China-India Relations - Wikipedia PDF

China–India
relations
Page issues
China–India relations, also called Sino-

Indian relations or Indo-China relations,
refers to the bilateral relationship between
the People's Republic of China (PRC) and
the Republic of India. The modern
relationship began in 1950 when India was
among the first countries to end formal
ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan)
and recognize the PRC as the legitimate
government of Mainland China. China and
India are the two most populous countries
and fastest growing major economies in
the world. Growth in diplomatic and
economic influence has increased the
significance of their bilateral relationship.
Currently, ties between the two nuclear
armed countries had severely deteriorated
due to a military standoff in Bhutan but are
now improving.[1]
China-India relations
India China
Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India and President

Xi Jinping of China, during the latter's state visit to
India, September 2014.
Cultural and economic relations between

China and India date back to ancient
times. The Silk Road not only served as a
major trade route between India and China,
but is also credited for facilitating the
spread of Buddhism from India to East
Asia.[2] During the 19th century, China's
growing opium trade with the East India
Company triggered the First and Second
Opium Wars.[3][4] During World War II, India
and China both played a crucial role in
halting the progress of Imperial Japan.[5]
Relations between contemporary China

and India have been characterised by
border disputes, resulting in three military
conflicts — the Sino-Indian War of 1962,
the Chola incident in 1967, and the 1987
Sino-Indian skirmish.[6] However, since the
late 1980s, both countries have
successfully rebuilt diplomatic and
economic ties. In 2008, China became
India's largest trading partner and the two
countries have also extended their
strategic and military relations.[7][8][9]
Despite growing economic and strategic

ties, there are several hurdles for India and
the PRC to overcome. India faces trade
imbalance heavily in favour of China. The
two countries failed to resolve their border
dispute and Indian media outlets have
repeatedly reported Chinese military
incursions into Indian territory.[10] Both
countries have steadily established
military infrastructure along border
areas.[10][11] Additionally, India remains
wary about China's strong strategic
bilateral relations with Pakistan,[12] while
China has expressed concerns about
Indian military and economic activities in
the disputed South China Sea.[13]
In June 2012, China stated its position that

"Sino-Indian ties" could be the most
"important bilateral partnership of the
century".[14] However, India did not
respond that initiative from China in equal
terms, as Indian media often displayed a
noisy and belligerent stand against
China.[15] That month Wen Jiabao, the
Premier of China and Manmohan Singh,
the Prime Minister of India set a goal to
increase bilateral trade between the two
countries to US$100 billion by 2015.[16] In
November 2012, the bilateral trade was
estimated to be $73.9 billion.[17]
According to a 2014 BBC World Service

Poll, 33% of Indians view China positively,
with 35% expressing a negative view,
whereas 27% of Chinese people view India
positively, with 35% expressing a negative
view.[18] A 2014 survey conducted by the
Pew Research Center showed 72% of
Indians were concerned that territorial
disputes between China and neighbouring
countries could lead to a military
conflict.[19]
The President of the People's Republic of

China, Xi Jinping, was one of the top world
leaders to visit New Delhi after Narendra
Modi took over as Prime Minister of India
in 2014.[20] India's insistence to raise South
China Sea in various multilateral forums
subsequently did not help that beginning
once again, the relationship facing
suspicion from Indian administration and
media alike.[21]
Geographical overview
Map of Eastern and Southern Asia.
(The border between the People's Republic of China

and the Republic of India over Arunachal
Pradesh/South Tibet reflects actual control, without
dotted line showing claims.)
China and India are separated by the

Himalayas. China and India today share a
border with Nepal and Bhutan acting as
buffer states. Parts of the disputed
Kashmir region claimed by India are
claimed and administered by either
Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit and
Baltistan) or by the PRC (Aksai Chin). The
Government of Pakistan on its maps
shows the Aksai Chin area as mostly
within China and labels the boundary
"Frontier Undefined" while India holds that
Aksai Chin is illegally occupied by the PRC.
China and India also dispute most of

Arunachal Pradesh. However, both
countries have agreed to respect the Line
of Actual Control.
Country comparison
People's Republic of
Republic of India
China
Population 1,337,364,960[22] 1,386,301,390[23]
9,640,821 km² (3,704,427
Area 3,287,240 km² (1,269,210 sq mi)
sq mi)
Population
452/km²[22] 148/km²[23]
density
Capital New Delhi Beijing
Largest city Mumbai Shanghai
Government Federal republic, parliamentary democracy Socialist, one-party state
Current
Narendra Modi Xi Jinping
leader
Hindi, English, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati,

