Diatomaceous earth

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Diatomaceous earth /ˌdaɪ.ətəˌmeɪʃəs ˈɜːrθ/, also known

as D.E., diatomite, or kieselgur/kieselguhr, is a
naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that
is easily crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder.
It has a particle size ranging from less than 3
micrometres to more than 1 millimetre, but typically 10
to 200 micrometres. Depending on the granularity, this
powder can have an abrasive feel, similar to pumice
powder, and has a low density as a result of its high
porosity. The typical chemical composition of oven-
dried diatomaceous earth is 80 to 90% silica, with 2 to
4% alumina (attributed mostly to clay minerals) and 0.5
to 2% iron oxide.[1] A sample of food-grade diatomaceous earth
Diatomaceous earth consists of fossilized remains of
diatoms, a type of hard-shelled algae. It is used as a filtration aid, mild abrasive in products including metal
polishes and toothpaste, mechanical insecticide, absorbent for liquids, matting agent for coatings, reinforcing
filler in plastics and rubber, anti-block in plastic films, porous support for chemical catalysts, cat litter,
activator in blood clotting studies, a stabilizing component of dynamite, and a thermal insulator.

Contents
1 Geology and occurrence

1.1 Formation

1.2 Discovery

1.3 Extraction and storage sites in the Lüneburg Heath

1.4 Other deposits

2 Applications

2.1 Industrial

2.2 Filtration

2.3 Abrasive

2.4 Pest control

2.5 Thermal
2.6 Use in agriculture

2.6.1 Hydroponics
 2.6.2 Marker in livestock nutrition experiments

2.6.3 Construction

3 Specific varieties

4 Microbial degradation

5 Climatologic importance

6 Safety considerations

7 Composition

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

Geology and occurrence

Formation

Diatomite forms by the accumulation of the amorphous

silica (opal, SiO2·nH2O) remains of dead diatoms
(microscopic single-celled algae) in lacustrine or marine
sediments. The fossil remains consist of a pair of
symmetrical shells or frustules.[1]

Discovery
In 1836 or 1837, the peasant and goods waggoner Peter
Kasten[2] discovered diatomaceous earth (German:
Kieselgur) when sinking a well on the northern slopes of
the Haußelberg hill, in the Lüneburg Heath in north
Germany. Initially, it was thought that limestone had
been found, which could be used as fertilizer. Alfred
Nobel used the properties of diatomaceous earth in the
manufacture of dynamite. The Celle engineer Wilhelm
Berkefeld recognized its ability to filter, and developed
tubular filters (known as filter candles) fired from
diatomaceous earth.[3] During the cholera epidemic in
Hamburg in 1892, these Berkefeld filters were used successfully.
Diatomaceous earth as viewed under bright field
illumination on a light microscope. Diatomaceous
earth is made up of the cell walls/shells of single
cell diatoms and readily crumbles to a fine powder.
Diatom cell walls are made up of biogenic silica;
silica synthesised in the diatom cell by the
polymerisation of silicic acid. This image of
diatomaceous earth particles in water is at a scale of
6.236 pixels/μm, the entire image covers a region of
approximately 1.13 by 0.69 mm.

Extraction and storage sites in the Lüneburg Heath

Neuohe – extraction from 1863 to 1994

Wiechel from 1871 to 1978
 Hützel from 1876 to 1969
Hösseringen from ca. 1880 to 1894
Hammerstorf from ca. 1880 to 1920
Oberohe from 1884 to 1970
Schmarbeck from 1896 to ca. 1925
Steinbeck from 1897 to 1928
Breloh from 1907 to 1975
Schwindebeck from 1913 to 1973
Hetendorf from 1970 to 1994

The deposits are up to 28 metres (92 ft) thick and are all of freshwater diatomaceous earth.

ca. 1900–1910 ca. 1900–1910 a drying 1913 Staff at the Neuohe

Diatomaceous earth pit at area: one firing pile is factory, with workers and a
Neuohe being prepared; another is female cook in front of a
under way drying shed

Until the First World War almost the entire worldwide production of diatomaceous earth was from this
region.

Other deposits

In Germany, diatomaceous earth was also extracted at Altenschlirf [4] on the Vogelsberg (Upper Hesse) and
at Klieken [5] (Saxony-Anhalt).

