The Nervous System Information Processing

Reflexes
Integration and Control: The Nervous System the body’s automatic responses to stimuli.
Division of Nervous System Reflex actions
Central Nervous System Involuntary responses to stimuli
 Brain can involve either the brain or just the spinal cord.
 Spinal Cord Reflexes enable the body to react swiftly to stimuli
Peripheral Nervous System that could disrupt homeostasis
 Sensory/Afferent
 Motor/Efferent The Reflex Arc
Subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Invertebrate Nervous System
Parasympathetic Hydras have a nervenet composed of neurons in contact with
Neuron one another and with contractile cells within the wall
Synapse
Senses Flatworms have an organization that reflects their bilateral
 Hearing symmetry: a ladderlike nervous system; transverse nerves
 Vision connect the nerve cords, as well as the cerebral ganglia, to
 Smell the eyespots.
 Taste
 Touch In subsequent animal phyla, the CNS evolved in complexity…
The Nervous System
The master controlling and communicating system of the Invertebrate Nervous System
body The brains of leeches have a greater concentration of
(1) Vital in complex animals: enables them to seek food neurons than those of flatworms, and leech ventral nerve
and avoid danger cords contain segmentally arranged ganglia
(2) Ceaselessly monitors internal and external
conditions The insect shown has a brain composed of several fused
(3) Makes appropriate changes to maintain homeostasis ganglia, and its ventral nerve cord also has a ganglion in each
(4) It originates in a fundamental property of life: body segment
irritability, the ability to respond to environmental
stimuli A squid has a relatively large brain accompanied by complex
Stimulus is a change in the environment that elicits response; eyes and rapid signaling along giant axons, correlates well
may be simple or complex with the active predatory life of these animals
Neuron – basic structural unit of the NS Invertebrate Nervous System
2 Anatomical Divisions of Nervous Systems Organisms of radial symmetry lacks a brain
First Division: Central Nervous System (CNS) Bilateral organisms – marks the evolutionary trend of
consists of the brain and, in vertebrates, the spinal cord cephalization (concentration of neurons in the head) and
Second Division: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), mostly centralization (CNS)
made up of nerves that carry signals in and out of the CNS
Nerve - a communication line consisting of a bundle of Vertebrate Nervous System
neurons tightly wrapped in connective tissue II. Division of Nervous System
Ganglia (ganglion) – clusters of neuron cell bodies In humans, the CNS and PNS work together to perform
functions of a nervous system
Information Processing CNS – located in the midline of the body; integrates sensory
The Human Nervous System has three specific functions information; controls the body
namely: PNS – contains cranial and spinal nerves; divided into the
Sensory Input – conduction of signals from sensory receptors somatic and autonomic systems
(e.g. above: light detecting cells of the eye, to the CNS) A1. Central Nervous System: The Brain
 the master control center of the CNS and includes
Integration – the analysis and interpretation of the sensory
homeostatic centers that keep the body functioning
signals and the formulation of appropriate responses
smoothly
Motor output – conduction of signals from the integration  sensory centers integrate data from sense organs;
centers to the effector cells,  centers of emotional intellect
which perform the body’s responses (e.g. muscle cells or  also sends motor commands to muscles
gland cells)
A1. Central Nervous System
Parts of the Brain: Protection (Meninges)
Dura Matter – outermost membrane, toughest and thickest
Arachnoid – middle membrane below dura matter
Pia matter – innermost membrane consisting mainly of small
blood vessels following the surface of the brain supported by
cerebrospinal fluid
Basic nuclei – Important centers for planning, learning
movement sequences
Cerebral cortex – sensory information is analyzed, motor
commands are issued and analyzed
Cerebral cortex – (shown in next Figure)
vital for perception, voluntary movement, and learning.
Divided into right and left sides: The left side receives
information from, and controls the movement of, the right
side of the body, and vice versa.
Parts of the Brain : Cerebral Cortex
Frontal Lobe
Associated with motor control, reasoning and judgement
Parietal Lobe
Concerned with sensory reception and integration, as well as
taste
Temporal Lobe
A primary auditory area that receives information from the
ears
Occipital Lobe
The primary visual area that receives information form our
eyes
Parts of the Brain
Brainstem - consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the
medulla oblongata (commonly called the medulla). Controls
heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure.
The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus:
Thalamus – specializes in sense reception
Hypothalamus – contains the body’s thermostat as well as
the central biological clock; main viscera control center and
vitally important to overall body homeostasis
Epithalamus – includes the pineal gland, the source of
melatonin. It also contains one of several clusters of
capillaries that generate cerebrospinal fluid from blood.
ZZZZzzzz… Trivia time!
Arousal and Sleep
If you’ve ever drifted off to sleep while listening to a lecture
(or reading a book), you know that your attentiveness and
mental alertness can change rapidly.
Such transitions are regulated by the brainstem and
cerebrum, which control arousal and sleep.
Arousal is a state of awareness of the external world.
Sleep is a state in which external stimuli are received but not
consciously perceived.
A2. Spinal Cord
Spinal Cord – connects the brain to the rest of the nervous
system. Has two (2) main functions:
Center of many reflex actions
Provides means of communication between brain and the
spinal nerves
B. Peripheral Nervous System
Provides sensory (afferent) information to the CNS
Carries motor (efferent) commands to body tissues
The efferent division has two components:
(1) somatic NS: innervates skeletal muscle
(2) autonomicnervous system: innervates smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
B1. PNS: Sensory/Afferent Division
B1. PNS: Sensory/Afferent Division
Peripheral nerves that carry sensory information into the
spinal cord and motor commands
Originate in the spinal cord and innervate the entire body
The paired spinal nerves emerge form the spinal cord by 2
short branches or roots
The dorsal root contains the axons of sensory neurons which
conduct impulses to the spinal cord from sensory receptors
B2. PNS: Motor /Efferent Division
Somatic NS
part of PNS associated with the voluntary control of body
movements via skeletal muscles
Consists of efferent nerves responsible for stimulating muscle
contraction, including all the non-sensory neurons connected
with skeletal muscles and skin
B2. PNS: Motor /Efferent Division
Autonomic NS
Conveys signal that regulate the internal environment by
controlling sooth and cardiac muscles and the organs of the
gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, excretory and endocrine
system
Consists of 2 subdivision
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
B2. PNS: Motor /Efferent Division
Autonomic NS: Sympathetic Division
this division prepares the body for intense, energy-consuming
activities, such as fighting, fleeing, or competing in a
strenuous game
fight or flight response
division that functions in actions requiring quick responses
and usually speeds up actions like heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing rate.
B2. PNS: Motor /Efferent Division
Autonomic NS: Parasympathetic Division
rest or digest division/ feed and breed system
promotes all the internal responses we associate with a
relaxed state.
activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after When you wave your right hand, what part of your brain
eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears) initiates the action?
urination, digestions and defecation.
Endocrine System
IV. Neuron Structure and Organization
Types of Neurons Chemical signaling by hormones is the function of endocrine
V. Synapse system
…to continue conveying information, the signal must be Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands
passed to another cell. Exocrine glands
This occurs at a synapse, or relay point, between a synaptic ducts carry secretion to a surface or organ cavity
terminal of a sending neuron and a receiving cell (neuron, extracellular effects (food digestion)
muscle or endocrine cell). Endocrine glands
Two Varieties: no ducts, release hormones into tissue fluids, have dense
ELECTRICAL capillary networks to distribute hormones
CHEMICAL intracellular effects, alter target cell metabolism
V. Synapse: Electrical Two basic systems of communication
and regulation throughout the body
Electrical Synapse
Endocrine system and Nervous System
Electrical current flows directly form a neuron to a receiving
Endocrine vs. Nervous System
cell
Major communication systems in the body
The receiving cell is stimulated quickly and at the same
Integrate stimuli and responses to changes in external and
frequency of action potentials as the sending neuron
internal environment
V. Synapse: Chemical
Both are crucial to coordinated functions of highly
Chemical Synapse differentiated cells, tissues and organs
When an action potential reaches a chemical synapse, it stops Unlike the nervous system, the endocrine system is
Chemical synapses have narrow gap called the synaptic cleft anatomically discontinuous.
