IRON AND STEEL

Out line:
•Iron and Steel
•Cast iron and wrought iron
•Steel making process
• Steel Products
•Cold forming and heat
treatment of steel
Hardening
Tempering
Annealing
*Properties of Steel
*Structural Steel and Grades
*Failure Types
•Steel alloys 1
 Iron and Steel
The basic constituent of steel is iron. Iron is widely available allover the
world, but only in combination with other elements.

Next to aluminum, iron

is the most abundant
metallic material in the
earth's crust (about 4-5
percent). It is found in
the form of ores as
oxides, carbonates,
silicates, and sulfides.

The most important iron-bearing

minerals or iron ores are limonite,
hematite and magnetite. Hematite,
which is anhydrous ferric oxide, the
most commonly used ore, contains
about 70 percent pure iron. Its specific
gravity varies between 4.5-5.3.
2
 Iron and Steel

Blast Furnaces. Iron is

presently produced in blast
furnaces, developed in Europe
around 1400.
the term "pig iron " was derived,
which represents iron produced
in a blast furnace.

SLAG:A nonmetallic product,

consisting essentially of silicates and
aluminosilicates of calcium and other
bases, is produced simultaneously with
the molten metal. This product, called
slag . Pulverized or crushed slag is used
in the manufacture of special cements.
3
 Cast Iron and Wrought Iron

Iron products come

in three commercial forms:
Wrought iron
Steel
Cast iron

Wrought iron has the least, and cast iron the greatest amount of carbon.
Increase in the amount of carbon decreases the melting point of the metal.
Wrought iron can be cold worked, forged, and welded like steel. Forging is
working a metal to a predetermined shape by one or more processes such as
hammering, pressing, and rolling.

Cast Iron. Cast iron is manufactured by reheating pig iron (in a cupola) and
blending it with other materials of known composition
4
 STEEL MAKING PROCESS

Sintering is a process of
application of heat that results
in the conversion of fine ore
into hard and porous lumps

Pelletizing is a process of
forming balls in the presence
of moisture and additives such
as bentonite or lime.
(Bentonite is a fine-grained
plastic clay that is water
absorbent.)

Coke is a carbonaceous solid

made from coal (bituminous),
petroleum, or other raw
materials by thermal
decomposition, and is typically
produced by heating a mixture 5
of coal in the absence of air.
 STEEL PRODUCTS
The molten steel from the furnace is conveyed through ladles to ingots or goes
through a continuous slab caster. The continuous casting converts a heat of
molten steel to semi finished products of varying widths, lengths, and thickness.
The semi finished products come in three types :
· Blooms
· Slabs
· Billets
TABLE 7.1 SOME PROPERTIES OF IRON-BEARING METALS

Material Carbon Silicon Manganese (%) Melting point Tensile Tensile modulus
conte (%) [oF (oC)] Strength [ksi (GPa)]
nt [ksi (MPa)]
(%)

Pig iron 3.5-4.5 1-2 0.25-1 3040 (1670)

Pure iron 0.01-0.02 <0.01 0.01-0.02 2795 (1535) 49 (335)

Wrought iron 0-0.1 0.1-0.2 <0.1 45-55 29 X 103

(310-380) (200)

Mild steel <0.25 0.05-0.25 <0.68 Varies with carbon 64 (450) 3 X 103
content (207)

High-carbon 1.4 <0.8 <1.5 varies with carbon 130 (900) 30 X 103
steel content (207)

Cast iron 5.0 1.25 1-2.5 2084 (1140) 16 (110) 15-22 X 103 (103-
152)

6
 Cold forming and Heat treatment of steel

Cold forming is the process of shaping

the steel in order to make it stronger.
This process:
Increases the steel strength .
Decreases its ductility and toughness.

Its application in strengthening

structural steel is limited.

Heat Treatment: caused by quenching.

It is processed as follow:

1-Steel is heated to a temperature above

the critical temperature.

2-It is maintained at that temperature for

a period of time

3-Then it is cooled slowly. 7

 Cold forming and Heat treatment of steel

• Hardening is the process of cooling steel by

quenching it various media such as Brine (salt
solution), water or oil.
• Tempering is the process of reheating steel to
increase its toughness and ductility. It is processed
as follow:
1- steel is reheated to a temperature below the
critical temp.
2- It is maintained at that temperature for a period
of time
3- then it is cooled by quenching.

• Annealing is the process of heating the steel to soften

it, refine its grains and to remove internal stresses
caused by quenching. It is processed as follow:
1-Steel is heated to a temperature above the critical
temperature.
2-It is maintained at that temperature for a period
of time
3-Then it is cooled slowly.
8
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Steel is a combination of iron and carbon. The carbon content may range between
about 0.01-1 percent. Carbon exerts the most significant effects on microstructure
and properties of steel. Increase in carbon content increases the hardness, strength,
and abrasion resistance, but decreases the ductility, toughness, and impact resistance

Carbon < 0.008 % , the metal is iron.

