavement course is laid
over.
21) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less than 0°
in the shade.
22) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening. Continue
rolling till full compaction is achieved.
23) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to dry
overnight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or binding material,
lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.
24) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The compacted
WBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next pavement course is laid
over.
25) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less than 0°
in the shade.
26) After application of cut-back, the surface should be allowed to cure for at least 24
hours.

Construction of Bituminous pavements:

Types of bituminous construction
• Interface treatment like prime coat and tack coat
• Surface dressing and seal coat
• Grouted or penetration type construction – Penetration Macadam and Built up spray
grout
 22

• Premix methods – bituminous bound Macadam, Carpet, bituminous concrete, sheet

asphalt
Interface treatment:
Prime coat: It is the first application of a low viscosity liquid bituminous material over an
existing pavement surface. The main objective of this coat is to plug in the capillary voids f the
binder.
Tack coat: It is the application of bituminous material, which is relatively impervious like an
existing bituminous surface already treated by prime coat.
Bituminous Surface dressing:
It is provided to serve as wearing coat over an existing pavement. The singe cat surface
dressing consists of a single application of bituminous binder material followed by spreading of
aggregate cover and rolling.
Penetration Macadam:
It is used as base or binder course. The coarse aggregates are first spread and compacted well in
dry state and after that hot bituminous binder of relatively high viscosity is sprayed in fairy
large quantity at top. Depending upon the quantity f bitumen spread and extent of penetration,
it is called full grout or semi grout.
Construction procedure of Bituminous Surface dressing:
Preparation of existing surface
Application of binder
Application of stone chippings
Rolling of first or final coat
Application of binder and application of stone chippings for the second coat
Rolling of second coat
Finishing and opening to traffic
Construction procedure of Grouted or penetration Macadam
Preparation of existing surface
Spreading of coarse aggregate
Rolling
Bitumen application
Spreading of key aggregate
 23

Seal coat
Finishing and opening to traffic
Construction procedure of Built up spray grout
Preparation of existing surface
Tack coat
Spreading of first layer
Rolling
Application of binder
Spreading of second layer
Rolling
Second Application of binder
Spreading of key aggregate
Surface finish
Opening to traffic
Construction procedure of bituminous bound Macadam
Preparation of existing surface
Tack coat and prime coat application
Premix preparation
Placement
Rolling and Finishing
Construction procedure of premixed bituminous carpet
Preparation of existing surface
Application of tack coat
Premix preparation and placement
Rolling and Finishing
Application of seal coat
Surface finish
Opening to traffic
Construction procedure of bituminous concrete
Preparation of existing base coarse layer
Application of tack coat
 24

Premix preparation and placem

ment
Rollingg
Qualityy control of bituminous
b C
Concrete Connstruction
Surfacee finish
Constrruction of Concrete roaads:
Alternaate bay method
Continuuous bay meethod
Constrruction proccedure of Cooncrete pavvement slab::
Preparaation of subg
grade and subb base
Placingg of forms
Batchinng of materiaal and mixinng
Transpoorting and pllacing of conncrete
Compacction and Fin
nishing
Floatingg and straigh
ht edging
Beltingg, brooming and
a edging
Curing of cement Concrete
C
Constrruction of Jo
oints in conccrete pavem
ment
The varrious types of
o joints andd their functioons are heree. Expansion joints and contraction
c j
joints
are provvided to takee care of movements duee to temperaature variatioons.