The cleft is very narrow but it prevents the action potential
form spreading directly to the receiving cell. Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems
The action potential (an electrical signal) is first converted to Communication
a chemical signal consisting of molecules of neurotransmitter nervous - both electrical and chemical
the chemical signal may then generate and action potential in endocrine - only chemical
the receiving cell Speed and persistence of response
VI. Senses nervous - reacts quickly (1 - 10 msec), stops quickly
There are five basic types of sensory receptors. endocrine - reacts slowly (hormone release in seconds or
Mechanoreceptors respond to stimuli such as pressure, days), effect may continue for weeks
touch, stretch, motion, and sound. Adaptation to long-term stimuli
Chemoreceptors detect either total solute concentrations or nervous - response declines (adapts quickly)
specific molecules. endocrine - response persists
Electromagnetic receptors detect different forms of Area of effect
electromagnetic radiation. nervous - targeted and specific (one organ)
Various types of thermoreceptors signal surface and core endocrine - general, widespread effects (many organs)
temperatures of the body. Nervous system
Pain is detected by a group of nociceptors that respond to Hormones travel via the bloodstream to target cells
excess heat, pressure, or specific classes of chemicals. Communication by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Hearing Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Hearing: Invertebrates Several chemicals function as both hormones and
Hearing: Invertebrates neurotransmitters
Vision NE, cholecystokinin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone,
dopamine and ADH
Smell
Some hormones secreted by neuroendocrine cells (neurons)
Taste oxytocin and catecholamines
Touch Both systems with overlapping effects on same target cells
Concept Check: Apply what you learn!  NE and glucagon cause glycogen hydrolysis in liver
Which division of the autonomic nervous system would likely Systems regulate each other
be activated if a student learned that an exam she had neurons trigger hormone secretion
forgotten about would start in 5 minutes?Explain your hormones stimulate or inhibit neurons
answer.
Human Endocrine System
Principal Functions of Endocrine System Types of Hormones
Maintenance of the internal environment in the body Tyrosine Derivatives
(maintaining the optimum biochemical environment) Proteins or Peptides
Integration and regulation of growth and development Steroids
Control, maintenance and instigation of sexual reproduction, (Based on Chemical Classes)
including gametogenesis, coitus, fertilization, fetal growth Amines: Tyrosine (amino acid) Derivatives Hormone
and development and nourishment of the newborn Are water soluble, others are lipid soluble
Have different modes of release
Introduction Thyroid gland (Thyroxine T4, Triiodothyronine T3)
The endocrine system includes the organs of the body that Adrenal Medula (Norepinephrine, Epinephrine)
secrete hormones directly into body fluids such as blood Proteins or Peptides Hormones
Regulates chemical reaction in cells and therefore control They are water-soluble
functions of the organs, tissues, and other cells Easily transported in the blood but it cannot readily pass
Components of Endocrine System through the lipid-rich cell membranes
Endocrine system Hypothalamus (Oxytocine, Luteinizing Hormone,
endocrine organs (thyroid, pineal, etc) Prolactin, Growth Hormone)
hormone producing cells in organs (brain, heart and small Parcreas (Insulin, Glucagon)
intestine) Steroid Hormones
Endocrine glands Are derivatives of steroid cholesterol
produce hormones They are lipid-soluble and can easily dissolve in and pass
Endocrine Cells through the cell membranes
Cells that secret hormones Not soluble in blood; requires carrier protein in order to be
Endocrine Organs transported to their target cells
Purely endocrine organs Testes (Androgen)
Pituitary gland Ovary (Estrogen)
Pineal gland Adrenal Cortex (Mineralcorticoids, Glucocorticoids)
Thyroid gland Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Parathyroid glands Response depends on both hormone and target cell
Adrenal: 2 glands Lipid-soluble hormones bind to receptors inside target cells
Cortex Water-soluble hormones bind to receptors on the plasma
Medulla membrane
Endocrine cells in other organs Activates second messenger system
Pancreas Amplification of original small signal
Thymus Responsiveness of target cell depends on
Gonads Hormone’s concentration
Hypothalamus Abundance of target cell receptors
Components of Endocrine System (Cont.) Influence exerted by other hormones
Hormone Permissive, synergistic and antagonistic effects
chemical messenger secreted into bloodstream, stimulates Easily transported in the blood but it cannot readily pass
response in another tissue or organ through the lipid-rich cell membranes
Target cells A water-soluble hormone binds to a signal receptor protein
Cells that have receptors for a specific hormone on the surface of a target cell.

A hormone elicits a response only from specific target cells,
those that have the matching receptor.
Hormone Activity
Hormones affect only specific target tissues with specific
receptors
Receptors constantly synthesized and broken down
Down-regulation
Up-regulation
Circulating Hormones – circulate in blood throughout body
Local hormones – act locally
Paracrine – act on neighboring cells
Autocrine – act on the same cell that secreted them
This interaction triggers events that lead to either a change
in cytoplasmic function or a change in gene transcription in
the nucleus.
Not soluble in blood; requires carrier protein in order to be
transported to their target cells
A lipid-soluble hormone penetrates the target cell’s plasma
membrane and binds to an intracellular signal receptor,
either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus
The hormone-receptor complex acts as a transcription factor,
typically activating gene expression.
 Regulates the internal environment through the autonomic
Control of Hormone Secretion system
Regulated by Signals from the hypothalamus travel to the pituitary gland
Signals from nervous system Hypothalamus
Chemical changes in the blood Hormones
Other hormones Oxytocin
Most hormonal regulation by negative feedback Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Few examples of positive feedback Hormones transported to the posterior pituitary for storage
Mechanisms of hormone release Directs posterior pituitary to release hormones
(a) Humoral: in response to changing levels of ions or Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
nutrients in the blood
(b) Neural: stimulation by nerves
(c) Hormonal: stimulation received from other hormones A small gland that lies just inferior to the hypothalamus

Feedback Loops “Master Gland” , because many of its hormones regulate the
Control hormone levels other endocrine function
Negative feedback loop
Hormone release stops in response to decrease in stimulus It has discrete posterior and anterior parts, or lobes, that
Stimulus (eating) raises blood glucose levels secrete different sets of hormones
Pancreas releases insulin in response to elevated blood
glucose Hypothalamus thus exerts master control over the endocrine
Blood glucose decreases as it is used by the body or stored in system by using the pituitary to relay directives to other
the liver glands
Insulin release stops as blood glucose levels normalize Control of endocrine activity
Negative Feedback Loop Hypothalamus regulates the activity of the nervous and
endocrine systems
Hypothalamus secrets regulatory hormones (releasing
Feedback Loops (cont.) hormones and inhibiting hormones) that control the activity
Positive feedback loop of the pituitary gland
As long as stimulus is present, action of hormone continues Releasing/inhibiting hormones secreted by the hypothalamus
Infant nursing at mother’s breast  stimulates hypothalamus either stimulate or inhibit activity of pituitary gland
stimulates posterior pituitary Three Methods of Hypothalamic Control over the Endocrine
Oxytocin released stimulates milk production and ejection System
from mammary glands Posterior and Anterior Pituitary
Milk release continues as long as infant continues to nurse Posterior Pituitary (Neurophysis)
Positive Feedback Loop Composed of nervous tissue and it is an extension of the
hypothalamus
Endocrine glands It stores and secretes two hormones that are made in the
Greek word: hypothalamus
endo : within
crine : to separate Anterior Pituitary (Adenophysis)
Endocrine glands Composed of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete
Secrete their products into the bloodstream, which delivers numerous hormones directly into the blood
them throughout the body. Pituitary Gland Anatomy and Hormones of Neurohypophysis
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
Only certain cells, called target cells, can respond to certain The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes two
hormones. hormones: Antiduretic Hormone and Oxytocin.
Major human Endocrine Glands 1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Pineal Gland (Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland), Decreases the amount of water lost at the kidneys
Parathyroid, Thyroid, Adrenal Gland, Thymus, Pancreas, Elevates blood pressure
Gonads 2) Oxytocin
Vertebrate Endocrine System Stimulates contractile cells in mammary glands
Hypothalamus Stimulates smooth muscle cells in uterus
Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus Hypothalamus exerts control over the anterior pituitary by
The main control center of the endocrine system secreting two kinds of hormones into short blood vessels that
connect the two organs: releasing and inhibiting hormones
 Thyroid Gland
Releasing Hormone Functions of thyroid hormone
Stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete one or more  body’s metabolic rate and O2 consumption
specific hormones calorigenic effect -  heat production
Inhibiting Hormone  heart rate and contraction strength
Induces the anterior pituitary to stop secreting one or more  respiratory rate
specific hormones stimulates appetite and breakdown CHO, lipids and proteins
C (calcitonin or parafollicular) cells
AnteriorPituitary produce calcitonin that blood Ca2+ , promotes Ca2+
deposition and bone formation especially in children
Release of hormones stimulated by releasing and inhibiting
hormones from the hypothalamus Parathyroid Glands
Also regulated by negative feedback Four located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Hypothalamic hormones made by neurosecretory cells
transported by hypophyseal portal system Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Anterior pituitary hormones that act on other endocrine Agonist to calcitonin by raising blood calcium levels through
systems called tropic hormones activation of osteoclasts (dissolve bone)
Tropic hormones, meaning that they regulate the function of As bone dissolves, calcium levels in blood increase
other endocrine cells or glands. Adrenal Glands
Hormones of the adenohypophysis Located on top of each kidney
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland produces 7 hormones Divided into the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
1) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenal medulla
TSH triggers the release of thyroid hormones by the thyroid Central portion
glands Hormones
Thyrotropin releasing hormone promotes the release of TSH Epinephrine
2) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Norepinephrine
ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids by the adrenal Same effects as sympathetic nervous system
gland Adrenal Gland
Corticotrophin releasing hormone causes the secretion of Adrenal Glands (cont.)