0.008 % <Carbon< 0.8%, the metal is structural steel
0.8% <Carbon< 2%, the metal is High strength Steel
2%<Carbon< 5 %, the metal is Cast iron
Carbon> 5 % it is not practically applicable.

Steel in addition contains varying amounts of manganese (less than 1.6

percent), phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon (less than 0.6 percent), together with
some 20 other alloys. 9
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
In general, properties of steel are greatly affected by three factors:
Chemical composition , Heat treatment , Mechanical work

All steels show an initial elastic phase followed by yielding or strain hardening. The
elongation or strain at failure depends on the type of steel.
The modulus of elasticity of steel, which is the slope of the initial straight-line portion of the
diagram, is constant, equal to 29,000 ksi (200 GPa) for all types of ordinary mild steel.

10
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Notch toughness is a measure that is commonly used to calculate steel's
behavior in a ductile or brittle transition range. It is influenced by many factors,
such as chemical composition, hot and cold working temperatures, internal
cleanliness and method of fabrication, carbon content, oxygen level, and grain size.
thickness and width, cross-sectional area, and moment of inertia) are listed in
tables in the Manual of Steel Construction of the American Institute of Steel
Construction (Chicago).

Properties of steel are

greatly affected by
tempertures.
Tempertures exceeding
480o C may cause
reduction in cross section
and metallurgical
changes.The modulus of
elasticity of steel will
drop to 172 GPa

11
 STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel shapes are rolled flanged sections having one dimension of the cross section
equal to or greater than 3 in. (7.5 cm). They are manufactured in many shapes and grades.
These products are used as columns, beams, and bracing members in buildings; for trusses; as
bridge girders; and in prefabricated structures and similar construction.

A structural steel shape is

designated by a letter followed
by two numbers separated by a
" X " sign. An example is "W8
X 67." The letter (W) identifies
the shape. The first number (8)
is the nominal depth of the
cross-section in inches. The
second number (67) is the
weight of the member in
pounds, per linear foot. Cross-
sectional properties of these
structural shapes (such as
flange thickness and "width,
web

12
 STRUCTURAL GRADES
Structural steel (hot-rolled structural shapes, plates, and bars) is produced in seven grades:
A36, A529, A44l, A572, A242, A588, and A514. Chemical and tensile requirements for these
grades are shown in Table
TABLE 7.2 PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Chemical requirements (%) Tensile requirements

ASTM Type Grade Carbon Manganes Copper Tensile Yield point Availability
designatio (max) e (max) (min) Strength min
n [ksi (MPa)] [ksi
(MPa)]
A36 Structural carbon steel 36 0.26 - 0.20 58-80 36 (250) All plates, shapes, and bars
(400-550)

A572 High-strength 42 0.21 1.35 0.20 60 (415) 42 (290) All shapes, sheet piling, and
low-alloy steel of structural tees
quality
50 0.23 1.35 0.20 65 (450) 50 (345) All shapes, sheet piling, and
tees

60 0.26 1.35 0.20 75 (520) 60 (415) Limited shapes, all sheet

piling, and tees

65 0.26 1.35 0.20 80 (550) 65 (450) Limited shapes and all tees

A529 Structural steel 42 0.27 1.2 0.20 60-85 42 (290) Selected shapes,
with 42 ksi min yield point (415-485) plates, and bars of 1/2 in.
and less in thickness
A441 High-strength low-alloy (discontinued as of 1989; replaced by A572)
structural steel

A242 High-strength low-alloy 42-50 0.15 1.0 0.20 63-70 42-50 Limited shapes, plates, and
structural steel (435-480) (290-345) bars
(corrosion resistant)

A588 High-strength 50 0.17- 0.5-1.25 0.2-0.5 70 (485) 50 (345) All shapes

0.19
low-alloy structural steel 63-70 42-50 Plates and bars
with 50 ksi min yield point (435-485) (290-345)
( corrosion resistant)

A514 High-yield-strength 90-100 0.12- 0.4-1.10 0.15-0.50 100-130 90-110 Plates

quenched and 0.21 (690-895) (290-690) 13
tempered alloy steel
 STRUCTURAL GRADES
The properties of carbon steel are due primarily to the carbon content. The
amounts of alloying elements, except manganese, are low. Alloy steel is any type
of steel in which the amounts of alloying elements exceed certain limits, and it
owes its distinct properties to elements other than carbon. High-strength low-
alloy steel has improved mechanical properties compared to those of low-carbon
steel.

As noted, A36 is the most commonly

used structural steel grade . It has been
used successfully in buildings,
transmission towers, bridges, and many
other structures in various temperature
conditions.

14
 Failure Types
Typical failures in steel construction may be due to yielding of a member, failure of
connections, or buckling of a member.
Connection failure is the most common cause of collapse of steel buildings.
Welding may also leave notches or flaws in the parent metal, which may promote
brittle fracture.

