Chapter 3

THINKING LIKE A RESEARCHER

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives

Understand . . .
 The terminology used by professional
researchers employing scientific thinking.
 What you need to formulate a solid
research hypothesis.
 The need for sound reasoning to enhance
research results.

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Research Thought Leaders

“Thought leaders, academics, business authors from

the increasingly merging worlds of psychology,
philosophy, economics, trends, semiotics are powerful
forces, that have the ability to capture the imagination
and attention at the highest level of business.
Research needs to define itself more broadly, embrace
the most exciting thinkers into our fold. We need to
infuse our thinking with that of related fields.”
Edward Appleton,
senior European consumer insights manager,
Avery Dennison

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Language of Research

Conceptual
Concepts Constructs
schemes

Operational
Models
definitions
Terms used
in research
Theory Variables

Propositions/
Hypotheses
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Language of Research

Clear conceptualization
of concepts
Success
of
Research Shared understanding
of concepts

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Job
Redesign
Constructs
and
Concepts

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Operational Definitions

How can we define the variable

“class level of students”?

 Freshman  < 30 credit hours

 Sophomore  30-50 credit hours
 Junior  60-89 credit hours
 Senior  > 90 credit hours

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A Variable: Property Being Studied

Event Act

Variable

Characteristic Trait

Attribute

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Types of Variables

Male/Female
Dichotomous Employed/ Unemployed

Ethnic background
Discrete Educational level
Religious affiliation

Income
Temperature
Continuous Age

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Independent and Dependent Variable
Synonyms

Independent Dependent
Variable (IV) Variable (DV)
 Predictor  Criterion
 Presumed cause  Presumed effect
 Stimulus  Response
 Predicted from…  Predicted to….
 Antecedent  Consequence
 Manipulated  Measured outcome
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Relationships Among Variable Types

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Relationships Among Variable Types

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Relationships Among Variable Types

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Moderating Variables (MV)

 The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead to

higher productivity (DV), especially among younger
workers (MV)

 The switch to commission from a salary compensation

system (IV) will lead to increased sales (DV) per worker,
especially more experienced workers (MV).

 The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance of

higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-supporting income
(DV) – particularly among those with a limited education
(MV).

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Extraneous Variables (EV)

With new customers (EV-control), a switch to

commission from a salary compensation system (IV)
will lead to increased sales productivity (DV) per
worker, especially among younger workers (MV).

Among residents with less than a high school

education (EV-control), the loss of jobs (IV) leads to
high-risk behaviors (DV), especially due to the
proximity of the firing range (MV).

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Intervening Variables (IVV)

• The switch to a commission compensation

system (IV) will lead to higher sales (DV) by
increasing overall compensation (IVV).

• A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings

activity (DV), especially when free prizes are
offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers
(EV-control). The results come from enhancing
the motivation to save (IVV).

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Propositions and Hypotheses

 Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-

average achievement motivation (variable).

Generalization
 Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have a
higher-than-average achievement motivation
(variable).

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Descriptive Hypothesis Formats

Descriptive Research
Hypothesis Question
 In Detroit, our  What is the market
potato chip market share for our potato
share stands at chips in Detroit?
13.7%.  Are American cities
 American cities are experiencing budget
experiencing budget difficulties?
difficulties.
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Relational Hypotheses Formats

 Correlational  Causal
 Young women (under  An increase in family
35) purchase fewer units income leads to an
of our product than increase in the
women who are older percentage of income
than 35. saved.
 Loyalty to a grocery
 The number of suits sold store increases the
varies directly with the probability of
level of the business purchasing that store’s
cycle. private brand products.
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The Role of Hypotheses

Guide the direction of the study

Identify relevant facts

Suggest most appropriate

research design

Provide framework for organizing

resulting conclusions

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Characteristics of
Strong Hypotheses

Adequate

A
Strong Testable
Hypothesis
Better
than rivals
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Theory within Research

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The Role of Reasoning

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A Model within Research

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The Scientific Method

Direct observation

Clearly defined variables

Clearly defined methods

Empirically testable

Elimination of alternatives

Statistical justification

Self-correcting process

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Researchers

• Encounter problems
• State problems
• Propose hypotheses
• Deduce outcomes
• Formulate rival
hypotheses
• Devise and conduct
empirical tests
• Draw conclusions

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Why is
curiosity
important?

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Sound Reasoning

Types of Discourse

Exposition Argument

Deduction Induction

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Deductive Reasoning

Inner-city household
interviewing is especially
difficult and expensive

This survey involves

substantial inner-city
household interviewing

The interviewing in this

survey will be especially
difficult and expensive
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 Deductive Reasoning

Apply deductive
reasoning to this
image.

What will happen

next?

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Inductive Reasoning

 Why didn’t sales increase during our

promotional event?
 Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock
to fill customer requests during the
promotional period
 A strike by employees prevented stock from
arriving in time for promotion to be effective
 A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region
for 10 days during the promotion

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Why Didn’t Sales Increase?

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Tracy’s Performance

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Key Terms

 Argument  Induction
 Case  Model
 Concept  Operational definition
 Conceptual scheme  Proposition
 Construct  Sound reasoning
 Deduction  Theory
 Empiricism  Variable
 Exposition  Control
 Hypothesis  Confounding (CFV)
 Correlational  Dependent (DV)
 Descriptive  Extraneous (EV)
 Explanatory  Independent (IV)
 Relational  Intervening (IVV)
 Hypothetical construct  Moderating (MV)

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 Chapter 3
ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION OPPORTUNITIES

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PicProfile: Shopping & Mobile Phones

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Snapshot: Politicized Definitions

The National Academies

advises on scientific issues.

Created voluntary guidelines for

embryonic stem cell research.

Comprehensive definition of terms

accepted by every researcher.

Volatile political issue =

no nationwide guidelines
Politicians fill the void with own
definitions to exploit personal agenda.
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Snapshot: Radio Chips vs. Retinal Scans

Prevent cattle-born disease with

database of cattle

Track cattle from birth to slaughter

Theory 1: RFID tag with tracking

data in ear-mounted tag

Theory 2: retinal scan with

tracking data in hand held reader

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 Snapshot: Gut Hunches

“People usually
experience true intuition
when they are under
severe time pressure
or in a situation of
information overload or
acute danger, where
conscious analysis of the
situation may be difficult
or impossible.”

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Pull Quote: Research Thought Leaders

“Brand communities play a pivotal role for a

brand connecting with its consumers, and as
one of our Never Ending Friending focus group
respondent notes: “I want brands to be my
friends,” which means that consumers would
like to have common ideas, conversations and
benefits delivered to them on their own terms.”

Judit Nagy
vice president, consumer insights
MySpace/Fox Interactive Media
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PulsePoint: Research Revelations

55 The percent of executives who

admitted that their companies do not
have an official policy for social
networks.

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 Formulating a Hypothesis

Wal-Mart recently decided not to share

its unit sales information with IRI, a
large syndicated research distributor.
After studying the data, Wal-Mart didn’t
think it was getting enough value from
competitor information in the syndicate.
What hypothesis might have driven its
research?

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 Chapter 3
THINKING LIKE A RESEARCHER

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Photo Attributions
Slide Source
26 Photo by Pegy Greb, USDA-ARS
27 Tetra Images/Getty Images
29 ©George Hammerstein/Corbis
30 Erik Isakson/Blend Images/age fotostock
37 ©Brand X Pictures/PumnchStock
38 Jeff Vanuga, USDA-NRCS
39 Ingram Publishing

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