ACTH Adrenal cortex
3) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Outermost portion
FSH stimulates follicle development and estrogen secretion in Secretes many hormones, but main ones are
females and sperm production in males Aldosterone
4) Leutinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates body to retain sodium and water
LH causes ovulation and progestin (progesterone) production Important in maintaining BP
in females and androgen (testosterone) production in males Cortisol
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) promotes the Released when stressed
secretion of FSH and LH Decreases protein synthesis, resulting in slowed tissue repair
5) Prolactin (PH) Decreases inflammation
PH stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk
production Pancreas
Located behind the stomach
6) Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) Both exocrine gland and endocrine gland
GH stimulates cell growth and replication through release of Exocrine – secretes digestive enzymes into a duct leading to
somatomedins or IGF the small intestine
Growth-hormone releasing hormone Endocrine – secretes hormones into bloodstream
(GH-RH) Pancreatic Hormones
Growth-hormone inhibiting hormone 1-2 million islets produce hormones
(GH-IH) 98% of organ produces digestive enzymes (exocrine)
7) Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) Insulin (from  cells)
Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin secreted after meal with carbohydrates raises glucose blood
levels
Thyroid Gland Anatomy stimulates glucose and amino acid uptake
Largest endocrine gland; high rate of blood flow nutrient storage effect (stimulates glycogen, fat and protein
arises root of embryonic tongue synthesis)
Anterior and lateral sides of trachea antagonizes glucagon
two large lobes connected by isthmus Pancreatic Hormones
Thyroid Gland Glucagon (from  cells)
secreted in very low carbohydrate and high protein diet or Increase in glucose and fatty acids in blood, which leads to
fasting weight loss
stimulates glycogenolysis, fat catabolism (release of FFA’s) Increase in cortisol if stress prolonged
and promotes absorption of amino acids for gluconeogenesis Decreased body repair
Somatostatin (from delta ( ) cells) Susceptibility to illness
secreted with rise in blood glucose and amino acids after a Major Endocrine Glands and Some of their Hormones
meal
paracrine secretion = inhibits secretion of insulin, glucagon by
and cells
Pancreatic Hormones Endocrine Diseases and Disorder
Hyperglycemic hormones raise blood glucose
GH, epinephrine, NE, cortisol and corticosterone Diabetes Mellitus
Type I Diabetes (insulin-dependent)
Hypoglycemic hormones lower blood glucose Characterized by destruction of the beta cells of the islets of
insulin Langerhans and a complete lack of insulin
Other Hormone-Producing Organs Type II Diabetes (non-insulin-dependent)
Pineal body Insulin is produced but cannot exert its effects because of a
Small gland deficiency of insulin receptors on cell membranes
Located between cerebral hemispheres Hypothyroidism
Melatonin Underactive thyroid gland
Regulates circadian rhythms
May play a role in onset of puberty Characterized by enlargement of the thyroid gland, most
Thymus gland often called thyroid goiter
Located between lungs
Thymosin Occurrence of Hypothyroidism in adult results in myxedema
Promotes production of and occurrence in infants or children results in cretinism or
T lymphocytes congenital hypothyroidism
Other Hormone-Producing Organs (cont.)
The gonads Grave’s Disease (Hyperthyroidism)
Ovaries Over secretion of thyroid hormone
Estrogen The thyroid gland is overactive, and goiter forms
Progesterone Exopthalmic goiter
Testes The eyes protrude because of edema in eye socket tissues
Testosterone and swelling of the muscles that move the eyes
Stomach
Gastrin Abnormalities of the Thyroid
Small intestine Hypocalcemia
Secretin When the blood levels of calcium are high
Cholecystokinin Addison’s Disease
Decreased function of the adrenal cortex result to weakness,
Heart fatigue, abdominal pains, nausea, dehydration, fever and
Atrial natriuretic peptide – regulates BP hyperpigmentation (tanning without the sun exposure) are
among the symptoms
Kidneys Addison’s Disease
Erythropoietin – stimulates blood cell production Cushing’s Syndrome
The Stress Response The clinical syndrome that results from low blood sugar
Stressor Cushing’s Syndrome
Any stimulus that produces stress Acromegaly
Types Acromegaly is caused by overproduction of growth hormone
Physical factors in the adult.
Psychological factors It is characterized by enlargement of the bones in the face,
Positive stimuli the fingers, and the toes as a person ages.
Acromegaly
The Stress Response (cont.) Gigantism
Physiologic response to stress caused by hormone release Too much growth hormone can lead to giantism
General stress syndrome
Increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and BP GAS EXCHANGE
Every organism must exchange materials with its Without closing GC the plants would become very
environment dehydrated
And this exchange ultimately occurs at the cellular level Transpiration
the loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of
GAS EXCHANGE the plant
In unicellular organisms
These exchanges occur directly with the environment Sensitivity of Stomata
Number and appearance depend on environment conditions
Multicellular Organism Hot, dry climates with low humidity have fewer stomata
Rely on specialized systems that carry out exchange with the High humidity = more stomata
environment and that transport materials between sites of Low CO2 levels = stomata open
exchange and the rest of the body Normal levels of CO2 = stomata relaxed
Gas Exchange 3 Major Photosynthetic Pathway
Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of C3 plants (beans, rice, wheat, potatoes; most temperate
carbon dioxide crops; all woody trees) close their stomata, conserving water.
C4 plants (corn, sugarcane, and amaranth) incorporate CO2
Gas Exchange in plants into four-carbon compounds in mesophyll cells. These
Plants need Oxygen too. compounds are exported to bundle-sheath cells, where they
Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. release carbon dioxide for use in the Calvin cycle (a stage in
They require oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis involving the synthesis of glucose)
photosynthesis. CAM plants (cactus, euphorbia, some orchids) open their
stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids, which
Reactions that involve gasses are stored in mesophyll cells. During the day, the stomata
Photosynthesis close, and the CO2 is released from the organic acids for use
Occurs in the chloroplast in the Calvin cycle.
Energy produced (glucose)
Greater volumes of gasses exchanged in photosynthesis C3 Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration C4 Photosynthesis
Occurs in the mitochondria CAM Photosynthesis
Energy produced (ATP) Overall
Where does the diffusion of gasses occur? Gas exchange in plants is completed by diffusion
Between the environment and the plant No specific organ involved
Diffusion through the stomata Gas exchange in animals
Within the plant Gas Exchange occurs across specialized respiratory Surfaces
Gasses move in and out of the intercellular spaces (spongy Oxygen
tissue) The respiratory medium
Passive transport Sources of oxygen:
The Epidermis of a leaf. Air for terrestrial animal
Stomata Water for aquatic animals
Where diffusion of gasses occurs
O2 net movement out Respiratory Surface
CO2 net movement in Part of an animal where gases are exchange with the
Underside of leaves environment is the respiratory surface
Guard cells control whether they are open or not (to leave It is a thin, moist epithelium, separating the respiratory
them open would be inefficient. medium from the blood or capillaries
Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across respiratory
Guard Cells (GC) surface occur entirely by diffusion
Kidney bean shaped This surface tends to be thin and have large areas, maximizing
Take in potassium by active transport – stimulated by light on the rate of gas exchange
the leaf The structure of respiratory surface depends mainly on:
Increases the particles in the cell therefore water enters by the size of the organism
osmosis and GC swell opening the stomata (because outer whether it live in water or on land
wall is thinner making it bulge out) on its metabolic demands
Allow minerals out of GC and thus H2O leaves via osmosis and Simple animals
the stomata closes Cnidarians, Sponges and Flatworms
Why not leave the stomata open? Plasma membrane of every cell in the body is close enough to
So plants are constantly losing water the outside environment for gases to diffuse in and out
This loss of water is called Transpiration
Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces for the
adequate diffusion of respiratory gases
Between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or
water
Earthworms and some amphibians
Use the entire outer skin as a respiratory organ
Below the moist skin is a dense net of capillaries
Habitats are limited to water or damp places
For most other animals, the general body surface lacks
sufficient area to exchange gases for the entire body
The solution is a respiratory organ that is extensively folded
or branched, enlarging the surface area for gas exchange
Gills
Respiratory adaptations of Most Aquatic Animals
Gills in Aquatic Animals
Gills are outfoldings of the body surface
Specialized for gas exchange
The distribution of gills all over the body can vary
considerably
Gills have a total surface area much greater than that of the
rest of the body
Gills in Aquatic Animals
In some invertebrates
The gills have a simple shape and are distributed over much
of the body
Ventilation
Movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory
surface, a process called ventilation
Maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across
the gill that are necessary for gas exchange.