Standard Chinese
Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi,
Official (Mandarin), Mongolian,
Meitei, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil,
languages Tibetan, Uyghur, Zhuang
Telugu, Maithili, Dogri, Santali, Bodo and Urdu (See
(See Languages of China)
Languages with official status in India)
>10% each: non-religious,

Hinduism (79.8%), Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.5%), folk religions and Taoism,
Main
Sikhism (1.9%) Buddhism (0.8%), Jainism (0.4%) Buddhism. <10% each:
religions
other religions (0.6%)[24] see also Religion in India Islam, Christianity, Bon. See
also Religion in China
GDP
(nominal) US$2.45 trillion US$11.22 trillion
(2016)
GDP
(nominal)
US$1,850 US$8,113
per capita
(2016)
GDP (PPP)
US$9.49 trillion US$21.26 trillion
(2016)
GDP (PPP) US$7,153 US$15,424

per capita
(2016)
Human
Development
0.624 (medium) 0.738 (high)
Index (2015)
Foreign
exchange
US$386,539 million US$3,185,916 million
reserves
(Sept 2016)
Military
US$166.107 billion (2012)
US$45.785 billion (2.5% of GDP)
expenditures (2.0% of GDP)
Active troops:
Active troops: 1,325,000 (2,142,821 reserve approximately 2,285,000
Manpower
personnel) (800,000 reserve
personnel)
Early history
Both countries were having a good relation
in history.[25]
India conquered and dominated
China culturally for 20 centuries
without ever having to send a
single soldier across her border.
— Hu Shih, quoted in Consolation

of Mind (2004). by H. K. Suhas, p.
111
Hinduism
Hinduism is practiced by a minority of

residents of China. The religion itself has a
very limited presence in modern mainland
China, but archaeological evidence
suggests the presence of Hinduism in
different provinces of medieval China.[26]
Hindu influences were also absorbed in
the country through the spread of
Buddhism over its history.[27] Practices
originating in the Vedic tradition of ancient
India such as yoga and meditation are also
popular in China.Hindu community,
particularly through Tamil merchant guilds
of Ayyavole and Manigramam, once
thrived in medieval South China;[28][29]
evidence of Hindu motifs and temples,
such as in the Kaiyuan Temple, continue to
be discovered in Quanzhou, Fujian
province of southeast China.[30] A small
community of Hindu immigrant workers
exists in Hong Kong.Tamil Hindu Indian
merchants traded in Quanzhou during the
Yuan dynasty.[31][32][33][34] Hindu statues
were found in Quanzhou dating to this
period.[35]
Buddhism
Buddhism shaped Chinese culture in a

wide variety of areas including art, politics,
literature, philosophy, medicine, and
material culture.Buddhism entered Han
China via the Silk Road, beginning in the
1st or 2nd century CE.[36][37] The first
documented translation efforts by
Buddhist monks in China (all foreigners)
were in the 2nd century CE, possibly as a
consequence of the expansion of the
Buddhist Kushan Empire into the Chinese
territory of the Tarim Basin.[38]
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk
traditionally credited as the transmitter of
Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as
its first Chinese patriarch.During the early
period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian
early Buddhist schools recognized as
important, and whose texts were studied,
were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas,
Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the
Mahāsāṃghikas.[39]
Depiction of Indian monk Bodhidharma by Yoshitoshi,
1887
Bodhidharma was an Indian Buddhist

monk who lived during the 5th or 6th
century. He is traditionally credited as the
transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China,
and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch.
According to Chinese legend, he also
began the physical training of the monks
of Shaolin Monastery that led to the
creation of Shaolin kungfu. In Japan, he is
known as Daruma. Ancient Indian
universities like nalanda, taxila attracted
many Chinese students .[40][41]
Taoism
King Kumara of Assam had the Tao Te

Ching translated into Sanskrit in the
seventh century CE.[42]
Astronomy and mathematics
Indian astronomy reached China with the