There is a layer of diatomaceous earth up to 4 metres (13 ft) thick in the nature reserve of Soos in the Czech
Republic.

Deposits on the isle of Skye, off the west coast of Scotland, were mined until 1960. [1]
(http://www.stornowaygazette.co.uk/what-s-on/leisure/skye-diatomite-a-lost-industry-1-118249)

In Colorado and in Clark County, Nevada, United States, there are deposits that are up to several hundred
metres thick in places. Marine deposits have been worked in the Sisquoc Formation in Santa Barbara
County, California near Lompoc and along the Southern California coast. Additional marine deposits have
been worked in Maryland, Virginia, Algeria and the MoClay of Denmark. Freshwater lake deposits occur in
Nevada, Oregon, Washington and California. Lake deposits also occur in interglacial lakes in the eastern
United States, in Canada and in Europe in Germany, France, Denmark and the Czech Republic. The
worldwide association of diatomite deposits and volcanic deposits suggests that the availability of silica
from volcanic ash may be necessary for thick diatomite deposits.[6]

Sometimes diatomaceous earth is found on the surface in deserts. Research has shown that the erosion of
diatomaceous earth in such areas (such as the Bodélé Depression in the Sahara) is one of the most important
sources of climate-affecting dust in the atmosphere.
The commercial deposits of diatomite are restricted to Tertiary or Quaternary periods. Older deposits from
as early as the Cretaceous Period are known, but are of low quality.[6]

Applications
Diatomaceous earth is available commercially in several formats:

granulated diatomaceous earth is a raw material simply crushed for convenient packaging
milled or micronized diatomaceous earth is especially fine (10 µm to 50 µm) and used for insecticides
&c.
calcined diatomaceous earth is heat-treated and activated for filters &c.

Industrial
In 1866, Alfred Nobel discovered that nitroglycerin could be made
much more stable if absorbed in diatomite. This allows much safer
transport and handling than nitroglycerin in its raw form. He
patented this mixture as dynamite in 1867; the mixture is also called
guhr dynamite.

Filtration

One form of diatomaceous earth is used as a filter medium,

especially for swimming pools. It has a high porosity because it is
composed of microscopically small, hollow particles. Diatomaceous Individual diatom cell walls often
earth (sometimes referred to by trademarked brand names such as maintain their shape even in
Celite) is used in chemistry as a filtration aid, to filter very fine commercially processed filter media,
particles that would otherwise pass through or clog filter paper. It is such as this one for swimming pools
also used to filter water, particularly in the drinking water treatment
process and in fish tanks, and other liquids, such as beer and wine. It
can also filter syrups, sugar, and honey without removing or altering
their color, taste, or nutritional properties.[7]

Abrasive

The oldest use of diatomite is as a very mild abrasive and, for this
purpose, it has been used both in toothpaste and in metal polishes, as
well as in some facial scrubs. Live marine diatoms from Antarctica
(magnified)
Pest control

Diatomite is used as an insecticide, due to its abrasive and physico-sorptive properties.[8] The fine powder
absorbs lipids from the waxy outer layer of insects' exoskeletons, causing them to dehydrate. Arthropods die
as a result of the water pressure deficiency, based on Fick's law of diffusion. This also works against
gastropods and is commonly employed in gardening to defeat slugs. However, since slugs inhabit humid
environments, efficacy is very low. It is sometimes mixed with an attractant or other additives to increase its
effectiveness. Medical-grade diatomite has been studied for its efficacy as a de-worming agent in cattle; in
both studies cited the groups being treated with diatomaceous earth did not fare any better than control
groups.[9][10] It is commonly used in lieu of boric acid, and can be used to help control and possibly
eliminate bed bug, house dust mite, cockroach, ant and flea infestations.[11] This material has wide
application for insect control in grain storage.[12]

In order to be effective as an insecticide, diatomaceous earth must be uncalcinated (i.e., it must not be heat-
treated prior to application)[13] and have a mean particle size below about 12 µm (i.e., food-grade – see
below).