Gills in Aquatic Animals
Marine worm.
have a pair of flattened appendages called parapodia on each
body segment.
The parapodia serve as gills and also function in
crawling and swimming
Gills in Aquatic Animals
Scallop.
The gills of a scallop are long, flattened plates that project
from the main body mass inside the hard shell.
Cilia on the gills circulate water around the gill surfaces.
Gills in Aquatic Animals
The effectiveness of gas exchange in some gills, including
those of fishes
Is increased by ventilation and countercurrent flow of blood
and water
Countercurrent blood flow increases the efficiency of
obtaining O2 from water
Countercurrent
the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids
flowing in opposite directions
In the fish gill, more than 80% of the O2 dissolved in the
water is removed as it passes over the respiratory surface.
Countercurrent
There is diffusion gradient favoring the transfer of oxygen
from water to the blood
Tracheal systems and Lungs
Respiratory Adaptations of Terrestrial Animals
Tracheal System
Made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body
The largest tubes, called tracheae, open to the outside
The finest branches extend close to the surface of nearly
every cell, where gas is exchanged by diffusion across the
moist epithelium that lines the tips of the tracheal branches
Tracheal Systems in Insects
The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched
internal tubes that deliver air directly to body cells.
The largest tubes, called tracheae, connect to external
openings spaced along the insect’s body surface.
Air sacs formed from enlarged portions of the tracheae are
found near organs that require a large supply of oxygen.
Tracheal Systems in Insects
The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched
internal tubes that deliver air directly to body cells.
Rings of chitin reinforce the largest tubes, called tracheae,
keeping them from collapsing.
Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs that
require a large supply of oxygen.
Air enters the tracheae through openings called spiracles on
the insect’s body surface and passes into smaller tubes called
tracheoles.
Tracheal Systems in Insects
Rings of chitin keep the tracheae open allowing air to enter
and pass into smaller tubes called tracheoles.
The branched tracheoles deliver air directly to cells
throughout the body.
The tracheal tubes
Supply O2 directly to body cells
Mammalian Respiratory Systems
Air enters through the nostrils
Flows through the nasal cavity
Leads to the pharynx (intersection of food and air)
Glottis is open, air flows to the upper respiratory tract
Larynx is adapted as a voice box (vibration of vocal cord
produces sound)
Mammalian Respiratory Systems
From the larynx, air passes into the trachea or windpipe
Trachea forks into 2 bronchi (sing. Bronchus) one leading to
each lung
Each bronchus branches repeatedly into finer and finer tubes
called bronchioles
Epithelial lining are covered by cilia and thin film of mucus
Tiniest bronchioles dead-end as a cluster of air sacs called
alveoli
Gas exchange occurs across the thin epithelium of the lung’s
million alveoli
Human respiratory System
Respiration
A collective term for the following processes:
 Keeps food and drink out of the airway
Pulmonary ventilation Sound production
Movement of air into the lungs (Inspiration) Acts as a sphincter during abdominal straining
Movement of air out of the lungs (Expiration) During defecation and heavy lifting
External respiration Larynx (Voice Box)
Movement of oxygen form the lungs to the blood Selected Anatomical Features:
Movement of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs Nine C-rings of hyaline cartilage
Transport of respiratory gases Form the framework of the larynx
Transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissue Muscular walls
Transport of carbon dioxide from the tissue to the lungs Aid in voice production and the swallowing reflex
Internal respiration Glottis
Movement of oxygen from the blood to the tissue cells The superior opening of the larynx
Movement of carbon dioxide from tissue cells to the blood Epiglottis
Prevents food and drink form entering airway the swallowing
Principal organs of the respiratory system Larynx (Voice Box)
Selected Anatomical Features:
Nose and Nasal Cavity Glottis
Functions: The superior opening of the larynx
Provides and airway for respiration Epiglottis
Moistens and warms air that enters Prevents food and drink form entering airway the swallowing
Filters and cleans air Larynx (Voice Box)
Resonating chamber for speech
Detects odor in the airstream Selected Anatomical Features:
Nose and Nasal Cavity False Vocal cords
Selected Anatomical Features: Aid in closing the glottis when swallowing
Vibrissae (guard hairs) True Vocal cords
Stiff hairs that filter large particles from air Produce sound when air passes between them
Nasal Cilia The shorter and thinner these membranes are, the faster air
Hair-like projections that propel trapped particles toward the moves over them; produces high pitched sounds
throat for digestion by digestive enzymes The longer and thicker these membranes are, the slower air
Rich supply of capillaries warm the inspired air moves over them; produces low pitched sounds
Nasal Conchae Trachea (Windpipe)
Folds in the mucous membrane that increases air turbulence Functions:
and ensures that most air contacts the mucous membranes Air passageway
Nose and Nasal Cavity Cleans, warms, and moistens incoming air
Selected Anatomical Features: Selected Anatomical Features:
Olfactory mucosa Rings of hyaline cartilage
Mucous membranes that contains smell receptors Reinforce the trachea and keep it from collapsing when you
Respiratory mucosa inhale
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium
goblet cells that secrete mucus Traps inhaled debris
Mucus Propels mucus up to the pharynx where it is swallowed
Stickiness traps inhaled particles Bronchi
Lysozyme kills bacteria Functions:
Lymphocytes and IgA antibodies protection against bacteria Solely an air passageway
Pharynx (Throat) Selected Anatomical Features:
Three regions of the Pharynx: Left and Right primary bronchi branch off from trachea
Nasopharynx Once the left and right primary bronchi enters the lungs they
Air passage are subdivided into smaller tubes
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Bronchi
Oropharynx Selected Anatomical Features:
Passageway for air, food and drink Subdivision:
Stratified squamous epithelium Secondary bronchi
Laryngopharynx Tertiary Bronchi
Passageway for air, food and drink Bronchioles
Stratified squamous epithelium Terminal bronchioles
Larynx (Voice Box) Respiratory bronchioles
Functions: Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Cluster of alveoli Boyle’s Law
Bronchi At constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of
Alveoli are the site of gas exchange gas is inversely proportional to its volume
Cell Population present in alveoli
Type I Alveolar Cells Two phases of pulmonary ventilation
Allow for diffusion of gases
Type II Alveolar Cells Breathing
Secrete surfactant Also called pulmonary ventilation
Dust Cells
Alveolar macrophages (leukocytes) A completely mechanical process that depends on volume
Other tissue types present in the Alveoli changes occurring in the thoracic cavity.
Smooth muscle rings
Aid in resistance to air flow Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the
Elastic Connective tissue fibers flow of gases to equalize the pressure.