expansion of Buddhism during the Later
Han (25–220 CE).[43] Further translation of
Indian works on astronomy was
completed in China by the Three
Kingdoms era (220–265 CE).[43] However,
the most detailed incorporation of Indian
astronomy occurred only during the Tang
Dynasty (618–907 CE) when a number of
Chinese scholars—such as Yi Xing— were
versed both in Indian and Chinese
astronomy.[43] A system of Indian
astronomy was recorded in China as
Jiuzhi-li (718 CE), the author of which was
an Indian by the name of Qutan Xida—a
translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha
—the director of the Tang dynasty's
national astronomical observatory.[43]
During the 8th century, the astronomical
table of sines by the Indian astronomer
and mathematician, Aryabhatta (476-550),
were translated into the Chinese
astronomical and mathematical book of
the Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan
Era (Kaiyuan Zhanjing), compiled in 718 CE
during the Tang Dynasty.[44] The Kaiyuan
Zhanjing was compiled by Gautama
Siddha, an astronomer and astrologer born
in Chang'an, and whose family was
originally from India. He was also notable
for his translation of the Navagraha
calendar into Chinese.[45] Gautama Siddha
introduced Indian numerals with zero ( 〇)
in 718 in China as a replacement of
counting rods.[46][47] In 3rd-century C.E, the
Matanaga avadha was translated into
Chinese.although the original is believed to
date earlier. It gives the lengths of monthly
shadows of a 12-inch gnomon, which is
the standard parameter of Indian
astronomy.The work also mentions the 28
Indian nakshatras.[48][49] In the beginning
of the second century,
Sardulakarnavadana was translated into
Chinese several times, This work contains
the usual Sanskrit names of the 28
nakshatras. starting with krttika.[50][49]
From the 1st century onward Lalitavistara
was translated into Chinese several times.
It is in this work that the famous Buddhist
centesimal-scale counting occurs during
the dialogue between Prince Gautamaand
and the mathematician Arjuna. The first
series of counts ends with tallaksana (=
1053), beyond which eight more ganana
series are mentioned.Atomic-scale
counting is also mentioned.[51][49] The
Mahaprajnaparamita Sastra (of Nagarjuna,
second century) was translated into
Chinese by Kumarajiva in the early fifth
century.16 The astronomical parameters
mentioned in this translation are
comparable to those given in the Vedanga
Jyotisha.Indian system of numeration
appeared in the Chinese work Ta PaoChi
Ching (Maharatnakuta Sutra), translated by
Upasunya (in 541 c.e.)[52][49] The Chinese
translations of the following works are
mentioned in the Sui Shu, or Official
History of the Sui Dynasty (seventh
century):
Po-lo-men Thien Wen Ching

(Brahminical Astronomical Classic) in
21 books.
Po-lo-men Chieh-Chhieh Hsien-jen Thien
Wen Shuo (Astronomical Theories of
Brahman.a Chieh-Chhieh Hsienjen) in 30

books.
Po-lo-men Thien Ching (Brahminical

Heavenly Theory) in one book.
Mo-teng-Chia Ching Huang-thu (Map of
Heaven in the Matangi Sutra) in one
book.
Po-lo-men Suan Ching (Brahminical

Arithmetical Classic) in three books.
Po-lo-men Suan Fa (Brahminical
Arithmetical Rules) in one book.
Po-lo-men Ying Yang Suan Ching
(Brahminical Method of Calculating
Time)
Although these translations are lost, they

were also mentioned in other
sources.[53][49]
Medicine
Indian medicine penetrated into the