Although considered to be relatively low-risk, pesticides containing diatomaceous earth are not exempt from
regulation in the United States under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act and must be
registered with the Environmental Protection Agency.[14]

Thermal
Its thermal properties enable it to be used as the barrier material in some fire resistant safes. It is also used in
evacuated powder insulation for use with cryogenics.[15] Diatomaceous earth powder is inserted into the
vacuum space to aid in the effectiveness of vacuum insulation. It was used in the Classical AGA Cookers as
a thermal heat barrier.

Use in agriculture

Natural freshwater diatomaceous earth is used in agriculture for grain storage as an anticaking agent, as well
as an insecticide.[16] It is approved by the United States Department of Agriculture as a feed supplement to
prevent caking.[17]

Some believe it may be used as a natural anthelmintic (dewormer), although studies have not shown it to be
effective.[9][10] Some farmers add it to their livestock and poultry feed to prevent the caking of feed.[17]
"Food Grade Diatomaceous Earth" is widely available in agricultural feed supply stores.

Hydroponics

Freshwater diatomite can be used as a growing medium in hydroponic gardens.

It is also used as a growing medium in potted plants, particularly as bonsai soil. Bonsai enthusiasts use it as a
soil additive, or pot a bonsai tree in 100% diatomaceous earth. Like perlite, vermiculite, and expanded clay,
it retains water and nutrients, while draining fast and freely, allowing high oxygen circulation within the
growing medium.

Marker in livestock nutrition experiments

Natural dried, not calcined diatomaceous earth is regularly used in livestock nutrition research as a source of
acid insoluble ash (AIA), which is used as an indigestible marker. By measuring the content of AIA relative
to nutrients in test diets and feces or digesta sampled from the terminal ileum (last third of the small
intestine) the percentage of that nutrient digested can be calculated using the following equation:
 Where:
N is the nutrient digestibility (%)
Nf is the amount of nutrients in the feces (%)
NF is the amount of nutrients in the feed (%)
Af is the amount of AIA in the feces (%)
AF is the amount of AIA in the feed (%)

Natural freshwater diatomaceous earth is preferred by many researchers over chromic oxide, which has been
widely used for the same purpose, the latter being a known carcinogen and, therefore, a potential hazard to
research personnel.

Construction

Spent diatomaceous from the brewing process can be added to ceramic mass for the production of red bricks
with higher open porosity.[18]

Specific varieties
Tripolite is the variety found in Tripoli, Libya.
Bann clay is the variety found in the Lower Bann valley in Northern Ireland.
Moler (Mo-clay) is the variety found in northwestern Denmark, especially on the islands of Fur and
Mors.
Freshwater-derived food grade diatomaceous earth is the type used in United States agriculture for
grain storage, as feed supplement, and as an insecticide. It is produced uncalcinated, has a very fine
particle size, and is very low in crystal silica (<2%).
Salt-water-derived pool/ beer/ wine filter grade is not suitable for human consumption or effective
as an insecticide. Usually calcinated before being sold to remove impurities and undesirable volatile
contents, it is composed of larger particles than the freshwater version and has a high crystalline silica
content (>60%).

Microbial degradation
Certain species of bacteria in oceans and lakes can accelerate the rate of dissolution of silica in dead and
living diatoms; by using hydrolytic enzymes to break down the organic algal material.[19][20]

Climatologic importance
The Earth's climate is affected by dust in the atmosphere, so locating major sources of atmospheric dust is
important for climatology. Recent research indicates that surface deposits of diatomaceous earth play an
important role. For instance, the largest single atmospheric dust source is the Bodélé depression in Chad,
where storms push diatomite gravel over dunes, generating dust by abrasion.[21]

Safety considerations
Inhalation of crystalline silica is harmful to the lungs, causing silicosis. Amorphous silica is considered to
have low toxicity, but prolonged inhalation causes changes to the lungs.[22] Diatomaceous earth is mostly
amorphous silica, but contains some crystalline silica, especially in the saltwater forms.[23] In a study of
workers, those exposed to natural DE for over 5 years had no significant lung changes, while 40% of those
exposed to the calcined form had developed pneumoconiosis.[24] Today's common D.E. formulations are
safer to use as they are predominantly made up of amorphous silica and contain little or no crystalline
silica.[25]

