10.1023/a 1006503406056

Transport in Porous Media 31: 109–131, 1998.
c 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

109
A Parametric Model for Predicting Relative

Permeability-Saturation-Capillary Pressure
Relationships of Oil–Water Systems in
Porous Media with Mixed Wettability
R. J. LENHARD1 and M. OOSTROM2,?

1 Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, AL-Khod 123,
Sultanate of Oman. e-mail: lenhard@squ.edu.om

2 Environmental Technology Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, MS K9-33,
Richland, WA 99352, U.S.A. e-mail: mart.oostrom@pnl.gov
(Received: 29 July 1997; in final form: 21 January 1998)

Abstract. A parametric two-phase, oil–water relative permeability/capillary pressure model for
petroleum engineering and environmental applications is developed for porous media in which the
smaller pores are strongly water-wet and the larger pores tend to be intermediate- or oil-wet. A
saturation index, which can vary from 0 to 1, is used to distinguish those pores that are strongly
water-wet from those that have intermediate- or oil-wet characteristics. The capillary pressure sub-
model is capable of describing main-drainage and hysteretic saturation-path saturations for positive
and negative oil–water capillary pressures. At high oil–water capillary pressures, an asymptote
is approached as the water saturation approaches the residual water saturation. At low oil–water
capillary pressures (i.e. negative), another asymptote is approached as the oil saturation approaches
the residual oil saturation. Hysteresis in capillary pressure relations, including water entrapment,
is modeled. Relative permeabilities are predicted using parameters that describe main-drainage
capillary pressure relations and accounting for how water and oil are distributed throughout the
pore spaces of a porous medium with mixed wettability. The capillary pressure submodel is tested
against published experimental data, and an example of how to use the relative permeability/capillary
pressure model for a hypothetical saturation-path scenario involving several imbibition and drainage
paths is given. Features of the model are also explained. Results suggest that the proposed model is
capable of predicting relative permeability/capillary pressure characteristics of porous media mixed
wettability.
Key words: multiphase flow, hysteresis, mixed wettability, constitutive relations, mixed-wet cap-
illary pressure model.
Nomenclature
g gravitational acceleration (LT−2 )
how oil–water capillary head (L)
kro oil relative permeability
krw water relative permeability
? Address for correspondence: Environmental Technology Division, Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, MS K9-33, Richland, WA 99352, U.S.A.

110 R. J. LENHARD AND M. OOSTROM
m curve-shape parameter (m = 1 − 1/n)

ms curve-shape parameter for scanning paths (ms = 1 − 1/ns )
Mow actual saturation index used to identify that portion of the pore space which is
water-wet from portion which is oil-wet
Mow∗ previous Mow
¯
M̄ ow apparent saturation index used to identify that portion of the pore space
which is water-wet from portion which is oil-wet
¯∗
M̄ previous M̄¯
ow ow
n curve-shape parameter
ns curve-shape parameter for scanning paths
P (S ∗ ) inverse of Brooks–Corey (1964) function
Pd displacement pressure (Pa)
Pmax negative oil–water capillary pressure at which the continuous oil saturation
approaches the residual oil saturation
Po oil pressure (Pa)
Pw water pressure (Pa)
Pow oil–water capillary pressure (Pa)
Pow ID most recent reversal oil–water capillary pressure from drainage to imbibition
Pow DI most recent reversal oil–water capillary pressure from imbibition to drainage
So actual oil saturation
Somin minimum actual oil saturation
S̄¯ o apparent oil saturation
S̄¯ min
o minimum apparent oil saturation
Soc actual continuous oil saturation
Soc min historic minimum of Soc
Sro actual residual oil saturation
Sro max actual maximum residual oil saturation at Mow = Srw
Srw actual residual water saturation
Sw actual water saturation
S̄¯ w apparent water saturation
Swc actual continuous water saturation
S̄¯ Dw apparent water saturation under drainage conditions
S̄¯ DI
ow apparent water saturation at the most recent reversal from drainage to imbibition
S̄¯ Iw apparent water saturation under imbibition conditions
S̄¯ ID
ow apparent water saturation at the most recent reversal from imbibition to drainage
Swt actual entrapped water saturation
Swt max
maximum Swt when oil imbibes in an oil-wet porous medium
α curve-shape parameter
αd curve-shape parameter for drainage scanning paths
αi curve-shape parameter for imbibition scanning paths
λ pore-size distribution index
term used in relative permeability integrals; = 1 − S̄¯ w + M̄
¯
ow
ρw water mass density (ML ) −3
1. Introduction
Results from computer modeling can be used to assist in planning and evaluating
management strategies involving multiphase fluid flow. Many decisions concerning
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY-SATURATION-CAPILLARY PRESSURE RELATIONSHIPS 111
the development of petroleum reservoirs or remediation of oil-contaminated aquifers