(a) Exppansion joint with dowel bar (b) Contractionn joint as dum
mmy joint
 25

(c) Conntraction join

nt with doweel bar (d) Longitudinaal joint as plaain butt jointt

(e) Lonngitudinal joiint with tie bar

b (f) Tongue
T and groove longgitudinal joinnt
Schematic
S d
diagram of some
s typicall joint confiigurations.
Sawingg is done ass concrete achieves
a addequate strenngth, usuallyy after 4 too 12 hours after
placemeent of conccrete. The timing
t of sawing is im
mportant. Prremature saawing will cause
c
spallingg and raveliing of concrrete, and if sawing is late, shrinkaage cracks will
w appear (refer
(
Figure-40). Sawing
g is generallyy done in twoo stages - thhe initial saw
w cut is furtheer widened in
i the
second stage of saw
wing. The trransverse annd longitudinnal joints in sub-base annd those of in
i the
concrette pavement are generally placed in staggered
s waay.
Joint seealant
Each jooint has som
me gap. Thiss joint gap is
i filled up by joint filllers . Then, joint sealerrs are
poured over the joiint fillers, soo as to preveent water to percolate thhrough the joints
j and allso to
make a smooth surrface for travvel. As per the
t present day
d practicee, a single material
m is ussed to
both filll and seal, and
a a term joint sealant has
h subsequeently evolvedd.
Three basic
b categorries of joint sealants are (i) hot pourred liquid seealants (exam
mple, bituminnous,
polymerr, rubber materials ) (ii) cold poured liiquid sealannts (exampple, polysulf
lfides,
polyureethanes, siliccone ) and (iiii) preformeed elastomerric sealants (example,
( exxtruded neopprene
rubber ). Elastomerric sealants exert
e resistivve force towaards the movvement of thhe joints.
Prior too filling, the joint is cleaaned by comppressed air jets.
j Beaker rod of circuular cross-secction,
typicallly made up of foam likee material, is inserted too the joints before
b puttinng sealants. Joint
sealantss should be poured
p into the
t groove/ gap
g when thhe gap is in maximum
m exxpanded form
m.
 26

Typicaal flexible pa
avement faillures:
Alligatoor map crack
king
Consoliidation of paavement layeers
Shear failure
fa
Longituudinal crackiing
Frost heeaving
Lack off binding to the
t lower cooarse
Refectioon cracking
Formatiion of wavess and corruggations
Mainteenance of co
oncrete paveements:
Any in--service pav
vement show
ws signs of distresses,
d annd subsequeently requires maintenannce to
retain itts serviceabiility. Variouus distresses that may occcur to the concrete
c pavvement can be,
b in
general, classified as
a follows:
1. Craccking
ƒ Corner breaks
b
ƒ Longituddinal crackinng
ƒ Transverrse cracking
2. Jointt deficienciees
 27

ƒ Joint seal damage

ƒ Spalling of joints
3. Surface defects
ƒ Map cracking and scaling
ƒ Polished aggregate
ƒ Popouts
ƒ Loss of skid resistance
4. Miscellaneous distresses
ƒ Blowups
ƒ Lane-to-shoulder drop-off and separation
ƒ Patch
ƒ Punch out
ƒ Water bleeding and pumping
Rehabilitation and preservation of concrete pavements
Repair of early distresses
Some of the early distresses in concrete pavement and their maintenance actions are discussed
in the following:
Plastic shrinkage cracking: Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in the form of parallel surface
cracks on the surface due to rapid evaporation of water from the surface. The depth of such
cracks can be estimated through coring technique. This can be repaired by sealing the surface
cracks by injecting low viscosity epoxy, high molecular weight methacrylate) etc.
Edge slump: When the slip-form paver moves forward, the edge of concrete slab being un-
supported, sometimes slumps at isolated locations. This edge slump seriously affects the
performance of the constructed pavement. The repair can be done by separately placing fresh
concrete (and not mortar) to the affected portions. Such repair should be conducted before
application of any curing compound.
Joint spalling: Joint spalling may occur due to (i) early joint sawing, (ii) use of wrong blade
type, or (iii) poor operation of the sawing equipment. Reforming manually the affected portions
with fresh concrete is recommended for isolated joint spalling problems.
Full depth cracking: Full depth cracking of newly constructed pavement can occur due to one
or combination of the following reasons:
 28