Chinese world between 4th and 8th
centuries. Ayurveda has strong influence
on traditional Chinese medicine. Ayurveda
has greatly influenced traditional Chinese
medicine during its formation
[54][55][56][57]Accupunture may have origin in
ancient India[58][59][60][61][62][63][64] Indian
medical knowledge of internal medicine,
surgery, obstetrics, gynecology, pediatrics,
ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology and
dentistry was brought in China. Kashyapa
Samhita was translated into Chinese
during the Middle Ages.[65][66] Kashyapa
Samhita specially deals with pediatrics,
gynecology, and obstetrics[67] Another
Indian medical work Kumara Tantra of
Ravana, which mainly deals with children
diseases was translated into Chinese.[68]
According to book of sui and Book of Tang
eleven Indian medical works were
translated into Chinese.[69] Indian monk
introduced surgery in China. before arrival
of Buddhism surgical techniques were
unknown within china[70][71] Indian monks
and translator themselves had a good
command of medical skills.An Shigao
translated an Indian medical work into
Chinese which dealt with 404 diseases[72]
Yijing (monk) went to India and brought
back some 400 Buddhist translated texts
which includes many medical works like
Arsaprasamanasutra (A classic on curing
all hemorrhoid-related diseases).[73][74][75]
Yijing highlight India's superior medical
knowledge, he praise the practise of
Fasting among Indian, which can cure
imbalance of body in matter of a Day.In
China he Introduced hygiene practised in
India.[76] Formula for lung diseases were
imported from India in Tang dynasty.Indian
ophthalmologist practiced medicine in
China.[77] Liu Yuxi wrote a poem about
Indian Brahman who was expert in
removing cataract with golden needle.[69]
Influence of Buddhists four element theory
is clearly seen in Tao Hongjing writings.
Indian medicine has a profound influence
on Physician Sun Simiao's medical work.
In his work, he attributes many formulae to
jivaka of India.[78][79][80] Sun Simiao
mention many Indian surgical techniques
for treatment of cataracts, glaucoma and
other eye diseases[81][78] wang tao also
incorporate Indian idea on medicine[82][78]
Ishinpō of Tanba Yasuyori records over
ninety articles attributed to Indian
physician jivaka[83]
Alchemy
In India idea of alchemy can be trackback
before Buddhism in Veda.[84] It is possible
that idea of Indian alchemy Rasayana
penetrated China before arrival of
Buddhism [84]Kalangi Nathar was an Indian
ascetic who is supposed to have visited
China to spread knowledge of alchemy,
varma kalai(similar to acupuncture), yoga.
kalangi Nathar called his disciple Bogar to
come to China to continue his mission.
According to Tamil texts sage Bogar went
from Tamil Nadu to China and taught
about enlightenment and alchemy to
Chinese.[85][86] some Indian alchemy
practitioners were commonly appearing in
Chinese capital and coastal cities [87]
Indian alchemist Narayanswamin was
captured in Chinese court because he had
knowledge of an elixir of life.[88][89]
Emperor Kao Tsung sent a monk to bring
alchemist Lokaditya from Kashmir of India,
who remained in Chinese court.[90][91] In
exchange for knowledge concerning
transmutational and Elixir Alchemy
Chinese submitted a Sanskrit translation
of the Tao Te Ching to the king of
Kämarüpa (Assam)India.[91] Book of Sui
records availability of Indian alchemical
works by Nagarjuna.[92]
Music
With the introduction of Buddhism, Indian
music was introduced in China via Central
Asia. In the 3rd century, famous Chinese
lyrist Li Yannian (musician) on the basis of
music of north India and mid-Asia
composed 28 new lyrics used to
encourage army to protect the
borders.[93][94] In the 6th century, a
musician from Kucha named Sujiva
introduced Indian Heptatonic scale to
Chinese music, which is traditionally
pentatonic.[95][96] A well-known family of
pipa players that included Cao Miaoda
were descended from Cao Poluomen
whose name Poluomen ( 婆羅⾨) means
Brahmin or Indian.[93]
Architecture
Indian architecture has an influence on

Chinese architecture.Chinese pagoda had
its origin in India.[97][98] The earliest
Pagoda in Konan Province, built in the
second century, is shown as an example of
Indian influence on Chinese
architecture.[99] Chinese pagoda was
influenced by Indian architecture.Giant
Wild Goose Pagoda clearly reflects Indian
influence.[100]
Martial arts
Indian martial arts may have spread to
China via the transmission of Buddhism in
the early 5th or 6th centuries of the
common era and thus influenced Shaolin
Kungfu. Elements from Indian philosophy,
like the Nāga, Rakshasa, and the fierce
Yaksha were syncretized into protectors of
Dharma; these mythical figures from the
Dharmic religions figure prominently in
Shaolinquan, Chang quan and staff
fighting.[101] The religious figures from
Dharmic religions also figure in the
movement and fighting techniques of
Chinese martial arts.[102] Various styles of
kung fu are known to contain movements
that are identical to the Mudra hand
positions used in Hinduism and Buddhism,
both of which derived from India.[103]
Similarly, the 108 pressure points in
Chinese martial arts are believed by some
to be based on the marmam points of
Indian varmakalai.[104][105]
The predominant telling of the diffusion of

the martial arts from India to China
involves a 5th-century prince turned into a
monk named Bodhidharma who is said to
have traveled to Shaolin, sharing his own
style and thus creating Shaolinquan.[106]
According to Wong Kiew Kit, the Monk's
creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a
watershed in the history of kungfu,
because it led to a change of course, as
kungfu became institutionalized. Before
this, martial arts were known only in
general sense."[107]
Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan.
The association of Bodhidharma with

martial arts is attributed to Bodhidharma's
own Yi Jin Jing, though its authorship has
been disputed by several modern
historians such as Tang Hao,[108] Xu Zhen
and Matsuda Ryuchi.[109] The oldest
known available copy of the Yi Jin Jing
was published in 1827[109] and the
composition of the text itself has been
dated to 1624. According to Matsuda,
none of the contemporary texts written
about the Shaolin martial arts before the
19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's
Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff
Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing
Classic: Essential Boxing Methods,
mention Bodhidharma or credit him with
the creation of the Shaolin martial arts.
The association of Bodhidharma with the
martial arts only became widespread after
the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel
The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated
Fiction Magazine.[110]
The discovery of arms caches in the

monasteries of Chang'an during
government raids in 446 AD suggests that
Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior
to the establishment of the Shaolin
Monastery in 497.[111] Moreover, Chinese
monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in
many ways were effectively large landed
estates, that is, sources of considerable
wealth which required protection that had
to be supplied by the monasteries' own
manpower.[111]
Incense clock
The incense clock (simplified Chinese: ⾹