are based upon predictions using models. Financial risks of these decisions can be
reduced if the modeling accurately reflects multiphase flow phenomena. However,
models will never be able to exactly predict flow phenomena because there will
always be some uncertainty in knowledge of porous-media pore structure, integrated
effects of pore-scale processes in complex porous media, or other important factors.
Therefore, predictive multiphase flow models will be empirical to some extent.
A critical component of all predictive multiphase flow codes is how the relation-
ships among relative permeabilities, saturations, and pressures (k-S-P) are described.
In the petroleum industry, k-S-P relations are commonly estimated by extrapolating
between data points measured in laboratory experiments. In one set or type of exper-
iments, relationships between fluid saturations and pressures (S-P) are measured.
In another set of experiments, relationships between relative permeabilities and
saturations (k-S) are measured. This approach can yield S-P and k-S data that are
not consistent with each other because different experimental boundary conditions
and saturation-path histories may be imposed and different samples may be used
in the experiments. In addition, different saturation-path histories may be simulated
with the computer model than those measured in the experiments. As a consequence,
inconsistent k-S-P relations may be used when predicting multiphase flow with
simulators that estimate k-S-P relations via extrapolating between measured S-P
and k-S data points.
Models that are able to mimic fundamental fluid-flow processes may be preferable
for estimating k-S-P relations than those that rely on interpolation between data points
because they may have greater utility and may be more consistent. Predictive k-S-P
models should describe k-S-P relations at the macroscopic scale (i.e. the scale at which
is being modeled) by accounting for pore-scale phenomena. The models need to
account for how the fluids are distributed throughout the pore spaces during drainage
as well as imbibition. For greater utility, the models should also be relatively easy
to calibrate to porous media. The majority of predictive k-S-P models (e.g. Brooks
and Corey, 1964; van Genuchten, 1980; and others) are for water-wet porous media.
There have been only a few models (Jerauld, 1996; Kovscek et al., 1993; McDougall
and Sorbie, 1993) proposed for predicting k-S-P behavior in porous media with mixed
wettability conditions. However, it is becoming increasingly understood that more
porous media have a mixed wettability condition, especially petroleum reservoirs
(Jerauld, 1994; McDougall and Sorbie, 1993; Treiber et al., 1972). Therefore, there
is a need for well-founded k-S-P models that predict fluid behavior in porous media
with mixed wettability.
In this paper, a model is proposed to estimate two-phase k-S-P relations of porous
media where the smaller pores are strongly water-wet and the larger pores tend
to be intermediate- or oil-wet. The model can have applications in environmen-
tal problems as well as petroleum engineering. In the model, main-drainage and
hysteretic scanning-path S-P relations are modeled, including water entrapment.
Parameters describing main-drainage S-P relations are used to predict k-S relations.
The model is capable of estimating k-S-P relations for any saturation-path history.
The proposed algebraic expressions are easy to implement in multiphase flow codes.
The S-P submodel is tested against experimental S-P data published by Killins et
al. (1953) that reflect mixed wettability characteristics. In addition, a hypothetical
saturation-path scenario is used to explain the model and to evaluate if the model
yields reasonable capillary pressure/relative permeability predictions. The results
suggest that the proposed model can be used to predict major characteristics of k-S-P
behavior in porous media with mixed wettability.
2. Model Development
In the following sections, capillary pressure and relative permeability submodels are
developed. The underlying assumptions of the models are that (1) all porous media
are considered to be initially strongly water-wet, (2) the wettability of strongly water-
wet pores can be modified by compounds in the oil (i.e. such as certain asphaltenes)
to yield wettability states other than strongly water-wet (i.e. intermediate- or oil-
wet conditions), (3) the residence time of the oil in the strongly water-wet pores is
such that the wettability of those pores change, and (4) the change in wettability of
pores from strongly water-wet conditions to other states is irreversible under normal
flow conditions. Therefore, pores (i.e. flow channels) can have oil-wet characteris-
tics once an oil containing wettability modifying compounds displaces water from
strongly water-wet pores. The result is a porous medium with mixed wettability
characteristics. Water will be the wetting fluid in pores in which water was never
displaced by oil and the nonwetting fluid in pores in which water was displaced by
imbibing oil. Robin et al. (1995) have observed similar wettability characteristics
using cyron-scanning electron microscopy. Throughout this paper, we will refer to
all pores that are not strongly water-wet as oil-wet pores as a convenience, even
though other wettability conditions may exist. Furthermore, we will refer to porous
media with mixed wettability characteristics as mixed-wet media. Whether all of the
larger pore surfaces become oil-wet or only certain mineral surfaces become oil-wet
is not important. We are attempting to model k-S-P relations where there is a network
of oil-wet surfaces in the larger pores, but not in the smaller pores. In the Discussion,
we will address conditions for which all of the larger pores may not be oil-wet.
2.1. capillary pressure submodel

It is well established that S-P relations are hysteretic. For mixed-wet porous media,
the main water-drainage S-P relations will be considerably different than scanning-
path S-P relations, because the main water-drainage branch will reflect a water-wet
medium, but the scanning paths will reflect a mixed-wet medium. During water
imbibition in water-wet media, water will displace oil from the smallest of the oil-
filled pores. In mixed-wet media that we are considering, imbibing water will displace
oil from the largest of the oil-filled pores, because water is the nonwetting fluid in
oil-filled pores.
Key features of the proposed S-P model are that (1) the main water-drainage
branch can be simulated with either a power curve or an S-shape function, (2) the
scanning paths are simulated with an S-shape function that approaches asymptotes
at either end, and (3) the model is capable of predicting relations between saturations
and negative capillary pressures. In the model, the concept of an apparent saturation
(Lenhard, 1992) is used. It is assumed that the apparent water saturation is only a
function of the oil–water capillary pressure (Pow ).
2.1.1. Saturations
An apparent saturation, as used by Lenhard (1992), is a scaled saturation that reflects
the volume of a fluid phase which is continuous throughout the pore spaces plus any
other fluid volume that is entrapped (i.e. discontinuous) in the continuous fluid phase.
An apparent saturation is used to index the location of fluid interfaces that separate
continuous fluid phases. For a two-phase, mixed-wet, oil–water system, continuous
water will be in the water-wet pores and also in the largest of the oil-wet pores
for water S-P paths other than main drainage. For main water-drainage S-P paths,
continuous water will be only in the water-wet pores. Continuous oil will be in the
smaller or all of the oil-wet pores, depending on the saturation-path history. Water
entrapment in oil-wet pores is modeled as imbibing oil displaces water from oil-wet
pores, where water is the nonwetting fluid. We neglect any entrapment of oil in water-
wet pores, because we assume that when oil invades water-wet pores the residence
time of the oil in the water-wet pores is such that those pores become oil-wet. Salathiel
(1973) was able to induce mixed-wet characteristics in a strongly water-wet core by
using a heptane-crude oil mixture in three days. Jia et al. (1991) used a crude oil
to change wettability conditions in cores and observed distinct wettability changes
after five days of contact with the crude oil. Hence, it may be reasonable to assume
that oil will never be a nonwetting fluid in water-wet pores, because the changes in
wettability may be rapid relative to significant oil and water saturation changes in
the subsurface.
The apparent water saturation is defined as