Provide a link to the 'Slip form paving system' discussed in lecture 'construction of concrete
pavement'
• Late transverse joint sawing or insufficient depth of sawing.
• Misaligned dowel bars.
• Excessive curling and/or warping.
• Rapid surface cooling.
• Early age loading by construction equipment.
• Excessive drying shrinkage.
• Excessive base frictional restraint.
Complete replacement of the affected slab is generally recommended for such a situation. The
removal of the affected slab should be done panel by panel using some saw cutting tool, and
not by any impact-type tool.
Repair of other common distresses
Joint seal failure: If the pavement is not badly deteriorated, but the joint seals are showing
signs of failure (i.e. missing or debonded sealant) - joint resealing is an appropriate action. Hot
or cold poured liquid sealants can be used for resealing purpose. The old sealant needs to be
removed, and the side walls of the joints need to be cleaned and made free from dust and
moisture before applying fresh sealants.
Loss of support: The locations of loss of support can be detected by falling weight
deflectometer, or other non-destructive techniques, like infrared thermography, ground
penetrating radar etc. One of the popular ways of treating loss of support is by slab
stabilization, where slab is not lifted, but the voids are filled by under-sealing, sub-sealing or
pressure grouting. Examples of these grouting materials are fly ash grouts, asphalt,
polyurethane etc.
Partial depth cracking: Partial depth repairing is done when the distress is confined to upper
surface of the slab, spalling or fatigue cracking is less severe, and the joints are still functional
etc. Conventional portland cement, polymer based concrete or other cementations materials are
used for repair purpose. The type of the material chosen is based on (i) curing time, (ii) ambient
temperature, (iii) depth of cracks, (iv) expected performance etc. The repair area can be decided
by sounding technique with the help of a simple hammer.
 29

Concrete is removed by sawing and light hammering from the chosen rectangular area, cleaned
and bonding and patching materials are applied. For cracks of low severity, crack-stitching can
be performed, which involves applying steel reinforced cement, which helps to hold the cracks
tightly.
Full depth cracking: Full depth repair is recommended for cracks extended to the full depth of
the pavements. Full depth repair takes care of blowups, corner breaks, transverse cracking,
longitudinal cracking, severe joint spalling etc. Conventional portland cement concrete, with
suitable additives, if required, is generally used for full depth repair. Same procedure, as that of
partial depth repair, is adopted for the full depth. Epoxy coated dowel bar/ tie bars are suitably
replaced in their designed positions. Compacting, finishing, curing, sawing, joint sealing,
texturing etc are done as required.
Surface irregularities and loss of skid resistance: The improvement of skid resistance and
removal of surface irregularities can be done by grinding and grooving . Equipment fitted with
closely spaced diamond blades/ discs is used for this purpose. Sometimes, riding quality related
defects are treated with suitable bituminous surfacing or thin concrete overlay .
Weak load transfer at joints: Weak load transfer at the joints happen due to failure of dowel
bars. New set of dowel bars (or wedging system) can be placed by machining by impact.
However, replacement of dowel bars is a difficult, costly and time-taking process. Blocking of
the whole joint with pressure grouting could be another alternative.
Concept of BOT and BOOT
There are range of PPP models that allocate a responsibilities and risks between the public and
private partners in different ways. The following terms are commonly used to describe typical
partnership agreement.
Build Operate and Transfer (BOT): a contractual arrangement whereby the concessionaire
undertakes the construction, including financing, of a given infrastructure facility, and the
operation and maintenance thereof. The concessionaire operates the facility over a fixed term
during which it is allowed to charge facility users appropriate tolls, fees, rentals, and charges
not exceeding these proposed in its bid or as negotiated and incorporated in the contract to
enable the concessionaire to recover its investment, and operating and maintenance expenses in
the project. The concessionaire transfers the facility to the Government Agency or Local
Government unit concerned at the end of the fixed term.
 30

Build-Own-Operate-and-Transfer (BOOT): a project based on the granting of a concession

by a Principal (the Union or Government or a local authority) to the concessionaire, who is
responsible for the construction, financing, operation and maintenance of a facility over the
period of the concession before finally transferring the facility, at no cost to the Principal, a
fully operational facility. During the concession period the promoter owns and operates the
facility and collects revenue in order to repay the financing and investment costs, maintain and
operate the facility and make a margin of profit.
 31

CHAPTER III RAILWAY TRACK COMPONENTS AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Introduction
Rail transport vs Road transport: Parameters to be compared
Feature Rail Transport Road Transport
Tractive Low rolling resistance and hence Almost 5 times tractive
resistance reduces haulage cost (similar material resistance compared that of
for wheel and track) wheels on rails
Right of way Railway track is defined on two rails Can be used by any vehicular
traffic and even pedestrians to
make use of it
Cost analysis The initial as well as maintenance Relatively cheaper
cost of a railway line is high
Gradients and Flatter and gentle Steeper and gradients upto 1 in
curves 30 is possible
Flexibility of It can be only between fixed points as Higher degree of flexibility
movement the routes are defined
Environment Minimum adverse effects on Comparatively greater
and pollution environment pollution than railways
Organization Government undertaking Government and private sector
and control
Suitability Best suited for carrying heavy goods Best suited for carrying lighter
and large numbers of passengers over goods and smaller number of
long distances passengers over short distances