钟; traditional Chinese: 香鐘; pinyin:
xiāngzhōng; Wade–Giles: hsiang-chung;
literally: "fragrance clock") is a Chinese
timekeeping device that appeared during
the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and spread
to neighboring countries such as Japan.
The clocks' bodies are effectively
specialized censers that hold incense
sticks or powdered incense that have been
manufactured and calibrated to a known
rate of combustion, used to measure
minutes, hours, or days. Although
popularly associated with China the
incense clock is believed by some to have
originated in India, at least in its
fundamental form, if not function.[112][113]
Early incense clocks found in China
between the 6th and 8th centuries CE all
seem to have Devanāgarī carvings on
them rather than Chinese seal
characters.[112][113] To explain this, Edward
Schafer asserts that incense clocks were
probably an Indian invention, transmitted
to China.[112] Silvio Bedini on the other
hand asserts that incense clocks were
derived in part from incense seals
mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures,
which first came to light in China after
those scriptures from India were
translated into Chinese, but holds that the
time-telling function of the seal was
incorporated by the Chinese.[113]
Antiquity
Xiangqi, or Chinese chess, which, like Western Chess

is believed to be descended from the Indian chess
game of chaturanga.[114] The earliest indications
reveal the game may have been played as early as the
third century BCE.
The first records of contact between China
and India were written during the 2nd
century BCE. Buddhism was transmitted
from India to China in the 1st century
CE.[115] Trade relations via the Silk Road
acted as economic contact between the
two regions.
China and India have also had some

contact before the transmission of
Buddhism. References to a people called
the Chinas, are found in ancient Indian
literature. The Indian epic Mahabharata (c.
5th century BCE) contains references to
"China", which may have been referring to
the Qin state which later became the Qin
Dynasty. Chanakya (c. 350-283 BCE), the
prime minister of the Maurya Empire refers
to Chinese silk as "cinamsuka" (Chinese
silk dress) and "cinapatta" (Chinese silk
bundle) in his Arthashastra.
In the Records of the Grand Historian,

Zhang Qian (d. 113 BCE) and Sima Qian
(145-90 BCE) make references to
"Shendu", which may have been referring
to the Indus Valley (the Sindh province in
modern Pakistan), originally known as
"Sindhu" in Sanskrit. When Yunnan was
annexed by the Han Dynasty in the 1st
century, Chinese authorities reported an
Indian "Shendu" community living
there.[116]
Middle Ages
The Shaolin Monastery in Dengfeng, Henan, China.
From the 1st century onwards, many

Indian scholars and monks travelled to
China, such as Batuo (fl. 464-495 CE)—first
abbot of the Shaolin Monastery—and
Bodhidharma—founder of Chan/Zen
Buddhism—while many Chinese scholars
and monks also travelled to India, such as
Xuanzang (b. 604) and I Ching (635-713),
both of whom were students at Nalanda
University in Bihar. Xuanzang wrote the
Great Tang Records on the Western
Regions, an account of his journey to India,
which later inspired Wu Cheng'en's Ming
Dynasty novel Journey to the West, one of
the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese
literature. According to some, St. Thomas
the Apostle travelled from India to China
and back (see Perumalil, A.C. The Apostle
in India. Patna, 1971: 5-54.)
Tamil dynasties
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E.
The Cholas maintained good relationship

with the Chinese. Arrays of ancient
Chinese coins have been found in the
Cholas homeland (i.e. Thanjavur, Tiruvarur
and Pudukkottai districts of Tamil Nadu,
India).[117]
Under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra

Chola, the Cholas had strong trading links
with Chinese Song Dynasty.[118][119][120]
The Chola navy conquered the Sri Vijaya
Empire of Indonesia and Malaysia and
secured a sea trading route to China.[118]
Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the

founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in
China, as a prince of the Pallava
dynasty.[121]
Tang and Harsha dynasties
During the 7th century, Tang dynasty China

gained control over large portions of the
Silk Road and Central Asia. Wang Xuance
had sent a diplomatic mission to northern
India, which was embroiled by civil war
just following the death of Emperor
Harsha (590–647). After the murder of 30
members of this mission by the usurper
claimants, Wang fled, and returned with
allied Nepali and Tibetan troops to back
the opposition. With his forces, Wang
captured the capital, while his deputy
Jiang Shiren (蒋师仁) captured the usurper
and sent him back to Emperor Taizong
(599-649) in Chang'an as a prisoner.
During the 8th century, the astronomical

table of sines by the Indian astronomer
and mathematician, Aryabhatta (476-550),
were translated into the Chinese
astronomical and mathematical book of
the Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan
Era (Kaiyuan Zhanjing), compiled in 718 CE
during the Tang Dynasty.[44] The Kaiyuan
Zhanjing was compiled by Gautama
Siddha, an astronomer and astrologer born
in Chang'an, and whose family was
originally from India. He was also notable
for his translation of the Navagraha
calendar into Chinese.
Yuan dynasty
A rich merchant from the Ma'bar Sultanate,