¯ Swc − Srw
S̄ w = , (1)
1 − Srw − Sro
where Swc is the actual continuous-water saturation, and Srw and Sro are the actual
residual water and oil saturations, respectively, and the apparent oil saturation is
defined as

¯ Soc + Swt − Sro
S̄ o = , (2)
1 − Srw − Sro
where Soc is the actual continuous-oil saturation, and Swt is the actual entrapped water
saturation in oil-wet pores.
Using the above definitions, the apparent water and oil saturations will vary
between 0 and 1. The apparent water saturation will approach zero as Swc approaches
Srw , and the apparent oil saturation will approach zero as Soc approaches Sro (note:
Swt is zero at Sro ), which are important for modeling relative permeabilities. It should
also be noted that the apparent water and oil saturations sum to 1 and that Swc and
Swt sum to the actual water saturation.
The residual water and oil saturations used in Equations (1) and (2) have been
called several terms in the petroleum engineering and hydrology literature, e.g.
minimum, irreducible, and residual saturations. A continuous wetting-fluid satu-
ration at which the wetting-fluid relative permeability approaches zero has been
commonly referred to as a residual saturation (Willhite, 1986). However, a residual
saturation has also been defined as the discontinuous nonwetting-fluid saturation
following wetting-fluid imbibition (Willhite, 1986). Albeit this may seem confus-
ing, the residual wetting-fluid saturation represents a continuous fluid phase, and
a residual nonwetting-fluid saturation represents a discontinuous fluid phase for a
porous medium with uniform wettability. In mixed-wet systems, a porous medium
will not have a uniform wettability. One fluid will be the wetting fluid in some pores
and the nonwetting fluid in other pores. Thus, the use of a residual saturation in
mixed-wet porous media can be confusing and may be inappropriate without further
clarification.
In this paper, we adopt the terminology that residual saturations are continuous
fluid contents, and trapped saturations are discontinuous fluid contents. Accordingly,
Srw is the actual water content in the water-wet pores at which the water relative
permeability approaches zero, and Sro is the actual oil content in the oil-wet pores at
which the oil relative permeability approaches zero. Swt is the actual water content
that is trapped as discontinuous ganglia and occluded by oil in the oil-wet pores.
The actual residual water saturation, Srw , can be assumed to be invariant and be a
function of the pore geometry, because it is always associated with the smallest-sized
pores in a porous medium. However, the actual residual oil saturation, Sro , in mixed-
wet porous media is likely to be variable and to be a function of the pore sizes that
are oil-wet. We propose that Sro is a function of the smallest pores that are oil-wet.
To index the smallest of the oil-wet pores, we employ a saturation index (Mow ) that
characterizes the smallest pores in which oil has displaced water for the required
residence time to transform water- to oil-wet pores. Mow identifies that portion of
the pore space which is water-wet from that portion which is oil-wet. Note that
Mow corresponds to an actual water saturation of the main water-drainage branch. In
petroleum reservoirs, Mow is likely to be the initial water saturation in the reservoir
before oil production. In many reservoirs, Mow may be equal to the residual water
saturation. For environmental applications, Mow will be the lowest continuous-water
saturation (Swc ) for which oil has met the required residence time to transform water-
to oil-wet pores.
To develop a protocol for determining Sro that requires a minimum of calibration
effort, we assume that Sro has a maximum value when Mow = Srw and is zero when
Mow = 1. Furthermore, we assume that Sro becomes larger as smaller pores become
oil-wet such that the increase in Sro increases as Mow approaches Srw . The proposed
relationship between Sro and Mow is
Sro = Sro
max
(1 − M̄¯ ow )2 , (3)
where Sro
max
is defined as Sro at Mow = Srw and

¯ Mow − Srw
M̄ ow = . (4)
1 − Srw − Sro
Using Equations (3) and (4), Sro will equal Sro max
when Mow = Srw , and Sro will
equal zero when Mow = 1. The exponent used in Equation (3) was chosen so that
Sro increases as Mow decreases in a manner that we feel is reasonable based on our
preliminary S-P observations. Experimental studies are needed to better quantify the
relationship between Sro and Mow . The value of the exponent in Equation (3) is likely
to be a function of the pore geometry.
2.1.2. Saturation Paths

Main water-drainage S-P relations can be related to Pow by either a power or an
S-shaped function, where Pow is defined as Po − Pw in which Po and Pw are the
oil and water pressures, respectively. For the power function, we propose using the
Brooks–Corey (1964) function, which is

¯ Pd λ
S̄ w = for Pow > Pd , (5a)
Pow
S̄¯ w = 1 for 0 < Pow < Pd , (5b)
where Pd and λ are parameters commonly referred to as the displacement pressure and
the pore-size distribution index, respectively. For an S-shaped function, we propose
using the van Genuchten (1980) function, which is
S̄¯ w = [1 + (αPow )n ]−m for Pow > 0, (6)
where α and n are curve-shape parameters in which m = 1 − 1/n. Both the Brooks–
Corey (1964) and van Genuchten (1980) functions are commonly used to describe
S-P relations in consolidated and unconsolidated porous media.
Scanning S-P relations are related to Pow by scaled S-shape functions. Any
scanning-path saturation history can be predicted by scaling drainage and imbibition
S-P functions similar to Equation (6) through appropriate drainage-to-imbibition and
imbibition-to-drainage S-P reversals. The procedure is similar to that employed by
Parker and Lenhard (1987) and Lenhard (1992), where the apparent water-saturation
scanning paths are forced to close.
To describe scanning-path S-P relations in mixed-wet media, we propose us-