Role of Indian Railways:

• Connects industrial production centers with markets
• Links agricultural production centers with distant markets
• Provides rapid, reliable and cost effective bulk transportation
• Links people with different places, leading to national integration
 32

Zonal Railways:
Zones Head Quarters
Central - Mumbai [Maharastra]
Eastern - Kolkata [West Bengal]
East Central - Hajipur
East Coast - Bhubaneswar [Odisha]
Northern - Delhi [NewDelhi]
North Central - Allahabad [Uttar Pradesh]
North Eastern - Gorakhpur
North East Frontier - Maligaon
North Western - Jaipur [Rajastan]
Southern - Chennai [Tamil Nadu]
South Central - Secunderabad[Andhrapradesh]
South Eastern - Kolkata [West Bengal]
South East Central - Bilaspur
South Western - Hubli[Karnataka]
Western - Mumbai [Maharastra]
West Central - Jabalpur
Undertakings under Ministry of Railways:
RITES - Rail India Technical and Economic Services Ltd
[Provide consultancy services on all aspects of the railways from concept
to completion. It is a multi disciplinary organization in the fields of
transportation infra structure and related technologies. It is a Mini Ratna
company.]
IRCON - Indian Railway Construction Corporation Ltd
[It was set up with a view to channelize the expertise of construction
services, technological knowhow and special skills gained by Indian
railways. It is in ideal position to undertake the entire spectrum of
construction activities concerning the various railway disciplines – civil,
mechanical, electrical, signaling, telecommunication etc.]
 33

IRFC - Indian Railway Finance Corporation

[Sole objective to raise funds for railways from the market based on the
requirement of Ministry of Railways to partly finance plan outlay and
meet the developmental needs of Indian railways.]
CONCOR - Container Corporation of India Ltd
[It was set up to promote, provide and manage multimodal transport in
the country with the prime objective to support the country’s growing
international trade as well as for the transport of domestic cargo in
containers by adopting latest technologies and practices.]
KRCL - Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd
[Konkan railway is the first railway project in the country executed on
the BOT principle. The company was formed with the participation of
four states namely Maharastra, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa]
IRCTC - Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd
[It is a corporation taking care of catering services, packaged drinking
water projects and internet ticketing system]
RailTel Corporation of India Ltd
[The main objective is to build a nationwide telecom multimedia
network for laying optical fiber cables with a view to modernize the
railway communication system.]
Rail Vigas Nigam Ltd
[Meant for undertaking development projects, mobilizing resources and
execution of projects on commercial basis]
PRCL - Pipavan Railway Corporation Ltd
[It is formed due to the joint venture of Ministry of Railways and Gujarat
Pipavan Port Limited with equity participation to execute the Surendra
Nagar-Rajula-Pipavan port gauge conversion/ new line project. This is
the first railway project executed with private sector participation]
 34

CRIS - Central Railway Information Systems

[It is a nonprofit making organization and entrusted with the design,
development and information of all major computer services of the
railways]
IRWO - Indian Railway Welfare Organization
[It was established to meet the specific needs of housing for serving and
retired railway employees. It is taking care of welfare activities on a no
profit-no loss basis.]
Gauge:
It is defined as the clear minimum distance between the running faces of the two rails.
Various gauges:
Broad gauge: 1676 mm
Meter gauge: 1000 mm
Narrow gauge: 762 mm or 610 mm
Factors governing choice of a gauge:
Cost considerations – acquisition of land, earth work, sleepers, ballast, electrification etc.
Traffic considerations- traffic demand, importance of route, speed, axle load etc.
Physical features of the country- steeper gradients and sharper curves
Problems due to Non-uniformity in gauges:
• Inconvenience to passengers – climbing stairs and crossing bridges, missing
connections, transporting luggage, delay in reaching the destination
• Difficulty in Trans-shipment of goods – damage to goods, theft or misplacement of
goods
• Inefficient use of rolling stock- wagons are under utilized
• Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic
• Additional facilities at stations and yards- costly sheds, handling facilities for goods
• Difficulties in balanced economic growth
• Difficulties in future gauge conversion projects
Loading gauge and Construction gauge:
The loading gauge represents the maximum width and height to which a rolling stock, namely a
locomotive, coach or wagon can be built or loaded.
 35