Abu Ali (P'aehali) 孛哈⾥ (or 布哈爾
Buhaer), was associated closely with the
Ma'bar royal family. After a fallout with the
Ma'bar family, he moved to Yuan dynasty
China and received a Korean woman as
his wife and a job from the Emperor, the
woman was formerly 桑哥 Sangha's wife
and her father was 蔡仁揆 채송년 Ch'ae
In'gyu during the reign of 忠烈 Chungnyeol
of Goryeo, recorded in the Dongguk
Tonggam, Goryeosa and 留夢炎 Liu
Mengyan's 中俺集 Zhong'anji. [122][123][124]
桑哥 Sangha was a Tibetan. [125] Tamil

Hindu Indian merchants traded in
Quanzhou during the Yuan
dynasty.[126][127][128][129][130] Hindu statues
were found in Quanzhou dating to this
period.[131]
Ming dynasty
Stele installed in Calicut by Zheng He (modern replica)
Chinese fishing nets in Kochi, Kerala, India.

Between 1405 and 1433, Ming dynasty
China sponsored a series of seven naval
expeditions led by Admiral Zheng He.
Zheng He visited numerous Indian
kingdoms and ports, including India,
Bengal, and Ceylon, Persian Gulf, Arabia,
and later expeditions ventured down as far
as Malindi in what is now Kenya.
Throughout his travels, Zheng He liberally
dispensed Chinese gifts of silk, porcelain,
and other goods. In return, he received rich
and unusual presents, including African
zebras and giraffes. Zheng He and his
company paid respect to local deities and
customs, and in Ceylon they erected a
monument (Galle Trilingual Inscription)
honouring Buddha, Allah, and Vishnu.
Sino-Sikh War
In the 18th to 19th centuries, the Sikh

Confederacy expanded into neighbouring
lands. It had annexed Ladakh into the
state of Jammu in 1834. In 1841, they
invaded Tibet and overran parts of western
Tibet. Chinese forces defeated the Sikh
army in December 1841, forcing the Sikh
army to withdraw, and in turn entered
Ladakh and besieged Leh, where they were
in turn defeated by the Sikh Army. At this
point, neither side wished to continue the
conflict. The Sikhs claimed victory. as the
Sikhs were embroiled in tensions with the
British that would lead up to the First
Anglo-Sikh War, while the Chinese was in
the midst of the First Opium War. The two
parties signed a treaty in September 1842,
which stipulated no transgressions or
interference in the other country's
frontiers.[132]
British India
The British East India Company used

opium grown in India as export to China.
Britain used their Indian sepoys and the
British Indian Army in the Opium Wars and
Boxer Rebellion against China. The British
used Indian soldiers to guard the Foreign
concessions in areas like Shanghai. The
Chinese slur "Yindu A San" (Indian number
three) was used to describe Indian
soldiers in British service.
After independence
On 1 October 1949 the People’s Liberation
Army defeated the Kuomintang
(Nationalist Party). On 15 August 1947,
India became an independent British
dominion and became a federal,
democratic republic after its constitution
came into effect on 26 January 1950.
Jawaharlal Nehru based his vision of
"resurgent Asia" on friendship between the
two largest states of Asia; his vision of an
internationalist foreign policy governed by
the ethics of the Panchsheel (Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence), which
he initially believed was shared by China.
Nehru was disappointed when it became
clear that the two countries had a conflict
of interest in Tibet, which had traditionally
served as a buffer zone, and where India
believed it had inherited special privileges
from the British Raj.
1950s
India established diplomatic relations with
the PRC on 1 January 1950, the second
non-communist nation to do so.
Mao Zedong viewed Tibet as an integral

part of the People's Republic of China.
Mao saw Indian concern over Tibet as a
manifestation of interference in the
internal affairs of the PRC. The PRC
reasserted control over Tibet and to end
Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism) and
feudalism, which it did by force of arms in
1950. To avoid antagonizing the PRC,
Nehru informed Chinese leaders that India
had no political ambitions, territorial
ambitions, nor did it seek special
privileges in Tibet, but that traditional
trading rights must continue. With Indian
support, Tibetan delegates signed an
agreement in May 1951 recognizing PRC
sovereignty but guaranteeing that the
existing political and social system of
Tibet would continue..
Founding of the Sino-Indian Friendship Association on