ing a modified van Genuchten (1980) function as the S-shape function. For the
drainage function, the modified van Genuchten (1980) function for the apparent
water saturation is
S̄¯ D = [1 + {α (P − P )}ns ]−ms for P > P ,
w d ow max ow max (7)
where the superscript D indicates the drainage function, Pmax is the negative Pow at
which Soc approaches Sro , and αd and ns are curve-shape parameters for drainage
scanning paths in which ms = 1 − 1/ns . It is reasonable to assume that Pmax may
vary with Sro and Mow . However, because experimental data is lacking to formulate
a functional relationship among Pmax , Sro , Mow or other variables at this time, we
recommend using Pmax at Soc → Sro on the water-imbibition scanning path or using
an operational Pmax at which Soc appears to approach Sro at the end of an oil production
scenario. Preliminary investigations indicate that Pmax may not be very sensitive to
changes in Sro or S-P relations as Mow approaches Srw . However, Pmax should be
fundamentally related to Mow via Laplace’s equation of capillarity.
The modified van Genuchten (1980) function for apparent water saturations of
the imbibition function is
−ms
S̄¯ I = 1 + {α (P − P )}ns
w i ow max for P > P ,
ow max (8)
where the superscript I refers to the imbibition function, and αi is the curve-shape
parameter of water-imbibition scanning paths. All other terms are as previously
described. To minimize the number of parameters, the same ns is used to describe
the drainage and imbibition functions. However, separate n’s could be employed.
To model any scanning-path saturation history, Equations (7) and (8) are scaled
through pertinent drainage-to-imbibition and imbibition-to-drainage S-P reversals
following Parker and Lenhard (1987) and Lenhard (1992). Water-drainage scanning
paths are predicted from
( )
[ ¯ D (P ) − S̄¯ D (P ID )](S̄¯ ID − S̄¯ DI )
S̄
S̄¯ w (Pow ) = + S̄¯ DI
ow
w ,
w w ow w w
(9)
S̄¯ D (P
w ow
¯ D (P DI )
ID ) − S̄
w ow
where Pow is the oil–water capillary pressure of the S-P point being predicted; Pow
with superscripts ID and DI are the most recent reversal capillary pressures from
imbibition to drainage and drainage to imbibition, respectively; S̄¯ w with the super-
script D followed by a capillary pressure in parentheses refers to the apparent water
saturation of the drainage function at the pertinent capillary pressure [e.g. S̄¯ D
w (Pow )
ID
is the apparent water saturation of the drainage function (Equation 7) at the Pow of
the most recent reversal from imbibition to drainage]; and S̄¯ w with superscripts ID
and DI are the most recent apparent water saturation reversals from imbibition to
drainage and drainage to imbibition, respectively. Water-imbibition scanning paths
are predicted from
( )
[S̄¯ Iw (Pow ) − S̄¯ Iw (Pow
ID
)](S̄¯ DI ¯ ID
w − S̄ w )
¯
S̄ w (Pow ) = + S̄¯ ID
w, (10)
¯ I DI ¯
S̄ w (Pow ) − S̄ w (Pow )
I ID
where S̄¯ w with the superscript I followed by a capillary pressure in parentheses

refers to the apparent water saturation of the imbibition function (Equation 8) at the
pertinent capillary pressure. All other terms are as previously described.
2.1.3. Water Entrapment

In addition to a lack of experimental data relating Sro to a parameter like Mow , quan-
titative experimental data are also lacking on the entrapment of fluids in mixed-wet
porous media. In water-wet systems, oil will become entrapped on water imbibition
paths (i.e. nonwetting fluid entrapment by imbibing wetting fluid). On subsequent
water drainage paths, entrapped oil will be released to the continuous oil. If the main
water-drainage branch is rejoined, then all of the entrapped oil will be released. For
mixed-wet systems, it is more complicated.
In mixed-wet media, a water imbibition path needs to occur in which water invades
the oil-wet pores before any water can be entrapped. An oil imbibition (i.e. water
drainage) path then needs to follow in which oil displaces water from the oil-wet
pores, thus entrapping water. The entrapped water may later be released into a
continuous water phase on water imbibition paths as water displaces oil from the
oil-wet pores. If the main water-drainage branch is rejoined, then all of the entrapped
water will not be released.
To model the entrapment of water by oil in mixed-wet media, we assume that
water can only be trapped by oil in oil-wet pores larger than those characterized by
the historic minimum of Soc (i.e. the smallest of the oil-wet pores in which water
has invaded during water imbibition paths). Therefore, entrapped water can only be
present in pore sizes between those characterized by the historic minimum of Soc and
the largest pore.
When Soc never becomes larger than 1 − Mow , the modeling of water entrapment
is straight forward. However, modeling water entrapment is complicated when Soc
becomes larger than 1 − Mow , because a new Mow is established. When Soc equals
1 − Mow , the apparent water saturation on the water-drainage scanning path will
rejoin the main water-drainage path. If water saturations decrease further (i.e. oil is
imbibing in water-wet pores), then a new Mow is established. When Soc becomes
larger than 1 − Mow , we label Mow as the new Mow (i.e. the current time step Mow )
∗
and Mow as the previous Mow . Whenever all of the trapped water is released to the
∗
continuous water, the previous Mow (i.e. Mow ) needs to be updated to the current
Mow . The proposed algorithm for determining Swt is
∗
if Mow = Mow ,
Swt = Swt
max
(1 − Swc − Soc
min
) (11)
∗
if Mow < Mow
∗
if 1 − Swc + Mow 6 Mow + Soc
min
,
∗
Swt = 0 and reset Mow = Mow , (12a)
∗
if 1 − Swc + Mow > Mow + Soc
min
,
∗
Swt = Swt
max
(1 − Swc + Mow − Soc
min
− Mow ), (12b)
where Socmin
is the historic minimum of Soc , and Swt max
is the Swt that results when oil
imbibes in an oil-wet porous medium that is initially water-saturated with a similar
pore structure as the media being modeled, i.e. the maximum Swt possible. All of
the trapped water will be released to the continuous water when 1 − Swc + Mow is
∗
less than or equal to Mow + Soc
min
. If Soc never becomes larger than 1 − Mow , then
only Equation (11) applies for modeling water entrapment. In a later section, an
application of the above algorithm will be described.
2.1.4. Model Testing Against Laboratory Data