Construction gauge is decided by adding the necessary clearance to the loading gauge so that
vehicles can move safely at the prescribed speed without any infringement.
Basic requirements of an ideal alignment of railway line:
• should serve the basic purpose of the new railway line
• should fit in with the general planning and form a part of the integrated development
• should be as economical as possible
• should be shorter in length
• should be in such a way that the cost of construction and maintenance is minimum
• should give maximum safety
• should be aesthetic
Requirement of a good track:
• gauge should be correct and uniform
• rails should have perfect cross levels
• alignment should be straight
• gradient should be as gentle as possible
• track should be elastic
• track should have good lateral strength
• should have provisions for easy replacement and renewal
• should involve least maintenance cost
RAILS:
Function of rails:
• To transmit the moving loads to the sleepers
• To provide strong, hard and smooth surface for the train journey.
• To bear the stresses developed in the track due to temperature changes and loading
patterns.
• To serve as lateral guide to the running wheels.
• To resist breaking forces caused due to stoppage of trains.
 36

Types of rails:
Double headed rail
These were the rails which were used in the beginning, which were double headed and
consisting of a dumb-bell section. The idea behind using these rails was that when the head was
worn out in course of time, the rail can be inverted and reused. But as time passed indentations
were formed in the lower table due to which smooth running over the surface at the top was
impossible.
Bull headed rail
In this type of rail the head was made a little thicker and stronger than the lower part by adding
more metal to it, so that it can withstand the stresses. Stability is a problem and needs a chair.
Flat footed rail
These rails are also called as Vignole's rails. Initially the flat footed rails were fixed to the
sleepers directly and no chairs and keys were required. Later on due to heavy train loads
problems arose which lead to steel bearing plates between the sleeper and the rail at rail joints
and other important places. These are the rails which are most commonly used in India. Best
suited and universally adopted – distributes load over a larger area and provides good stability.
Standard rail section – Rail section is designated by it weight/m after consideration of the
following:
• Heaviest axle load, maximum permissible speed, depth of ballast cushion, type and
spacing of sleepers.
Important tests for rails to determine serviceability:
• Falling weight test
• Tensile test
• Hammer test
Coning of wheels:
The space between the inner borders of wheel rims is by and large kept less than the
measurement of the track. This results in a gap between the wheel rims and running ends of the
rails which is approximately equal to 1 cm, on both side. More often than not, the tread of
wheels is perfectly the dead centre of the beginning of the rail, since the wheel is chamfered to
keep it in this middle position involuntarily. Thus the wheels are beveled at an inclination of 1
in 20.
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Advantages of coning the wheels

1. Coning the wheels reduces the depreciation of the wheel rims and rails. Depreciation is
caused because of the friction action of rims with inner faces of the rail top.
2. Coning also gives an option of lateral drift of the hinge with is wheels.
3. Coning also prevents, to some extent, the slipping of the wheels.

Tilting of rails:
Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to reduce wear and tear on the rails as well as on
the tread of wheels. As the pressure of the wheel acts near the inner edge of the rail, there is
heavy wear and tear of the rail. Lateral bending stresses are also developed and due to this
uneven loading are applied on sleepers. Hence the rail is tilted at a slope 1 in 20, which is also
the slope of the cone. The rail is tilted by adzing of wooden sleeper or by providing canted
bearing plate.
Creep of Rails:
It is defined as the longitudinal movement of rails with respect to sleepers in a track.
Theories for the development of Creep:
Wave motion theory: Wave motion is set up under the load and is causing creep
Percussion theory: Impact of wheels at rail joint causing creep
Drag theory: Driving wheel will push rails in backward direction and following wheels will
push rails in the forward direction and hence creep occurs.
 38