The crystalline silica content of D.E. is regulated in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), and there are guidelines for the maximum amounts allowable in the product (1%)
and in the air near the breathing zone of workers (6 mg/m3).[25] OSHA has set a permissible exposure limit
for diatomaceous earth as 20 mppcf (80 mg/m3/%SiO2). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health has set a recommended exposure limit at 6 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 3000 mg/m3,
diatomaceous earth is immediately dangerous to life and health.[26]

In the 1930s, long term occupational exposure among workers in the cristobalite D.E. industry who were
exposed to high levels of airborne crystalline silica over decades were found to have an increased risk of
silicosis.[27]

Today, workers are required to use respiratory-protection measures when concentrations of silica exceed
allowable levels.

Diatomite produced for pool filters is treated with high heat (calcination) and a fluxing agent (soda ash),
causing the formerly harmless amorphous silicon dioxide to assume its crystalline form.[25]

Composition
Each deposit of diatomaceous earth is different, with varying blends of pure diatomaceous earth combined
with other natural clays and minerals.

The diatoms in each deposit contain different amounts of silica, depending on the age of the deposit. As
well, the species of diatom may also differ among deposits.

The species of diatom is dependent upon the age and paleo-environment of the deposit. In turn, the shape of
a diatom is determined by its species.

The shape of the diatoms contained in a deposit has not been proven to affect their functionality when it
comes to the absorption of liquids, however certain applications, such as that for slugs and snails, do work
best when a particular shaped diatom is used. For example, in the case of slugs and snails large, spiny
diatoms work best to lacerate the epithelium of the mollusk. Diatom shells will work to some degree on the
vast majority of animals that undergo ecdysis in shedding cuticle, such as arthropods or nematodes. It may
have some effect also on lophotrochozoans, such as mollusks or annelids.

Many deposits throughout British Columbia, Canada, such as Red Lake Earth, are from the Miocene age and
contain a species of diatom known as Melosira granulata. These diatoms are approximately 12 to 13 million
years old and have a small globular shape.

A deposit containing diatoms from this age can provide many more benefits than that of an older deposit.
For example, diatoms from the Eocene age (approximately 40 to 50 million years old) are not as effective in
their ability to absorb fluids because older diatoms recrystallize, their small pores becoming filled with
silica.[28]
See also
Biomineralization
Diatom
Frustule
Fuller's earth
Perlite
Rock flour
Silica aerogel
Zeolite