As an initial test to evaluate if the above model can describe mixed-wet S-P relations,
the capillary pressure submodel was coupled with a nonlinear, least-squares regres-
sion program and best fit to published S-P data of Killins et al. (1953). The laboratory
data consisted of a main water-drainage branch and a water-imbibition scanning path
measured using a Hasslet-type capillary pressure cell on a Berea core. We used the
Brooks–Corey (1964) function to describe the main water-drainage S-P relations. All
of the mixed-wet S-P parameters were best fit to Killins et al. (1953) data, except for
Mow , αd , Swt
max
and Pmax . Mow was set to 0.4, which was the actual water saturation
reversal from the main water-drainage branch to the water-imbibition scanning path;
Pmax was chosen to be −4.23 psi, which was slightly lower than the lowest S-P data
point; and αd and Swt max
were not determined because a water-drainage scanning path
was not included in the data. A water-drainage scanning path is needed for water to
become entrapped. The best-fit parameters are listed in Table I and the agreement to
the laboratory data is shown in Figure 1, where the modeling results are shown as
solid lines and the laboratory data are shown as symbols in which the squares are
main water-drainage S-P relations and the circles are water-imbibition scanning path
S-P relations. The initial test suggests that the proposed capillary pressure submodel
is able to describe mixed-wet S-P relations.
Table I. Model parameters obtained from

best fitting to Killins et al. (1953) data
Pd 0.32 psi
λ 0.412
Srw 0.092
αi 4.72 × 10−5 psi−1
ns 12.75
Sro
max 0.134
Pmax −4.23 psi
Figure 1. Comparison of best-fit modeling results (solid lines) to laboratory (symbols) S-P
relations of a mixed-wet Berea core (Killins et al., 1953) where the squares and circles denote
main water-drainage and water-imbibition scanning path data, respectively.
2.2. relative permeability submodel
A governing assumption of the relative permeability-saturation (k-S) submodel is that

S-P relations of the main water-drainage branch best reflect the pore-size distribution
of a porous medium. Furthermore, it is assumed that reasonably accurate predictions
of hysteretic, transient multiphase flow can be obtained by estimating k-S relations
from knowledge of S-P relations as shown by Lenhard et al. (1991, 1995).
Following the general approach of Corey (1954), Brooks and Corey (1964), and
Lenhard and Parker (1987) for predicting relative permeabilities, the water relative
permeability (krw ) in a mixed-wet porous medium can be estimated from
 Z M̄¯ Z 1 
ow
dS ∗ dS ∗
 + ∗ 2
2  0 P (S ∗ )2 P (S ) 
krw = Swc  Z 1  (13)
 dS ∗ 
∗ 2
0 P (S )
where = 1− S̄¯ w + M̄¯ ow and P (S ∗ ) is the inverse of Brooks–Corey (1964) function.

Note that Equation (13) can be used for all saturation paths. The first term in the
numerator is the contribution from the water-wet pores, and the second term is the
contribution from the oil-wet pores. For the main water-drainage path, would be
equal to 1 and the contribution of the second term would vanish, because S̄¯ w would
equal M̄¯ ow .
Similarly, the oil relative permeability (kro ) of a two-phase, oil–water system in
mixed-wet porous media can be estimated as
Z Z Swt 
dS ∗ dSwt
 ¯ −
∗ 2
2  M̄ ow P (S ) 0 P (S ∗ )2 

kro = Soc  Z 1 ∗
 (14)
 dS 
∗ 2
0 P (S )
where all terms have been previously described. The first term in the numerator
is the contribution from the oil-wet pores containing oil, and the second term ac-
counts for entrapped water in the oil-wet pores. Relative permeability integrals
similar to Equations (13) and (14), but using the van Genuchten/Mualem method
(van Genuchten, 1980), can also be developed if Equation (6) is used to describe
main water-drainage S-P relations instead of Equation (5).
Analytical expressions for Equations (13) and (14) can be obtained by following
Brooks and Corey (1964) and Lenhard and Parker (1987). For the water relative
permeability, the analytical expression is
k = S 2 [1 + M̄¯ ε − ε ],
rw wc ow (15)
where ε = (2 + λ)/λ.
Using Equation (15), krw would be 1 when Swc = 1 on the main water-drainage
path because the apparent Mow , Swc , and would equal 1, and krw would be less
than 1 when Swc → 1 − Sro even though S̄¯ w would equal 1 because Swc would be less
than 1. Note that as Swc → 1 − Sro , M̄¯ ow and become equal to each other because
S̄¯ o → 0 and S̄¯ w → 1.
For the oil relative permeability, the analytical expressions are
if Swt = 0,
kro = Soc
2
(ε − M̄¯ εow ) (16a)
if Swt > 0,
∗
if Mow = Mow
kro = Soc
2
{(ε − M̄¯ εow ) − Swt
max
(1 − Srw − Sro ) ([S̄¯ o + M̄¯ ow ]ε
(16b)
−[S̄¯ min ¯ ε
o + M̄ ow ] )}
∗
if Mow < Mow
kro = Soc
2
{(ε − M̄¯ εow ) − Swt
max
(1 − Srw − Sro ) ([S̄¯ o + M̄¯ ow ]ε
(16c)
−[S̄¯ min ¯∗ ε
o + M̄ ow ] )}
where M̄¯ ∗ow = (Mow