Aid in expelling air from the lungs Inhalation
Lungs A very active process that requires input of energy
Right and Left lung: Inhalation
Left Lung A very active process that requires input of energy
Divided into 2 lobes
Smaller than the right lung Air flows into the lungs when the thoracic pressure falls
Cardiac notch accommodates the heart below atmospheric pressure
Right Lung The diaphragm moves downward and flattens, when
Divided into 3 lobes stimulated by phrenic nerves
Each lobe is separated by connective tissue and has its own External (inspiratory) intercostals muscles and thoracic
arteries and veins muscles can be stimulated to contract and expand the
Allows for compartmentalization, esp. when portions of the thoracic cavity
lungs have diseases Charles’ Law
Serous Membranes The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional
cover the entire surface of the lungs and produce pleural to its absolute temperature
fluid As the air is warmed, it expands and inflates the lungs
Pleural Fluid Exhalation
Enables the lungs to expand and contract with minimal A passive process that takes advantage of the recoil
friction properties of elastic fibers
Lungs Air is forced out of the lungs when the thoracic pressure rises
Serous Membranes above atmospheric pressure
cover the entire surface of the lungs and produce pleural The diaphragm and expiratory muscles relax
fluid The elasticity of the lungs and the thoracic cage allows them
Pleural Fluid to return to their normal size and shape
Enables the lungs to expand and contract with minimal Exhalation
friction To exhale more than usual, internal (expiratory) intercostals
Alveolus muscles and other muscle can be stimulated
The alveoli are grouped together like a lot of interlinked
caves, rather than existing as separate individual sacs Physical factors influencing pulmonary ventilation
Oxygen from the inhale air diffuses through the walls of the Resistance to Airflow
alveoli and adjacent capillaries in the red blood cells Pulmonary Compliance
Oxygen is then carried by the blood to the body tissues The ease at which lungs expand
Alveolus Compliance can be reduced by degenerative lung disease,
CO2 produced by the body returns to the lung via the blood such us tuberculosis
Diffuses across the capillary and alveolar walls into the air to Diameter of Bronchioles
be removed from the body with expiration Controlled by smooth muscle
Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation Bronchoconstriction
Reduce airflow
Basic Pressure, Flow and Resistance Principles Bronchodilation
Increase airflow
Atmospheric Pressure Alveolar surface tension
The weight of the air Surfactant reduces the surface tension in the alveoli and keep
The force that moves air into the lungs them from collapsing during expiration
Neural control of pulmonary ventilation
Control centers in the brainstem
Respiratory control centers
Found in the pons and the medulla oblongata
Control breathing
Adjusts the rate and depth of breathing according to oxygen
and carbon dioxide levels
Afferent connections to the brainstem
Hypothalamus and limbic system send signals to respiratory
control centers
Chemoreceptors in the brainstem and arteries monitor pH ,
Oxygen and Carbon dioxide levels
Vagus nerve (X) transmits sensory signals to the respiratory
centers when irritated by smoke, dust and noxious fumes
Inflation reflex
Prevent s the lungs from over-inflating
Voluntary control
Controlled by the motor cortex of the cerebrum
Very limited voluntary control exist
Patterns of Breathing
Apnea
Temporary cessation of breathing
One or more skipped breaths
Dyspnea
Labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath
Eupnea
Normal, relaxed, quite breathing
Hyperpnea
Increased rate and depth of breathing in response to
exercise, pain or other conditions
Hyperventilation
Increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic
demand
Hypoventilation
Reduced pulmonary ventilation
Orthopnea
Dyspnea that occurs when a person is lying down
Respiratory arrest
Permanent cessation of breathing
Tachypnea
Accelerated respiration
Respiration: Acid-Base Balance
Normoventilation=blow off just enough CO2 =a state of acid-
base balance
Hyperventilation=blow off too much CO2=a state of alkalosis
Hypoventilation=blow off too little CO2=a state of acidosis
Asthma - a condition in which your airways narrow and swell
and produce extra mucus. This can make breathing difficult
and trigger coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.
Respiratory diseases
Bronchitis - an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial
tubes, which carry air to and from your lungs. People who
have bronchitis often cough up thickened mucus, which can
be discolored.
Emphysema - gradually damages the air sacs (alveoli) in your
lungs, making you progressively more short of breath.
Emphysema is one of several diseases known collectively as
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
In emphysema, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and
eventually rupture — creating one larger air space instead of
many small ones. This reduces the surface area of the lungs
and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that reaches your
bloodstream.
Pneumonia - is an infection in one or both of the lungs. Many
germs—such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi—can cause
pneumonia.
The infection inflames your lungs' air sacs, which are called
alveoli.
The air sacs may fill up with fluid or pus, causing symptoms
such as a cough with phlegm (a slimy substance), fever, chills,
and trouble breathing.
Tuberculosis - bacterial infection that can spread through the
lymph nodes and bloodstream to any organ in your body. It is
most often found in the lungs.
It is a disease caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but TB
bacteria can attack any part of the body such as the kidney,
spine, and brain.
Tonsillitis - is inflammation of the tonsils most commonly
caused by viral or bacterial infection. Symptoms may
include sore throat and fever.
Support and Locomotion
Musculo-Skeletal System
Locomotion
An active travel from place to place
Locomotive organs are different in nature from one species
to other
Modes of travel are also diverse:
Running
Walking
Swimming
Crawling
Hopping
Flying
Swimming
Muscles
Plays an a important role in movement of the animals
It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and
circulates blood throughout the body
Skeletal System
A hard structure in the bodies that maintain shape and
provides support and protection
Types of Skeletons
Hydrostatic
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Types of Skeletons consists primarily of cancellous or spongy bone, which is
Hydrostatic Skeleton mostly small spaces or cavities surrounded by bone matrix.
In animals that lack a hard skeleton, a fluid-filled
gastrovascular cavity or coelom Epiphyseal or growth plate
Offers support and resistance to contraction of muscles for is hyaline cartilage located between the epiphysis and
mobility diaphysis.
Growth in bone length occurs at the epiphyseal plate, but,
Skeletal System: Functions when bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal plate
becomes ossified and is called the epiphyseal line
SKELETAL SYSTEM Structure of a long bone
Bone and Cartilage Medullary cavity
Cartilage Bone cavities which are filled with soft tissue called marrow
It is strong and slightly flexible which also functions as Yellow Bone Marrow
padding of the bone ends where they come in contact with Found in the diaphysis
joint Mostly consists of adipose tissue
Bone Red Bone Marrow
It is much stronger than cartilage but much less flexible Found in the epiphysis
Being hard and resilient tissue is considered as the major Consists of blood forming cells and is the only site of blood
component in human skeleton. formation in adults
Bone are held together by a tough connective tissue called
ligament Structure of a long bone
BONe Anatomy
Bone Shape Periosteum
Structure of a Long Bone It is a dense connective tissue sheath that wraps the bone
Structure of Flat, Short and Irregular Bones Contains nerves and blood vessels
Structure of a long bone
Bone Shapes Articular Cartilage
Bones are classified into four groups according to their Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering a bone where it forms
shapes and corresponding functions: a joint (articulation) with another bone
Long bones Endosteum
are longer than they are wide. Thin connective tissue membrane lining the inner cavities of
Most of the bones of the upper and lower limbs are long bone
bones. Structure of flat, short, and irregular bones
Short bones Flat bones
are about as broad as they are long. usually have no diaphyses or epiphyses
They are nearly cube-shaped or round and are exemplified they contain an interior framework of cancellous bone
by the bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals). sandwiched between two layers of compact bone
Bone Shapes Short and irregular bones
Flat bones have a composition similar to the epiphyses of long bones;
have a relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved. have no diaphyses
Examples of flat bones are certain skull bones, the ribs, the They have compact bone surfaces that surround a cancellous
breastbone (sternum), and the shoulder blades (scapulae) bone center with small spaces that usually are filled with
Irregular bones marrow.
have shapes that don’t fit readily into the other three Certain regions of these bones, however, such as the
categories processes (projections) of irregular bones, possess epiphyseal
such as the vertebrae and facial bones growth plates and therefore have small epiphyses.
Some of the flat and irregular bones of the skull have airfilled
Bone shapes spaces called sinuses which are lined by mucous membranes.
Structure of a long bone Structure of a flat bone
Each growing long bone has three major components: a
diaphysis, an epiphysis, and an epiphyseal plate 2 Types of Bones
Compact and Spongy
Diaphysis or shaft Compact Bone
is composed primarily of compact bone, which is mostly bone Diaphysis is made of dense type of tissue called compact
matrix with a few small spaces. bone
Structure of a long bone Compact bone is composed of a calcified bone matrix
Epiphysis or end of the bone arranged in concentric rings.
Compact bone
The rings contain cavities (lacunae) filled with bone cells usually consists of 26 bones, which can be divided into five
(osteocytes), which are interconnected by many minute regions
passages (canaliculi). 7 cervical vertebrae
These passages (canaliculi) serve to distribute nutrients 12 thoracic vertebrae
throughout the bone. 5 lumbar vertebrae
1 sacral bone
This entire organization of lacunae and canaliculi is arranged 1 coccygeal bone
into an elongated cylinder called an osteon (Haversian Make up the vertebral column.
system). Invertebral disks
Bone consists of bundles of osteons cemented together and During life, intervertebral disks of fibrocartilage located
interconnected with blood vessels and nerves. between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae
provide additional support
prevent the vertebral bodies from rubbing against each other.
Spongy Bone consist of an external annulus fibrosus and an internal
Found mostly at the ends of bones (diaphysis) and joints gelatinous nucleus pulposus
Has an irregular mesh like arrangement of thin plates of bone
called trabeculae vertebral column performs five major functions
The spaces between trabeculae are filled with marrow (1)it supports the weight of the head and trunk
Divisions of Skeleton (2) it protects the spinal cord
(3) it allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
Axial Skeleton (4) it provides a site for muscle attachment
Skull (5) it permits movement of the head and trunk
Sternum General Structure of a Vertebra
Rib
Spine Thoracic cage
Coccyx or rib cage
Appendicular Skeleton protects the vital organs within the thorax
Upper Limbs forms a semi-rigid chamber that can increase and decrease in
Lower Limbs volume during respiration.