. Investigations of earthquake
damage have revealed that
buildings of structural steel
have performed excellently.
This is due to physical and
mechanical properties of steel:
•Light weight
• Ductility
• High tensile strength

15
 REINFORCING STEEL

The cost of steel reinforcement in a reinforced concrete structure is about 50-70 percent
of the total cost, including the cost of form work and construction.
Reinforcing steel is manufactured in three forms:
· Plain bars
· Deformed bars
· Plain and deformed wire fabric

The nominal dimension (cross-

sectional), or nominal diameter of a
de- formed bar is equivalent to that
of a plain round bar having the
same weight per foot as the
deformed bar. Deformed bars are
identified by their bar numbers
which are based on the number of
eighths of an inch included in the
nominal diameter of a bar. For
example, a No.3 bar has a nominal
diameter of 3/8 or 0.375 in., and No:
18 bar of 18/8 or 2.26 in. 16
 Grades and Types
Reinforcing steel is rolled from properly identified heats of mold-cast or strand-cast steel, using
one or more of the three primary processes: Open-hearth, Basic oxygen, Electric-arc
Deformed or plain bars are produced in four principal Grades
TABLE 7.2 PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Chemical requirements (%) Tensile requirements

ASTM Type Grad Carbon Mangane Copp Tensile Yield Availability

designati e (max) se (max) er Strength point min
on (min) [ksi (MPa)] [ksi
(MPa)]
A36 Structural carbon steel 36 0.26 - 0.20 58-80 36 (250) All plates, shapes, and
(400-550) bars

A572 High-strength 42 0.21 1.35 0.20 60 (415) 42 (290) All shapes, sheet piling,
low-alloy steel of and tees
structural quality
50 0.23 1.35 0.20 65 (450) 50 (345) All shapes, sheet piling,
and tees

60 0.26 1.35 0.20 75 (520) 60 (415) Limited shapes, all sheet

piling, and tees

65 0.26 1.35 0.20 80 (550) 65 (450) Limited shapes and all tees

A529 Structural steel 42 0.27 1.2 0.20 60-85 42 (290) Selected shapes,
with 42 ksi min yield (415-485) plates, and bars of 1/2 in.
point and less in thickness
A441 High-strength low-alloy (discontinued as of 1989; replaced by A572)
structural steel

A242 High-strength low-alloy 42-50 0.15 1.0 0.20 63-70 42-50 Limited shapes, plates,
structural steel (435-480) (290-345) and bars
(corrosion resistant)

A588 High-strength 50 0.17- 0.5-1.25 0.2- 70 (485) 50 (345) All shapes

0.19 0.5
low-alloy structural steel 63-70 42-50 Plates and bars
with 50 ksi min yield (435-485) (290-345)
point
( corrosion resistant)
A514 High-yield-strength 90- 0.12- 0.4-1.10 0.15- 100-130 90-110 Plates
quenched and 100 0.21 0.50 (690-895) (290-690)
tempered alloy steel 17
 WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Welded wire fabric is a prefabricated reinforcing material available in rolls or sheets
for use in slabs and pavements.
TABLE 7.5 SPECIFICATION FOR WIRE AND WELDED WIRE FABRIC

ASTM TYPE Yield Tensile Size

Designa Strengtha Strength range
tion [Ksi (MPa)] [Ksi (MPa)]

A82 Cold-drawn 56,65 70,75 W 0.5-

Steelwire (plain) (385,450) (485,515) W 31
A185 Welded steel 56,65 70,75 -
wire fabric (plain) (385,450) (485,515)
using A82 wires
A496 Deformed 70 (485) 80 (550) D-1-D-
steel wire 31

A497 Welded deformed 70 (485) 80 (550) -

steel wire fabric
using A496 wires
a
Yield strength is determined at an extension of 0.005 in./in. of gage length.

Welded wire fabric is used as concrete

reinforcement for crack control in residential slabs,
driveways, sidewalks, and slabs for light
18
construction
 STEEL ALLOYS
Steel Alloying is the process of introducing interstitial and
substitutional atoms in order to improve the properties of
steel. Alloys are added to steel for the following:
1-to increase its strength, 2- To increase its hardness ,3- to
improve its toughness, magnetic and electrical properties,
corrosion resistance, and machinability.
Types of alloys are:
1- Chromium improves hardness content 0.7 to 1.2 % also
withstand abrasion and shock very well
2- Nickel- Chromium improves strength, toughness and ductility,
content 3.5 %. It gives stainless steel when Al, Mn, Si, Cu, Ag, …
are added.
3-Manganese improves Hardness, Content 1.0 to 1.65 %, important to
determine the weld ability of steel.
4- Molybdenum improves strength and hardness
5- Silicon improves electrical property content up to 0.25%
6-Vanadium improves hardness at high temperature. Content 0.10 t0
0.3 %
7- Copper increases the tensile properties and hardness but decreases
the ductility .Content 0.2 %
8- Tungsten improves strength, hardness and toughness at very high
temperature.
9-AIuminum is added to control deoxidation and for fine graining of
steel 19