∗
− Srw )/(1 − Srw − Sro ) and Sro is determined from Equation (3).
Equations (16b) and (16c) are obtained after a substitution of variables for the en-
trapped saturation (i.e. Swt ) integral in Equation (15). Equation (16a) is used for k-S
relations corresponding to the main water-drainage S-P branch and a water-imbibition
scanning path from the main water-drainage S-P branch when there is no entrapped
water. Equation (16b) is used for k-S relations corresponding to scanning paths with
entrapped water when a prior water-drainage scanning path has not closed with the
main water-drainage branch. Equation (16c) is used for k-S relations corresponding
to either the main water-drainage branch or scanning paths with entrapped water
when a prior water-drainage scanning path has closed with the main water-drainage
branch.
An example of how to use the S-P and k-S submodels is explained in the following
section. A hypothetical saturation-path scenario involving several imbibition and
drainage paths is given for which S-P and k-S relations are calculated. Features of
the models are also explained.
3. Example Application
Using the above, k-S-P relations can be predicted for any saturation-path history in
mixed-wet porous media from parameters of the main water-drainage S-P branch
and the S-shape drainage and imbibition functions, i.e. Equations (7) and (8). In
Figures 2–5, saturations and relative permeabilities are shown for a hypothetical
saturation-path scenario. Parameters used to develop Figures 2–5 are listed in Table II.
The first saturation path of the saturation-path scenario is the main water-drainage
branch, where oil imbibes into an initially water-saturated porous medium until the
oil–water capillary pressure head, how (i.e. how = Pow /ρw g where ρw is the water
mass density and g is the gravitational acceleration), reaches 15 cm. For discussion
purposes, we label this saturation path as path 1. Thereafter, a water-imbibition
scanning path (i.e. path 2) is initiated from the drainage-to-imbibition S-P reversal
at how = 15 cm of the main water-drainage branch to how = −10 cm. A water-
drainage scanning path (i.e. path 3) is then followed from the imbibition-to-drainage
Figure 2. Predicted relations between oil–water capillary pressures and apparent water
saturations for the hypothetical saturation-path scenario.
S-P reversal at how of −10 cm of the water-imbibition scanning path until the main
water-drainage branch is rejoined at how = 15 cm. After rejoining the main water-
drainage branch, the oil–water capillary pressure head continues to increase from
how = 15 cm to how = 30 cm. As the continuous water saturation decreases when
how increases from 15 to 30 cm, oil invades smaller and smaller pores establishing
a lower Mow . We label the saturation path where how increases from 15 to 30 cm
as path 1a. The last saturation path of the saturation-path scenario is another water-
Figure 3. Predicted relations between oil–water capillary pressures and actual water
imbibition scanning path (i.e. path 2a), which begins at the drainage-to-imbibition
S-P reversal at how = 30 cm of the main water-drainage branch and continues until
Soc → Sro (i.e. how → Pmax ).
The apparent water-saturation path history is shown in Figure 2, and the actual
water-saturation path history is shown in Figure 3. Apparent water saturations of
path 1, i.e. the main water-drainage branch, are determined from Equation (5) as how
Figure 4. Predicted relations between water relative permeabilities and actual water
increases from 5 to 15 cm. At how = 15 cm, the apparent water saturation is 0.111.
Since the water saturation path changes from main drainage to an imbibition scanning
path at how = 15 cm, is set to 0.111, which yields an Sro of 0.079 using equation (3).
Once Sro is calculated, then Mow can be determined via Equation (4), which yields
0.191. For the main water-drainage branch prior to the first water-imbibition scanning
Figure 5. Predicted relations between oil relative permeabilities and actual water saturations
for the hypothetical saturation-path scenario.
∗
path, Mow is set equal to Mow . The apparent water saturations of path 1 decrease
from 1 at how = 5 cm to 0.111 at how = 15 cm, while the actual continuous-water
saturations (i.e. Swc ) decrease from 1 at how = 5 cm to 0.191 at how = 15 cm.
Water and oil relative permeabilities as functions of actual water saturations for the
hypothetical saturation-path scenario are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. For
Table II. Model parameters used