Causes of creep:
1. Closing of successive expansion spaces at rail joints in the direction of creep and
opening out of joints at the point from where the creep starts.
2. Marks on flanges and webs of rails made by spike heads by scraping or scratching as
the rails slide.
3. Changes in temperature
4. Unbalanced traffic
5. Poor maintenance of track
6. Starting and stopping of trains
Effects of Creep:
1. Sleepers move out of position which leads to the change in gauge and alignment of the
track.
2. Rail joints are opened out of their limit in some case and stresses are set up in fish plates
and bolts which lead to the breakage of the bolts.
3. Points and crossings get disturbed.
4. Maintenance and replacement of tracks becomes difficult.
5. Smashing of fish plates and bolts, bending of bars, kinks at joints are other effects of
creep.
Welding of Rails:
Purpose of welding:
• To increase the length of the rails
• To repair the worn out or damaged rails
• To build up worn out points and rails on the sharp curves
Advantages of welding rails:
• Reduces the creep and friction due to increase in length of rail.
• Expansion effect due to reduction in temperature.
• Increase the life of the rails due to decrease in wear.
• It facilitates track circuiting on electrified tracks.
• The cost decrease because as the length increase automatically the number of joints
decreases.
 39

• High frequency vibrations due to heavy moving loads are decreased due to the
heaviness of the rails.
Sleepers:
Sleepers are used as a base for laying railway tracks. Sleepers were traditionally made from
wood but are now usually made from concrete. Ties are laid on top of sand, gravel or heavy
crushed stone - called ballast.
Functions of sleepers:
The functions of sleepers are as follows
1. To hold the rails in correct gauge i.e. exact gauge in the case of straight and flat curves,
loose gauge in the case of sharp curves and tight gauge in the case of diamond
crossings.
2. To act as an elastic medium between the ballast and rail to absorb the blows and
vibrations of moving loads.
3. They also add to the longitudinal and lateral stability of the permanent track on the
whole.
4. They also provide means to rectify track geometry during service life.
5. To support the rails at proper level in straight tracks and at proper super elevation on
curves.
6. To distribute the load from the rails to the index area of ballast underlying it or to the
girders in the case of bridges.
7. To hold the rails in proper level.
Requirements of sleepers:
It should be economical
It should incur minimum initial and maintenance costs.
The fittings should be such that they can be easily adjusted.
Weight should not be too heavy or too light.
It should not be easily damaged by anti Nationals.
They should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations.
the insulation of rails should be possible for track circuiting, if required through sleepers.
It should be designed that it could not be disturbed from its position easily by the passage of
trains.
 40

Sleeper density:
It is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specifies as N + x, where N is the length of rail
in ‘m’ and ‘x’ is number varies according to axle load and speed, type and strength of sleeper,
type and depth of ballast and nature of formation.
Types of sleepers:
Sleepers can be classified into the following types according to the material of construction.
1. Wooden sleepers
2. Steel sleepers
3. Concrete sleepers
4. Cast iron sleepers
1. Wooden sleepers
Wooden sleepers are regarded as the best as they satisfy almost all the requirements of a good
sleeper. The life of timber sleepers depend upon their ability to resist
• Wear and tear
• Decay
• Attack by white ants/Vermins
• Quality of the timber used
Advantages:
It is easily available in all parts of India
Fittings are few and simple in design
They are easy to lay, relay, pack, lift and maintain
They are suitable for all types of ballast
They are able to resist the shocks and vibrations of the heavy moving loads
They are economical
Disadvantages:
They are subjected to decay, attack by white ants, warping, cracking and end splitting
It is difficult to maintain the gauge in the case of wooden sleepers.
It is difficult to maintain the alignment in the case of wooden sleepers.
They have got minimum service life (12 to 15 yrs) as compared to other types of sleepers
 41

Composite Sleeper Index:

CSI = [S + 10H]/20
CSI is an indicator of the quality of wood to be used as sleeper in terms of strength and
hardness. In the above formula, S is the strength and H is the hardness of the timber at 12%
moisture content.