May 16, 1952 in Beijing.
In April 1954, India and the PRC signed an
eight-year agreement on Tibet that
became the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence (or Panchsheel). Although
critics called the Panchsheel naive, Nehru
calculated that India's best guarantee of
security was to establish a psychological
buffer zone in place of the lost physical
buffer of Tibet.
It is the popular perception that the catch

phrase of India's diplomacy with China in
the 1950s was Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai, which
means, in Hindi, "Indians and Chinese are
brothers" While VK Krishna Menon was the
Defence Minister in 1958, Nehru had
privately told G. Parthasarathi the Indian
envoy to China to send all
communications directly to him bypassing
Menon, due to his communist background
and sympathy towards China.[133]
Nehru sought to initiate a more direct

dialogue between the peoples of China
and India in culture and literature. Around
that time, the famous Indian artist
(painter) Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, who
had earlier decorated the pages of the
original Constitution of India, was sent to
China in 1957 on a Government of India
fellowship to establish a direct cross-
cultural and inter-civilization bridge. Noted
Indian scholar Rahul Sankrityayan and
diplomat Natwar Singh were also there,
and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan paid a visit
to PRC. Between 1957 and 1959, Beohar
Rammanohar Sinha not only disseminated
Indian art in PRC but also became skilled
in Chinese painting and lacquer-work. He
also spent time with great masters Qi
Baishi, Li Keran, Li Kuchan as well as some
moments with Mao Zedong and Zhou
Enlai. Consequently, up until 1959, despite
border skirmishes, Chinese leaders
amicably had assured India that there was
no territorial controversy.[134]
In 1954, India published new maps that
included the Aksai Chin region within the
boundaries of India.[135] When India
discovered that China built a road through
the region, border clashes and Indian
protests became more frequent. In
January 1959, PRC premier Zhou Enlai
wrote to Nehru, pointing out that no
government in China had accepted as
legal the McMahon Line, which in the 1914
Simla Convention defined the eastern
section of the border between India and
Tibet.
In March 1959, the Dalai Lama, spiritual

and temporal head of the Tibetan people,
sought sanctuary in Dharmsala, Himachal
Pradesh. Thousands of Tibetan refugees
settled in northwestern India. The PRC
accused India of expansionism and
imperialism in Tibet and throughout the
Himalayan region. China claimed
104,000 km² of territory over which India's
maps showed clear sovereignty, and
demanded "rectification" of the entire
border.
1960s
Sino-Indian War
[136]
Map showing disputed territories of India
Border disputes resulted in a short border

war between the People's Republic of
China and India on 20 October 1962.[136]
The border clash resulted in a defeat of
India as the PRC pushed the Indian forces
to within forty-eight kilometres of the
Assam plains in the northeast and
occupied strategic points in Ladakh, until
the PRC declared a unilateral cease-fire on
21 November and withdrew twenty
kilometers behind its contended line of
control.
At the time of Sino-Indian border conflict,

the Communist Party of India was
accused by the Indian government as
being pro-PRC, and a large number of
political leaders were jailed. Subsequently,
CPI split with the leftist section forming
the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in
1964. CPI(M) held some contacts with the
Communist Party of China in the initial
period after the split, but did not fully
embrace the political line of Mao Zedong.
Relations between the PRC and India
deteriorated during the rest of the 1960s
and the early 1970s as China–Pakistan
relations improved and Sino-Soviet
relations worsened. The PRC backed
Pakistan in its 1965 war with India.
Between 1967 and 1971, an all-weather
road was built across territory claimed by
India, linking PRC's Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region with Pakistan; India
could do no more than protest.
The PRC continued an active propaganda

campaign against India and supplied
ideological, financial, and other assistance
to dissident groups, especially to tribes in
northeastern India. The PRC accused India
of assisting the Khampa rebels in Tibet.
Sri Lanka played the role of chief

negotiator to withdraw the Chinese troops
from the Indian territory. Both countries
agreed to Colombo's proposals.[137]
Later conflicts
In late 1967, there were two more conflicts

between Indian and Chinese forces at their
contested border, in Sikkim. The first
conflict was dubbed the "Nathu La
Incident", and the other the "Cho La
Incident".
In September 1967, Chinese and Indian
forces clashed at Nathu La. On 11
September, Chinese troops opened fire on
a detachment of Indian soldiers tasked
with protecting an engineering company
that was fencing the North Shoulder of
Nathu La. This escalated over the next five
days to an exchange of heavy artillery and
mortar fire between the Indian and
Chinese forces. Sixty-two Indian soldiers
were killed.[138]
Soon afterwards, Indian and Chinese

forces clashed again in the Chola incident.
On 1 October 1967, some Indian and
Chinese soldiers had an argument over the
control of a boulder at the Chola outpost in
Sikkim (then a protectorate of India),
triggering a fight that escalated to a
mortar and heavy machine gun duel.[139]
On 10 October, both sides again
exchanged heavy fire. While Indian forces
would sustain eighty-eight troops killed in
action with another 163 troops wounded,
China would suffer greater casualties, with
300 killed and 450 wounded in Nathu La,
as well as forty in Chola.[140]
1970s
In August 1971, India signed its Treaty of