Pectoral Girdles It consists of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs with their
Pelvic Girdle associated costal (rib) cartilages, and the sternum

Axial Skeleton
Types of ribs
Axial Skeleton True ribs, or vertebrosternal ribs
Divided into the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and attach directly through their costal cartilages to the sternum.
thoracic cage, or rib cage. False Ribs
do not attach directly to the sternum.
Forms the upright axis of the body
Two Groups of False Ribs:
It also protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs Vertebrochondral ribs
housed within the thorax. eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs
Axial skeleton: Skull are joined by a common cartilage to the costal cartilage of the
Skull or Cranium seventh rib, which, in turn, is attached to the sternum.
protects the brain Floating, or vertebral ribs
Supports the organs of vision, hearing, smell, and taste they do not attach to the sternum.
and provides a foundation for the structures that take air, the eleventh and twelfth ribs
food, and water into the body. The costal cartilages are flexible and permit the thoracic cage
to expand during respiration.
When the skull is disassembled, the mandible is easily
separated from the rest of the skull, which remains intact. Sternum (breastbone)
has been described as being sword shaped and has three
Skull: Fontanels parts:
small unossified areas in babies caught between the The manubrium (handle) is the sword handle
advancing edges of 3 or more enlarging bones The body is the blade
The xiphoid process is the sword tip.
Axial Skeleton: Appendicular skeleton
Vertebral Column
Appendicular Skeleton JOINTS
Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the
girdles by which they are attached to the body. Joints
The term girdle means a belt or a zone and refers to the two The mobility or flexibility of the human body is made possible
zones, pectoral and pelvic, where the limbs are attached to by joints
the body. It is an area where bones come together
Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Skeletal joints are classified into 3 based on the degree of
movement it allows:
Pectoral Girdle Immovable joints
Consists of the two clavicles and two scapula Slightly movable joints
Permits the attachment of muscles which assist in arm Movable Joints
movement, while also serving as a place of attachment for Immovable Joint
the arms A.K.A. syntharthroses or fibrous joint
Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder) Bones are held together by a tough fibrous connective tissue
consists of two pairs of bones that attach the upper limb to Found in the adult cranium
the body: Fibrous joint
each pair is composed of a scapula or shoulder blade and a
clavicle or collarbone Slightly Movable Joints
Permits the attachment of muscles which assist in arm A.K.A amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joints
movement, while also serving as a place of attachment for The bones can move a little but the ligaments stop them from
the arms moving too far
Connects the vertebrae to one another and connect some of
Upper Limb Bones the ribs to the sternum
The bone structure of the arm consists of the : Cartilaginous joints
Humerus,
Radius and ulna, Movable Joints
Wrist bone A.K.A diarthroses or synovial joints
The bones of the hands Freely movable and all the moving parts are held together by
Upper Limbs (Humerus) ligaments
In this type of joint, the ends of bones are covered with
Upper Limbs (Radius and Ulna) cartilage and enclosed in a fluid filled capsule
Types of Synovial Joint
Upper Limbs (Wrist and hand) Ball and Socket
Allows the greatest freedom of movement
Pelvic Girdle and lower limb One bone has a ball shaped head which nestle into a concave
socket of the second ball
Pelvic girdle E.g. hips and shoulder
consists of the right and left coxae or hipbones. Hinge Joints
The coxae join each other anteriorly and with the sacrum Permits movement in only one direction (forward and
posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the pelvis backward)
It protects organs and support the weight of the upper body Found in the elbows and knees
when you stand up Pivot joints
Type of joint which allows us to rotate our heads
Pelvic girdle

Lower Limb Bones Saddle Joint

The bone structure of the leg consists of the: consist of two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at
Femur (the longest bone) right angles to each other so that complementary surfaces
Tibia and Fibula articulate with each other
Ankle bone Saddle joints are biaxial joints.
The foot bones The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb is an example.
Lower Limb (femur) Ellipsoid Joint
are modified ball-and-socket joints
Lower Limb (Tibia and Fibula) The articular surfaces are ellipsoid in shape rather than
spherical as in regular ball-and-socket joints
Lower Limb (foot) Ellipsoid joints are biaxial, because the shape of the joint
limits its range of movement almost to a hinge motion in two
Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Bones axes and restricts rotation.
The atlantooccipital joint is an example.
Plane/Gliding Joint
consist of two opposed flat surfaces of about equal size in
which a slight amount of gliding motion can occur between
the bones
These joints are considered monoaxial because some rotation
is also possible but is limited by ligaments and adjacent bone.
Examples are the articular processes between vertebrae
Synovial Joint: Saddle Joint
Plane or Gliding joint
Ellipsoid Joint (condyloid)
Muscular System
Muscles can move an entire animal and play important role in
the body's internal life & helping other systems to function.
Muscles alone contribute around 40 to 50 percent body
weight of human
Muscle cells or muscle fibers, are usually arranged in bundles
or sheets
Individual muscles can only pull; they cannot push
Skeletal muscles are joined to bone by tough connective
tissue called tendons
Tendons are attached in such a way that they pull on the
bones and make them work like levers
The movements of the muscles and joints enable the bones
to act as levers
Muscle-Bone Interaction
Most skeletal muscles work in pairs
When one muscle or set of muscles contracts, the other
relaxes
How do Muscle Move?
Muscles move by shortening their length, pulling on tendons,
and moving bones closer to each other
One of the bone remains stationary and the other bone is
pulled towards it
The place on the stationary bone that is connected via tendon
to the muscle is called the origin
The place on the moving bone that is connected to the
muscle via tendons is called the insertion
The belly of the muscle is the fleshy part of the muscle in
between the tendons that does the actual contraction

Bone-Muscle Lever Systems Control of Muscle Contraction

Neuromascular junctions
Tendon- a “stretcher” The focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle
- a strap of dense fibrous tissue that anchors a skeletal Acetylcholine
muscle to a bone. A neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction
It is released from the axon terminal of the nerve cell when an
Bone – serves as a passive lever or action potential reaches the synapse junction
rigid bar that is pulled upon by a
contracting skeletal muscle. Control of Muscle Contraction
Characteristics of muscle tissue A group of chemical messengers cross the synapse and
stimulate the formation of electrical changes, which are
3 Different Muscle Types produced in the muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to
Skeletal Muscle receptors on its surface
Muscles which are associated with skeletal components Calcium is released from its storage area in the cell’s
The principle action of skeletal muscle is locomotion and it sarcoplasmic reticulum
can modulate shape An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and
Cells are multinucleate brings about a single, short muscle contraction called a
Striated – have visible banding muscle twitch
Voluntary – subject to conscious control
The shape depends on its location and function Control of Muscle Contraction
If there is a problem at the neuromuscular junction, a very
Smooth/Visceral Muscle prolonged contraction may occur called tetanus
Present in inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body Loss of function at the junction can produce paralysis
Smooth in appearance and moved involuntarily
Common Abnormalities of the Musculo-skeletal System
Cardiac Muscle
The heart consists of cardiac muscles in which cells assemble Achondroplasia
in a branching pattern Abnormal, slow growth of long bone
Has striation Results in unusually short, stocky limbs
Involuntary in nature thus nervous system cannot control the Ankylosis
cardiac muscle directly Abnormal condition of joint stiffness
Arthritis
Muscle-Bone Interaction Inflammation and degeneration of joint
Skeletal muscles generate force and produce movement only Carpal tunnel syndrome
by contracting or pulling on body parts
Repetitive stress injury in which the median nerve of the wrist Functions in both digestion and distribution of substances
generates pain impulses due to inflammation of the synovial throughout the body
sheath Some cnidarians, such as jellies
Cramps Have elaborate gastrovascular cavities
Prolonged, involuntary muscular contractions Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
Fracture More complex animals
A break in a bone Have one of two types of circulatory systems: open or closed
Gout Both of these types of systems have three basic components:
Abnormal deposition of uric acid crystals in the joints A circulatory fluid (blood)
Cause localized pain A set of tubes (blood vessels)
Also called gouty arthritis A muscular pump (the heart)
Myeloma
A tumor composed of the bone marrow cells In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs
Osteoarthritis Blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory
A form of arthritis characterized by an age-related system
deterioration of joints that is accompanied by erosion of Open Circulatory System
cartilage and painful inflammation Hemolymph