2. Steel sleepers
Steel sleepers are lightweight, dimensionally more accurate than wooden or concrete and
regarded as an effective technical solution for modern rail networks.
Advantages of steel Sleepers
1. They are manufactured by a simple operation.
2. They can be easily handled as theses are light in weight as compared to other types of
sleepers. Hence, damages during handling and transporting are less.
3. Less number of fastenings are required and that too simple in nature.
4. The maintenance and adjustment of gauge are easy as compared to the other of sleepers.
5. These sleepers are rolled sections in one piece.
6. Their life is longer than that of other types of sleepers.
7. They provide better lateral rigidity to the track.
8. They are not attacked by vermin.
9. They are not susceptible to fire hazards.
10. Their scrap value is good.
Disadvantages of Steel of Sleepers
The steel sleepers possess the following disadvantages:
1. They get easily rusted and corroded.
2. They develop cracks at rail seats or near lugs.
3. Their lugs get broken easily.
4. The steel sleepers do not provide effective track circuiting.
5. The steel sleepers can only be for the type of rails for which these are manufactured.
6. These develop the tendency to become center bound because of slope at both ends.
 42

3. Concrete Sleepers
Concrete sleepers are made of a strong homogeneous material, impervious to effects of
moisture and unaffected by the chemical attacks. It is moulded easily to size and shape required
and it is an ideal material to with stand stresses introduced by fast and heavy traffic.
Advantages
1. The concrete sleepers are quite heavy and thus provide longitudinal, lateral and vertical
stability. Because of their weight, these sleepers are more suitable to LWR tracks.
2. The concrete sleepers result in reduced rail bending stresses.
3. The concrete sleepers reduce the wear of rolling stocks.
4. The concrete sleepers produce less vertical motion and thus provide a comfortable
journey due to less noise.
5. The concrete sleepers have flat bottoms. That’s why modern method of track
maintenance i.e. MSP and machine maintenance can be suitably employed.
6. The concrete sleepers are neither in flammable nor subjected to damage by corrosion or
termite.
7. These sleepers have a long useful life of 50 years. It means rail and sleeper renewals
can be matched.
8. The concrete sleepers with their fastening system maintain gauge, cross levels, twist,
alignment, longitudinal level and unevenness of the track.
9. The concrete sleepers are suitable for track circuiting.
10. The concrete sleepers can be manufactured from local resources.
Disadvantages
1. In case of derailments, heavy damage is caused.
2. High standard of maintenance of track is required.
3. The design and construction are both complicated.
4. They are more rigid and do not have any scrap value.
 43

Ballast:
It is a layer of broken stones, gravel or any other such gritty material laid and packed below and
around sleepers.
Functions of ballast:
• To distribute the loads uniformly over the subgrade.
• To provide good drainage for the track structure.
• To provide elasticity and resilience to track for getting proper riding comfort.
• To held the track structure to line and grade.
• To reduce dust.
• To prevent growth of brush and weeds.
Types of ballast:
Sand ballast – suited for CI sleeper, low traffic density, low speed route
Moorum ballast – Used as initial ballast in new construction, prevents water from percolating
and used as blanket material for black cotton soil.
Coal ash or cinder: used in yards and sidings and harmful for steel sleepers and fittings because
of its corrosive action
Broken stone ballast: Mostly used in Indian railways, provides hard bed and suited for all
weather, economical in the long run and suited for heavy axle load and high speeds.
Requirements of good ballast:
1. It should be tough and should not crumble under heavy loads.
2. It should not make the track dusty or muddy.
3. It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering.
4. It should not produce any chemical reaction with rails and sleepers.
5. The materials should be easily workable.
6. It should retain its position and should not be distributed.
Depth of Ballast:
It is equal to half of the (spacing of sleepers minus width of sleepers). It depends on number of
parameters like axle load and speed of train, type of gauge, sleeper, and ballast material used.
In general minimum depth of ballast specified as 15 to 20 cm.
 44

Physical properties:
Abrasion, attrition, impact and water absorption values of ballast material should fulfill the
requirements. Apart from that size, shape and gradation of material used also to be ok.
Aggregates are ranged from 50mm to 25 mm. Material should pass through 65 mm (around
95%) and to be retained on 25 mm (around 98%). If more than 5% of weight retained on 65
mm sieve, it is called as over sized ballast. Similarly, percentage weight retained on 25 mm
sieve less than 95%, hence it is called as under sized ballast.
Methods of measurement:
Stack measurement
This method is more reliable. One can easily assess the quantity of material dumped/stacked in
trapezoidal form.
Wagon measurement
By measuring plan dimensions and depth of material loaded in a truck, the quantity will be
calculated.
Sampling of ballast material:
Three samples for three stacks are to be tested for its quality. Even if it is a single stack, three
samples are to tested.
Size of ballast:
Size of ballast generally ranging from 20 mm to 65 mm. major percentage of stones will be in
the range of 40 to 50 mm. If more percentage of stones exceeds 65 mm size it is called as over
sized ballast. In a similar manner if more percentage of stones falls below 20 mm size it is
called as under sized ballast.
 45