for the hypothetical mixed-wet S-P
history
Pd 5.0 cm
λ 2.0
Srw 0.1
αd 0.05 cm−1
αi 0.08 cm−1
ns 6.0
Sro
max 0.1
Swt
max
0.15
Pmax −20.0 cm
path 1, water relative permeabilities are predicted using Equation (15), and oil relative
permeabilities are predicted using Equation (16a) because Swt = 0.
Apparent water saturations of path 2 are predicted using Equation (10). On path 2,
imbibing water is displacing oil from the largest of the oil-wet pores. There is no
water entrapment because water is a nonwetting fluid displacing oil, the wetting fluid.
The apparent water saturations of path 2 increase from the drainage-to-imbibition
reversal (i.e. 0.111) at how = 15 cm of the main water-drainage branch to 0.842
at how = −10 cm. The corresponding actual continuous water saturations increase
∗
from 0.191 to 0.792, in which Sro , Mow and Mow are still 0.079, 0.191, and 0.191,
respectively. Water and oil relative permeabilities for path 2 are also estimated using
Equations (15) and (16a), respectively, because Swt = 0. Note that for the same actual
water saturation in Figures 4 and 5, different water and oil relative permeabilities
are predicted for paths 1 and 2. The differences in water relative permeabilities are
because water will be contained only in the smaller pores (i.e. water-wet pores) on
path 1, but water will be contained in the smaller pores as well as the largest pores on
path 2, yielding a larger relative permeability. For oil relative permeabilities, oil will
be contained in the larger pores on path 1, but only in a subset of the larger pores on
path 2 because water will be in the largest pores. Therefore, oil relative permeabilities
on path 2 are smaller compared to path 1 for the same actual water saturation.
Apparent water saturations on path 3 are predicted using Equation (9). The historic
minimum of Soc (i.e. Socmin
) is set at the imbibition-to-drainage S-P reversal from path 2
to path 3, i.e. Soc = 1−Swc = 0.208. On path 3, imbibing oil is displacing water from
min
the smallest of the water-filled oil-wet pores, which will result in water entrapment
because a wetting fluid is displacing a nonwetting fluid. The amount of water trapped
∗ ∗
is estimated using Equation (11) because Mow = Mow (i.e. Mow = Mow = 0.191).
The apparent water saturations of path 3 decrease from the imbibition-to-drainage
S-P reversal from path 2 to path 3 (i.e. 0.842) at how = −10 cm to 0.111 at how =
15 cm. Note in Figure 2 that the apparent water saturation scanning loop (i.e. paths 2
and 3) closes. The oil–water interfaces separating the continuous water and oil phases
should be at the same pore location when path 3 rejoins the main water-drainage
branch as they were when path 2 was initiated (i.e. the drainage-to-imbibition reversal
from the main water-drainage branch). However, the corresponding actual water-
saturation scanning loop doesn’t close (see Figure 3). The reason for the non-closure
is the entrapped water associated with path 3. The actual water saturations of path
3 decrease from the imbibition-to-drainage S-P reversal from path 2 to path 3 (i.e.
0.792) at how = −10 cm to 0.281 at how = 15 cm, of which 0.09 is entrapped water
(Swt = 0.09) at how = 15 cm. Note that the actual continuous-water saturation at
the point where path 3 rejoins the main water-drainage branch is the same as that at
the point where path 2 was initiated (i.e. Swc = 0.281 − 0.09 = 0.191). The water
relative permeabilities for path 3 are predicted from Equation (15), but the oil relative
∗
permeabilities are predicted from Equation (16b) because Swt > 0 and Mow = Mow .
Again, the water and oil relative permeabilities of path 3 are different than those
predicted for paths 1 and 2 for the same actual water saturation. The water relative
permeabilities for path 3 are smaller than those for path 2 (see Figure 4), because
some of the actual water saturation is entrapped and discontinuous within the oil
on path 3. Therefore, there is less continuous water in the pore spaces that can flow
via a water-pressure gradient. The oil relative permeabilities for path 3 are slightly
smaller than those of path 2 (see Figure 5), because the entrapped water associated
with path 3 will obstruct oil movement.
After rejoining the main water-drainage branch, the oil-water capillary pressures
increase from how = 15 cm to how = 30 cm (i.e. path 1a). As how becomes larger
than 15 cm, oil will displace water from the water-wet pores. It is assumed that the
residence time of oil in the water-wet pores is such that they become oil-wet. As
oil invades water-wet pores after a scanning saturation-path loop has closed, Mow
∗ ∗
becomes less than Mow , Mow remains equal to 0.191, which was the first actual water
∗
saturation reversal from the main water-drainage branch. Mow is not updated to the
new Mow because the condition associated with Equation (12a) has not been met.
For path 1a, which is shown as a thicker line in Figures 2–5, oil is invading into
smaller and smaller water-wet pores while the amount of entrapped water on the
prior scanning paths remain constant. The apparent water saturations of path 1a are
determined from Equation (5). The entrapped water saturations are determined from
Equation (12b). The sum of the Swc , determined from Equations (5) and (1), and
Swt , determined from Equation (12b), equals the actual water saturation. Note that
∗
Mow , Mow , Soc
min
, and Swc are either stored historic values or are determined from the
current time step how . The apparent water saturations of path 1a decrease from 0.111
at how = 15 cm (i.e. the point where the main water-drainage branch was rejoined)
to 0.028 at how = 30 cm (Figure 2). The actual water saturations of path 1a decreases
from 0.281 at how = 15 cm to 0.212 at how = 30 cm, in which Swt = 0.09 (Figure 3).
The water relative permeabilities of path 1a are predicted via Equation (15), where
M̄¯ ow is the current-time-step M̄¯ ow determined from Equation (5). The predicted water
relative permeabilities of path 1a are smaller than those of an extension of path 1 (see
Figure 4), because there is entrapped water on path 1a but there is no entrapped water
on path 1. Therefore, the amount of continuous water on path 1a will be less than that
on path 1 for the same actual water saturation. The oil relative permeabilities of path
1a are predicted via Equation (16c) where M̄¯ ∗ow and S̄¯ min
o are determined using Sro ,
which is calculated from the current-time-step M̄¯ ow . The oil relative permeabilities
of path 1a are only slightly smaller than those of path 1 (see Figure 5) because of the
entrapped water in the larger oil-wet pores.
The final saturation path (i.e. path 2a) is a water-imbibition scanning path in
which the drainage-to-imbibition reversal from the main water-drainage branch is
at how = 30 cm. M̄¯ ow for path 2a is 0.028, which yields an Sro of 0.095. The
∗
actual Mow is 0.122. Note that the actual Mow is 0.191. The apparent and actual Mow
for path 2a are determined from the drainage-to-imbibition reversal from the main
water-drainage S-P branch at how = 30 cm. Apparent water saturations are predicted
using Equation (10). On path 2a, water displaces oil progressively from the largest to
smaller oil-wet pores until Soc approaches Sro . As water invades smaller and smaller
oil-wet pores, entrapped water is released to the continuous water. Swt is estimated
from Equation (12b) until imbibing water reaches the pores corresponding to Soc min
at
which time all of the entrapped water is released to the continuous water. In Figures
2 and 3, the point at which all of the entrapped water is released is shown as a solid
circle on path 2a. When the condition associated with equation (12a) is met (i.e. all
∗
trapped water has been released), then Mow is reset to the current Mow (which is
0.122). The apparent water saturations increase from 0.028 at how = 30 cm to 1 at
how = −20 cm on path 2a. The actual water saturations increase from 0.212 to 0.905
(i.e. Swc = 1 − Sro ). Water relative permeabilities are estimated using Equation (15),
and oil relative permeabilities are estimated using Equation (16c) when Swt > 0 and
Equation (16a) when Swt = 0 (after all of the entrapped water has been released).
4. Discussion
As can be seen in Figure 2, the apparent water saturation path history for the hypo-
thetical scenario follows an orderly sequence. Apparent water saturation paths 2 and
3 form a closed scanning loop. Apparent water saturation path 1a is a continuation
of the main water-drainage branch (path 1), and path 2a does not cross over path 2.
The same orderly sequence does not occur in Figure 3 for the actual water satura-
tion path history. Actual water saturation path 3 crosses over the main water-drainage
branch, and path 1a appears to approach a Srw greater than that associated with the
main water-drainage branch, i.e. path 1. This feature or behavior has been observed by
other investigators (e.g. Salathiel, 1973). However, the continuous-water saturation
at Srw for actual water saturation paths 1 and 1a are identical. The appearance of
approaching a larger Srw after a water-drainage scanning path has closed with the
main water-drainage branch is attributed to entrapped (discontinuous) water in the
oil-wet pores and not an actual higher residual continuous-water saturation. If there
was no entrapped water, then paths 1 and 1a would approach the same Srw .
Water and oil relative permeabilities as a function of actual water saturations