Osteoporosis An interstitial fluid that serves as the circulatory fluid
The deterioration of bone tissue over time that results in a Within Sinuses, chemical exchange occurs between the
loss of bone mass, making bones susceptible to fracture hemolymph and the body cells
Rheumatoid arthritis
A form of arthritis characterized by progressive, gradual joint In a closed circulatory system
deterioration that is caused by an autoimmune response Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial
Scoliosis fluid
Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine Closed Circulatory System
Sprain Heart pumps blood into large vessels that branch into smaller
An injury that results from stretching a ligament beyond its ones coursing through the organs
normal range, tearing its collagen fibers Materials are exchanged between the smallest vessels and
Strain the interstitial fluid bathing the cells
An injury that results from stretching a muscle beyond its Advantages of diff. Systems
normal range, Open Circulatory
tearing muscle tissue Less energy expenditure
Muscular Dystrophy Due to lower hydrostatic pressure
inherited; muscle enlarge due to increased fat and connective Serves additional functions:
tissue, but fibers degenerate and atrophy In spiders the hydrostatic pressure generated provides the
force used to extend animal legs
The Circulatory System Closed Circulatory
Effective delivery of O2 and nutrients to the cells
TRANSPORT SYSTEM Due to relatively higher blood pressure
Circulatory System Well suited to regulate the distribution of blood to different
Minimizes the distances that substances must diffuse to enter organs
or leave a cell Cardiovascular System
It is an organ system including the heart and the blood The Heart and The Blood Vessels
vessels that starts and end in the heart
By transporting fluid throughout the body, the circulatory Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory
system functionally connects the aqueous environment of system
the body cells to the organs that exchange gases, absorb Often called the cardiovascular system
nutrients and dispose of wastes Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system
Open and Closed Circulatory System Consisting of blood vessels and a two- to four-chambered
Invertebrate and Vertebrate heart
Invertebrate Circulation
The wide range of invertebrate body size and form Arteries
Is paralleled by a great diversity in circulatory systems always carry blood away from the heart
Gastrovascular Cavities Receives blood from the right ventricle
Simple animals, such as cnidarians Ventricles
Have a body wall only two cells thick that encloses a The “little-belly” like
gastrovascular cavity The lower chambers on either side of the heart
The gastrovascular cavity Right ventricle
Pumps blood out into the common pulmonary artery “pertains to hair”
Common pulmonary artery (CPA) Each capillary is very narrow like a strand of hair
Sends blood out toward both lungs Capillary wall
Veins Only a single layer thick
return blood towards the heart Nutrients and waste products diffuses across the wall
Largest veins return blood back to the atria Nutrients ( Oxygen and Glucose)
Atrium(pl. atria) Diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the tissue cells
The chambers located at the top of the heart Waste Products ( Carbon dioxide)
Pulmonary veins Diffuse out of the tissue cells and into the bloodstream
Returns blood from the lungs and empty it into the left Several capillaries merge together to form the venules
atrium Venules
Left atrium “little veins”
Dumps blood to the left ventricle Connects the capillaries to the larger veins
Left ventricle (LV) Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
pumps blood out into the aortic arch
Aortic Arch The major vessels and heart chambers are grouped together
Sends the blood from the LV out towards the tissues of the into 2 connected circulations
major body systems other than the lungs Pulmonary or Right-heart circulation
From the different organ system the blood then flows back involves the circulation of blood to, through and from the
towards the heart through the biggest set of veins: lungs
Superior and Inferior vena cava (upper or lower cave veins) Specialized for adding oxygen to the bloodstream
Superior Vena Cava (SVC) Systemic or Left-heart circulation
receives blood from the areas above the heart Represents the circulation of blood to, through and from the
Drains blood down into the right atrium tissues of all the major body organ system (except for the
Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) lungs)
Returns blood up into the right atrium Specializes in extracting oxygen from the bloodstream and
From the entire region below the heart delivering it to the tissues of the major organ systems
RV to Common Pumonary Artery Pulmonary Circulation
Pulmonary Artery to the Lungs
From Lungs to Pulmonary Veins Systemic Circulation
Pulmonary Veins to Left Atrium
Left Atrium to Left Ventricle Vertebrate Circulatory System
Left Ventricle to Aorta
Aorta to Upper and Lower Body Birds and Mammals Circulatory System
From Upper Body to Superior Vena Cava Are endotherms (homeotherms)
From Lower Body to Inferior Vena Cava Regulates their own internal body temperature
From Superior and Inferior Vena Cava to the Right atrium Have a great need for energy and oxygen to keep their body
As major arteries travels farther from the heart they branch heat always at a fairly high level
into smaller arteries Four-chambered heart with double circulation
Smaller arteries branch into even smaller arteries known as Provide both the required force to pump a large volume of
the arterioles heated blood
As the arterioles approach the cells of the body tissues they Separate pulmonary circulation
branch off into smallest blood vessels of all, called the Adds plenty of oxygen to the blood
capillaries
Blood Vessels DISEASEs and DISORDERs
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart Hypertension
Arterioles high blood pressure
Are the smallest branches of arteries arteries have persistently elevated blood pressure
Capillaries normal level for BP is below 120/80
Are the smallest blood vessels BP between 120/80 and 139/89 is called prehypertension
Location of exchange between blood and interstitial fluid of 140/90 or above is considered hypertension
Venules
Collect blood from capillaries Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
Veins Heart attack
Return blood to heart Atherosclerosis
Coronary artery disease (CAD)
Capillaries Aneurysm
Cardiovascular.System Cells in nodes can remove pathogens from lymph and start an
with Lymphatic System immune response
Leaves nodes through efferent lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic System Lymphatic Pathways (cont.)
Consists of lymphatic vessels and the lymphoid organs Lymphatic trunks
Closely associated with cardiovascular system has three Receive lymph from efferent lymphatic vessels
major functions: Deliver it to
Lymphatic capillaries take up excess tissue fluid and return it Lymphatic collecting ducts
to the bloodstream Thoracic duct
Lymphatic capillaries absorb fats at the intestinal villi and Left side of head and neck, left arm, left side of thorax, entire
transport them into the bloodstream abdominopelvic area, and both legs
The lymphatic system helps to defend the body against Right lymphatic duct
disease Right side of head and neck, right arm, and right side of chest
LYMPH PATHWAY
LYMPHOCYTES are produced and accumulate in the
lymphoid organs Lymph returns small proteins and foreign particles to lymph
nodes
Lymphatic System
Closely associated with Cardiovascular System Hydrostatic pressure drives entry of lymph into lymph
Introduction capillaries
Immune system
Protects the body against Lymph vessels pump lymph with help from smooth muscles,
Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Toxins, Parasites, Cancer skeletal muscle contractions and breathing
Lymphatic system Tissue Fluid and Lymph
Works with immune system to remove disease-causing Interstitial fluid
agents Fluid in spaces between cells that has leaked from blood
Organs capillaries and has not been picked up by body cells
Thymus High in nutrients, oxygen, and small proteins
Spleen Becomes lymph
Lymph nodes Pushed through lymphatic vessels by squeezing action of
The Lymphatic System: Function neighboring skeletal muscles and breathing movement
Network of connecting vessels Lymphoid Organ
Collects fluid (lymph) between cells and returns it to Lymph nodes
bloodstream Tonsils
Picks up lipids from digestive organs and transports them to Spleen
bloodstream Thymus Gland
Functions to defend the body against pathogens Bone Marrow
MICROVIEW OF LYMPH CAPILLARIES Lymph Nodes
Lymph and Lymphatic Capillaries Small, glandular structures
Lymph
clear, colorless fluid, similar to plasma but much less protein Located along paths of larger lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic capillaries Afferent lymphatic vessels – Lymph to node
closed at one end Efferent lymphatic vessels – Lymph from node
tethered to surrounding tissue by protein filaments
endothelial cells loosely overlapped Lymph Nodes (cont.)
allow bacteria and cells entrance to lymphatic capillary More lymph enters than can leave at one time
creates valve-like flaps that open when interstitial fluid
pressure is high, and close when it is low Cells in nodes
Lymphatic Capillary Macrophages – digest unwanted pathogens
Lymphatic Pathways Lymphocytes – start an immune response against pathogen
Lymphatic capillaries
Extend into interstitial spaces Nodes can generate some lymphocytes
Permeable, thin walls pick up fluid, now lymph LYMPH NODES
Delivers lymph to lymphatic vessels Lymph Node
LYMPH NODE LOCATIONS
Lymphatic vessels Lymphadenopathy
Deliver lymph to lymph nodes Collective term for all lymph node diseases
Lymphadenitis
swollen, painful node responding to foreign antigen
Lymph nodes are common sites for metastatic cancer
swollen, firm and usually painless
Tonsils
There are 5 tonsils in the body—2 lingual, 2 palatine, and 1
pharyngeal.