References
1. Antonides, Lloyd E. (1997). Diatomite (PDF). U.S.G.S. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
2. http://www.bonsaitreestuff.com/diatomaceous-earth/ + Heinrich Küsel „Der Speicher“ v.1930 Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140202205518/http://www.bonsaitreestuff.com/diatomaceous-earth/) February 2,
2014 at the Wayback Machine
3. ELGA Berkefeld Water Treatment History (http://www.berkefeld.com/en/company/history/)
4. http://www2.natpa.de/bonifatius/senken/p7.htm Über den früheren Abbau von Kieselgur im Vogelsberg/Hessen
5. Geschichte des Kieselgurabbaus in Klieken (http://homepages.compuserve.de/tmby100/kieselgur.htm) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080420063824/http://homepages.compuserve.de/tmby100/kieselgur.htm) April 20,
2008 at the Wayback Machine
6. Cummins, Arthur B., Diatomite, in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 3rd ed. 1960, American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, pp. 303–319
7. Root, A.I.; E.R. Root (March 1, 2005). "The ABC and xyz of bee culture". Kessinger Publishing: 387. ISBN 978-1-
4326-2685-3. Retrieved March 8, 2011
8. Fields, Paul; Allen, Sylvia; Korunic, Zlatko; McLaughlin, Alan; Stathers, Tanya (July 2002). "Standardized testing
for diatomaceous earth" (PDF). Proceedings of the Eighth International Working Conference of Stored-Product
Protection. York, U.K.: Entomological Society of Manitoba.
9. Lartigue, E. del C.; Rossanigo, C. E. (2004). "Insecticide and anthelmintic assessment of diatomaceous earth in
cattle". Veterinaria Argentina 21 (209): 660–674.
10. Fernandez, M. I.; Woodward, B. W.; Stromberg, B. E. (1998). "Effect of diatomaceous earth as an anthelmintic
treatment on internal parasites and feedlot performance of beef steers". Animal Science 66 (3): 635–641.
doi:10.1017/S1357729800009206.
11. Faulde, M. K.; Tisch, M.; Scharninghausen, J. J. (August 2006). "Efficacy of modified diatomaceous earth on
different cockroach species (Orthoptera, Blattellidae) and silverfish (Thysanura, Lepismatidae)". Journal of Pest
Science 79 (3): 155–161. doi:10.1007/s10340-006-0127-8.
12. "The Food Storage Faq – Specific Specifications". Survival-center.com. Retrieved July 7, 2013.
13. Capinera, John L. (2008). "Diatomaceous earth". In Capinera, John L. Encyclopedia of Entomology (Second ed.).
Springer. p. 1216. ISBN 9781402062421.
14. "Pesticide Labeling Questions & Answers | Pesticide Labeling Consistency | US EPA". EPA. January 10, 2013.
Retrieved July 7, 2013.
15. Flynn, Thomas M. "Cryogenic Equipment and Cryogenic Systems Analysis." Cryogenic Engineering. Boca Raton
[etc.: CRC, 2005. Print.
16. "Prevention and Management of Insects and Mites in Farm-Stored Grain". Province of Manitoba. Retrieved July 7,
2013.
17. Diatomaceous Earth (DE) (http://www.sgggc.org/insect-management-food-processing-facilities-heat-diatomaceous-
earth/)
18. Ferraz; et al. (2011). "Manufacture of ceramic bricks using recycled brewing spent kieselguhr". Materials and
Manufacturing Processes 26 (10): 1319–1329. doi:10.1080/10426914.2011.551908.
19. Kay D. Bidle; Farooq Azam (1999). "Accelerated dissolution of diatom silica by marine bacterial assemblages".
Nature 397: 508–512. doi:10.1038/17351.
20. "The Structure of Microbial Community and Degradation of Diatoms in the Deep Near-Bottom Layer of Lake
Baikal". 2013.
21. Washington, R.; Todd, M. C.; Lizcano, G.; Tegen, I.; Flamant, C.; Koren, I.; Ginoux, P.; Engelstaedter, S.; Bristow,
 C. S.; Zender, C. S.; Goudie, A. S.; Warren, A.; Prospero, J. M. (2006). "Links between topography, wind, deflation,
lakes and dust: The case of the Bodélé Depression, Chad". Geophysical Research Letters 33 (9).
Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.9401W. doi:10.1029/2006GL025827. ISSN 0094-8276.
22. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pel88/68855-54.html
23. http://www.spca.bc.ca/assets/documents/welfare/professional-resources/farmer-resources/diatomaceous-earth-
factsheet.pdf
24. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/81-123/pdfs/0552.pdf
25. Inert Dusts
(http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/grsc_subi/Teaching/GRSC651/GRSC651_Courses_Material/lecture_slides/GRSC651_lec
t_20(1)_Inert_Dusts.pdf) at Kansas State University
26. "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Silica, amorphous". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
27. Hughes, Janet M.; Weill, Hans; Checkoway, Harvey; Jones, Robert N.; Henry, Melanie M.; Heyer, Nicholas J.;
Seixas, Noah S.; Demers, Paul A. (1998). "Radiographic Evidence of Silicosis Risk in the Diatomaceous Earth
Industry". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 158 (3): 807–814.
doi:10.1164/ajrccm.158.3.9709103. ISSN 1073-449X.
28. "Diatoms". UCL London's Global University. Retrieved September 14, 2011.
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0248 (http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0248.htm)
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0552.html)
Diatomite: Statistics and Information – USGS
(http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/diatomite/)
Tripolite: Tripolite mineral data (http://www.mindat.org/min-9855.html) Citat: "...A diatomaceous
earth consisting of opaline silica..."
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH: A Non Toxic Pesticide (http://www.eap.mcgill.ca/publications/eap4.htm)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diatomaceous_earth&oldid=699997069"

Categories: Sedimentary rocks Inorganic insecticides Swimming pools Water treatment Soil
Soil improvers Fodder Microfossils Biomineralization

This page was last modified on 15 January 2016, at 19:02.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may
apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered
trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.