Geometric Design of Railway Track

A railway track laid along a straight line is said to be an ideal track. But due to general
topography of the area and some other factors, it becomes necessary to deviate from straight
alignment. Hence a curve for or a combination of curves is inserted between straights. Proper
design of component parts of the curve constitutes the geometric design of the track.
Horizontal curves:
The use of curves in railway track is warranted in the following situations:
• To bypass the natural and artificial obstacles
• To provide easier gradients by diverting the straight track alignment
• To connect the area of potentialities
Locations where curves to be avoided:
Bridges, tunnels, viaduct, steep gradient, stations and yards, level crossings and deep cuttings.
Classification of horizontal curve:
Simple curve: Horizontal curve with single arc of a circle
Compound curve: Horizontal curve which consists of two or more arcs with different radii
having different centers on the same side of the common tangent and bending in the same
direction.
Reverse curve: Horizontal curve which consists of two arcs with different circles of the same or
different radii bending in the opposite direction with a common tangent at the junction.
Transition curve: Horizontal curve of varying radii introduced between a straight and a circular
curve.
Radius and degree of a curve:
The radius of the curve is sometimes represented by degree of the curve.
Degree of a railway curve: The angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord of length
30.5 m length.
Relationship between the radius and degree of a curve: D = 1750/R
Effect of curves on tracks:
Length of trains is to be restricted
Use of heavy locomotives is to be restricted
Unequal distribution of load and hence running of train will not be smooth
Extra track fittings are needed
 46

Rails get bent due to rigid wheel base

Operation and maintenance cost is more
Super elevation:
The difference in elevation of outer rail with respect to inner rail to counter balance the
centrifugal force is called super elevation or cant and is equal to GV2/127R, where G is the
dynamic gauge, V is the speed of the train and R is the radius of the curve.
Cant deficiency: It is the difference between the cant necessary for the maximum permissible
speed on a curve and the actual cant provided.
Cant excess: It is the difference between the equilibrium cant and the theoretical cant required
for the given lower speed.
Cant gradient: It is the amount by which cant is increased or decreased in a given length of the
transition curve.
Safe speed on curves: It is the maximum speed of train based on the type of gauge, amount of
super elevation, provision or absence of transition of curve at the ends and weight of the trains.
Maximum sanctioned speed for the section: It is the speed for the section determined by the
factors such as track conditions, standard of locking, type of locomotives etc.
Negative super elevation or Negative cant: When branch line meets main line on curve, outer
rail of one line and the inner rail of the other line should be at the same level and it is called as
negative cant.
Gradients:
The rate of change of slope in the longitudinal direction is called grade or gradient. When a
track rises in the direction of movement of trains, it is known as a up-gradient or positive
gradient, where as a down gradient or falling gradient is the one when the railway track loses
elevation in the direction of the movement of trains.
Gradients are provided in the railway track for the following purposes:
• To reach the stations at different elevations
• To reduce the cost of earth work
• To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible
 47

Classification of gradients:
Ruling gradient: It is the gradient which determines the maximum weight of a train, which can
be pulled by a locomotive along a particular section of a track.
Momentum gradient: It is the up gradient which exceeds the ruling gradient along which the
increased load of the train may be hauled by the locomotive after gaining momentum during
descending a falling gradient.
Pusher or helper gradient: It is the steep gradient along which an additional locomotive is
required to push the train up the gradient.
Gradients in station yards: As far as possible the track along the stations and yards should be
level. But, in level track in stations and yards, complex drainage problem is created. To
overcome the drainage problem, Indian railways have prescribed a normal gradient of 1 in 1000
in station yards.
Grade compensation: whenever train is pulled along a curve, an additional tractive force is
required. In order to avoid the total resistance beyond the permissible ruling gradient, the
gradient is reduced on curves and is called as grade compensation. For BG track – 0.04% per
degree, MG track – 0.03% per degree and NG track – 0.02% per degree.