are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. There are differences in the predicted
relations for the different saturation paths, which suggest that using nonhysteretic or
single-valued relative permeability functions may be inappropriate when modeling
fluid flow in mixed-wet porous media. Differences are greater for water relative
permeabilities than for oil relative permeabilities. The differences in the relative
permeability/saturation relations can be explained by pore-scale phenomena.
To evaluate if the proposed model accurately reflects mixed-wet k-S-P rela-
tions, we need simultaneous measurements of k-S-P relations in a mixed-wet porous
medium for the main water-drainage branch and several scanning paths. Unfortu-
nately, we are not aware of such hysteretic data in the open literature. Many k-S-P
data sets are proprietary, or the S-P and k-S measurements are conducted on different
samples using dissimilar saturation path histories. Therefore, we are unable to con-
duct an extensive test of the proposed k-S-P model at this time. However, the k-S-P
predictions for the hypothetical saturation-path scenario yielded results consistent
with observations and theory by Killins et al. (1953), Dixit et al. (1996), Kovscek et
al. (1993), and Salathiel (1973). Furthermore, the S-P submodel was able to describe
the laboratory data published by Killins et al. (1953) with reasonable accuracy.
The general modeling approach described in this paper can be used for mixed-
wet systems other than the smaller pores being strongly water-wet and larger pores
tending to be oil-wet. For example, the proposed model could be modified to include
a wettability pattern in which the smallest and largest pores are water-wet and the
intermediate-sized pores are oil-wet, such as discussed by Kovscek et al. (1993).
Two saturation indices, similar to Mow , could be used to distinguish those pore sizes
that are water-wet from those that tend to be oil-wet. The modeling effort could
then consider oil entrapment in water-wet pores and water entrapment in oil-wet
pores. The capillary pressure submodel would need minor adjustment to consider oil
entrapment in water-wet pores. Adjustments to the relative permeability submodel
would involve changing the limits of integration in the relative permeabilities integrals
after accounting for how the fluids are distributed in the pore spaces and for oil
entrapment in the water-wet pores.
5. Conclusions
The described k-S-P model can be coupled with mass-balance equations to predict
the subsurface movement of water and oil in porous media where the smaller pores
are strongly water-wet and the larger pores are considered to be oil-wet. The resulting
system of equations can be used to assist in planning and evaluating management
strategies involving multiphase fluid flow, including oil production and environmental
concerns involving nonaqueous-phase liquids. Results from evaluating the k-S-P
relations of a hypothetical saturation-path scenario suggest that the proposed model
is capable to predicting the major characteristics of mixed-wet k-S-P behavior. The
approach employed to develop the k-S-P model described in this paper can be used to
model k-S-P behavior for any porous medium where there is contrasting wettability
characteristics. The model was developed to yield results consistent with observed
k-S-P endpoints and our current understanding of fluid behavior in mixed-wet porous
media.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Natural Gas and Oil Technology Partnership, U.S.
Department of Energy. We recognize S. D. Robertson of Unocal and M. Delshad of
the University of Texas-Austin for their support and comments throughout the devel-
opment of the model and paper, and G. R. Jerauld of ARCO for his interest during
the early stages of the work. We also extend thanks to Sultan Qaboos University,
Sultanate of Oman.
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Transport in Porous Media 31: 109–131, 1998.

c 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

A Parametric Model for Predicting Relative

R. J. LENHARD1 and M. OOSTROM2,?

Sultanate of Oman. e-mail: lenhard@squ.edu.om

Richland, WA 99352, U.S.A. e-mail: mart.oostrom@pnl.gov

(Received: 29 July 1997; in final form: 21 January 1998)

Laboratory, MS K9-33, Richland, WA 99352, U.S.A.

m curve-shape parameter (m = 1 − 1/n)

the development of petroleum reservoirs or remediation of oil-contaminated aquifers

2.1. capillary pressure submodel

2.1.2. Saturation Paths

S̄¯ w = 1 for 0 < Pow < Pd , (5b)

S̄¯ w = [1 + (αPow )n ]−m for Pow > 0, (6)

To describe scanning-path S-P relations in mixed-wet media, we propose us-

where S̄¯ w with the superscript I followed by a capillary pressure in parentheses

2.1.3. Water Entrapment

2.1.4. Model Testing Against Laboratory Data

Table I. Model parameters obtained from

2.2. relative permeability submodel

A governing assumption of the relative permeability-saturation (k-S) submodel is that

where  = 1− S̄¯ w + M̄¯ ow and P (S ∗ ) is the inverse of Brooks–Corey (1964) function.

where M̄¯ ∗ow = (Mow

Table II. Model parameters used

Water and oil relative permeabilities as a function of actual water saturations

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where = 1− S̄¯ w + M̄¯ ow and P (S ∗ ) is the inverse of Brooks–Corey (1964) function.