The lingual tonsils are located at the posterior root of the
tongue near the pharynx.
The palatine tonsils are in the posterior region of the mouth
near the pharynx.
The pharyngeal pharynx, also known as the adenoid, is found
in the nasopharynx at the posterior end of the nasal cavity.
The tonsils contain many T and B cells to protect the body
from inhaled or ingested substances. The tonsils often
become inflamed in response to an infection.
Most people have them removed because they are swollen,
but they are usually swollen because they are working
overtime trying to produce antibodies to keep your throat
healthy.
Tonsils protect our throats from the plaque that we swallow.
When the plaque reaches the stomach, acids usually get rid
of the bacteria.
Tonsil Pictures
Adenoids
The pharyngeal pharynx, also known as the adenoid, is found
in the nasopharynx at the posterior end of the nasal cavity.
Perform the same function and housed in the same location
as the tonsils.
Tonsil
Covered by epithelium
Pathogens get into tonsillar crypts and encounter
lymphocytes
The Thymus and Spleen
Thymus
Soft, bi-lobed organ
Located just above the heart in the mediastinum
Large in children, shrinks as we age
Functions
Same as lymph nodes
Also produces lymphocytes
Produces thymosin – stimulates production of lymphocytes
The Thymus and Spleen (cont.)
Spleen
Largest lymphatic organ
Located in the upper left quadrant of abdominal cavity
Functions
Filters blood similarly to lymph nodes
Removes worn-out red cells
If removed (splenectomy), liver takes over most of its
function
THYMUS AND SPLEEN
WHITE PULP - has lymph nodes filled with lymphocytes
Bone Marrow
Red bone marrow is a highly vascular tissue found in the
spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone. It is mostly found
in the ends of long bones and in the flat bones of the body.
Red bone marrow is a hematopoietic tissue containing many
stem cells that produce blood cells. All of the leukocytes, or
white blood cells, of the immune system are produced by red
bone marrow.
Leukocytes
Leukocytes can be further broken down into 2 groups based
upon the type of stem cells that produces them: myeloid
stem cells and lymphoid stem cells.
Myeloid Stem Cells Lymphoid Stem Cells
Myeloid stem cells produce monocytes and the granular
leukocytes— eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils.
Lymphoid stem cells produce T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes
Monocytes
Macrophages
Monocytes respond slowly to infection and once present at
the site of infection, develop into macrophages.
Macrophages are phagocytes able to consume pathogens,
destroyed cells, and debris by phagocytosis. As such, they
have a role in both preventing infection as well as cleaning up
the aftermath of an infection.
Monocytes are agranular leukocytes that can form 2 types of
cells: macrophages and dendritic cells
Dendritic cells
Monocytes also develop into dendritic cells in healthy tissues
of the skin and mucous membranes.
Dendritic cells are responsible for the detection of pathogenic
antigens which are used to activate T cells and B cells.
Lymphocytes
Lymphoid stem cells produce T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes.
T lymphocytes. T lymphocytes, also commonly known as T
cells, are cells involved in fighting specific pathogens in the
body. T cells may act as helpers of other immune cells or
attack pathogens directly. After an infection, memory T cells
persist in the body to provide a faster reaction to subsequent
infection by pathogens expressing the same antigen.
B lymphocytes. B lymphocytes, also commonly known as B
cells, are also cells involved in fighting specific pathogens in
the body. Once B cells have been activated by contact with a
pathogen, they form plasma cells that produce antibodies.
Natural killer cells. Natural killer cells, also known as NK cells,
are lymphocytes that are able to respond to a wide range of
pathogens and cancerous cells. NK cells travel within the
blood and are found in the lymph nodes, spleen, and red
bone marrow where they fight most types of infection.
Antibodies then neutralize the pathogens until other immune
cells can destroy them. After an infection, memory B cells
persist in the body to quickly produce antibodies to
subsequent infection by pathogens expressing the same
antigen.
Granular Leukocytes
Eosinophils. Eosinophils are granular leukocytes that reduce Do not recognize a specific antigen
allergic inflammation and help the body fight off parasites. Antibodies
Basophils. Basophils are granular leukocytes that trigger Also called immunoglobulins
inflammation by releasing the chemicals heparin and IgA
histamine. Basophils are active in producing inflammation Prevents pathogens from entering body
during allergic reactions and parasitic infections. IgD
The granular leukocytes produce eosinophils, basophils, and Found on B cell membranes
neutrophils Thought to control B cell activity
Neutrophils. Neutrophils are granular leukocytes that act as IgE
the first responders to the site of an infection. Neutrophils Found with IgA
use chemo taxis to detect chemicals produced by infectious Involved in triggering allergic reactions
agents and quickly move to the site of infection. Once there, Antibodies (cont.)
neutrophils ingest the pathogens via phagocytosis and IgG
release chemicals to trap and kill the pathogens. Recognizes bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Defenses Against Disease Activates complements
Infection
The presence of a pathogen in or on the body IgM
Pathogen Large and binds to antigens on food, bacteria, or
A disease-causing agent incompatible blood cells
Innate immunity Activates compliments
Nonspecific defenses to protect against pathogens Antibodies (cont.)
Nonspecific defenses Actions that occur when antibodies bind to antigens
Species resistance Allow phagocytes to recognize and destroy antigens
Mechanical barriers Cause antigens to clump together, causing them to be
Chemical barriers destroyed by macrophages
Phagocytosis Cover the toxic portions of antigens, making them harmless
Fever Activate complement
Inflammation Group of proteins in serum that attack pathogens by forming
Defenses Against Disease (cont.) holes in them
Two major types of lymphocytes Attract macrophages to pathogens and can stimulate
BODY DEFENSE AGAINST INFECTION inflammation
T Cell Activation Response Immune Responses and Acquired Immunity
Defenses Against Disease (cont.) Primary immune response occurs with first exposure to
T cell activation antigen
Begins when macrophage ingests and digests pathogen with Slow process
antigen on it Memory cells are formed
Antigens are placed on cell membrane of macrophage
T cell recognizes and binds to antigen and the major Secondary immune response with next exposure to same
histocompatibility complex (MHC) on the surface of the antigen
macrophage Quick and carried out by memory cells
Now can divide to form other types of T cells Usually prevents person from developing disease from the
Defenses Against Disease (cont.) antigen
Types Immune Responses and Acquired Immunity (cont.)
Cytotoxic T cells Naturally acquired active immunity
Protect body against viruses and cancer cells Natural exposure to antigen – having an illness
Helper T cells Makes antibodies and memory cells
Increase antibody formation, memory cell formation, B cell Long-lasting
formation, and phagocytosis
Memory T cells Artificially acquired active immunity
Remember the pathogen that activated original Injected with pathogen – immunizations or vaccines
T cell Makes antibodies and memory cells
Later exposures trigger an immune response more effective Long-lasting
than initial response Immune Responses and Acquired Immunity (cont.)
Defenses Against Disease (cont.) Naturally acquired passive immunity
Natural killer (NK) cells Acquired from mother
Type of lymphocyte Breast milk
Primarily target cancer cells Placenta
Kill on contact Short-lived
Artificially acquired passive immunity
Injected with antibodies (such as antivenom)
Short-lived
Major Immune System Disorders
Cancer
Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells form malignant
tumors
Factors known to cause cancer are called carcinogens
Treatment based on stage
0 – very early; cancer cells localized
I – spread to deeper layers or some in surrounding tissues
II – spread to surrounding tissues but contained in primary
site
III – spread beyond primary site into nearby areas
IV – spread to other organs
Recurrent – reappeared after treatment
Major Immune System Disorders (cont.)
Allergies
Immune response to an allergen
IgE antibodies bind to allergens and stimulate mast cells to
release histamine and heparin, triggering allergic response
Allergy shots
Small amounts of allergen stimulates production of IgG to
prevent IgE from binding to antigen
IgG antibodies do not stimulate mast cells, so immune
response is not generated
Major Immune System Disorders (cont.)
Allergy signs/symptoms
Inhaled allergens – runny nose, sneezing, coughing, wheezing
Ingested allergens – nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Skin allergens – rashes
Allergens in blood – most life-threatening; can affect many
organs
Treatment
Antihistamines, decongestants – OTC or prescription
Epinephrine for anaphylaxis – vasoconstriction,
increasing BP
Anaphylaxis – life-threatening response
Common Immune System Disorders
Autoimmune disease
Body attacks its own antigens
Examples
Scleroderma
Rheumatoid arthritis
Multiple sclerosis
Glomerulonephritis
Crohn’s disease
Diabetes mellitus, type I
Common Immune System Disorders (cont.)
Common Immune System Disorders (cont.)