Peace, Friendship, and Co-operation with
the Soviet Union. The PRC sided with
Pakistan in its December 1971 war with
India. Although China strongly condemned
India, it did not carry out its veiled threat to
intervene on Pakistan's behalf. By this
time, the PRC had replaced the Republic of
China in the UN where its representatives
denounced India as being a "tool of Soviet
expansionism."
India and the PRC renewed efforts to

improve relations after Indian Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi's Congress party
lost the 1977 elections to Morarji Desai's
Janata Party. In 1978, the Indian Minister
of External Affairs Atal Bihari Vajpayee
made a landmark visit to Beijing, and both
countries officially re-established
diplomatic relations in 1979. The PRC
modified its pro-Pakistan stand on
Kashmir and appeared willing to remain
silent on India's absorption of Sikkim and
its special advisory relationship with
Bhutan. The PRC's leaders agreed to
discuss the boundary issue, India's priority,
as the first step to a broadening of
relations. The two countries hosted each
other's news agencies, and Mount Kailash
and Mansarowar Lake in Tibet, the
mythological home of the Hindu pantheon,
were opened to annual pilgrimages.
1980s
In 1981, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of

the People's Republic of China, Huang Hua
made a landmark visit to New Delhi.[141]
PRC Premier Zhao Ziyang concurrently
toured Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
In 1980, Indian Prime Minister Indira

Gandhi approved a plan to upgrade the
deployment of forces around the Line of
Actual Control. India also undertook
infrastructural development in disputed
areas.[142][143]
In 1984, squads of Indian soldiers began

actively patrolling the Sumdorong Chu
Valley in Arunachal Pradesh. In the winter
of 1986, the Chinese deployed their troops
to the Sumdorong Chu before the Indian
team could arrive and built a Helipad at
Wandung.[144] Surprised by the Chinese
occupation, India's then Chief of Army
Staff, General K.Sundarji, airlifted a brigade
to the region.[143][145]
Chinese troops could not move any further

into the valley and were forced to away
from the valley.[146] By 1987, Beijing's
reaction was similar to that in 1962 and
this prompted many Western diplomats to
predict war. However, Indian foreign
minister N.D. Tiwari and Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi travelled to Beijing to
negotiate a mutual de-escalation.[143]
India and the PRC held eight rounds of

border negotiations between December
1981 and November 1987. In 1985 the
PRC insisted on mutual concessions
without defining the exact terms of its
"package proposal" or where the actual
line of control lay. In 1986 and 1987, the
negotiations achieved nothing, given the
charges exchanged between the two
countries of military encroachment in the
Sumdorung Chu Valley. China's
construction of a military post and
helicopter pad in the area in 1986 and
India's grant of statehood to Arunachal
Pradesh (formerly the North-East Frontier
Agency) in February 1987 caused both
sides to deploy troops to the area. The
PRC relayed warnings that it would "teach
India a lesson" if it did not cease "nibbling"
at Chinese territory. By the summer of
1987, however, both sides had backed
away from conflict and denied military
clashes had taken place.
A warming trend in relations was

facilitated by Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China
in December 1988. The two sides issued a
joint communiqué that stressed the need
to restore friendly relations on the basis of
the Panchsheel. India and the People's
Republic of China agreed to achieve a "fair
and reasonable settlement while seeking a
mutually acceptable solution" to the border
dispute. The communiqué also expressed
China's concern about agitation by Tibetan
separatists in India and reiterated that anti-
China political activities by expatriate
Tibetans would not be tolerated. Rajiv
Gandhi signed bilateral agreements on
science and technology co-operation,
establish direct air links, and on cultural
exchanges. The two sides also agreed to
hold annual diplomatic consultations
between foreign ministers, set up a joint
committee on economic and scientific co-
operation, and a joint working group on the
boundary issue. The latter group was to be
led by the Indian foreign secretary and the
Chinese vice minister of foreign affairs.
1990s
Top-level dialogue continued with the

December 1991 visit of PRC premier Li
Peng to India and the May 1992 visit to
China of Indian president R.
Venkataraman. Six rounds of talks of the
Indian-Chinese Joint Working Group on the
Border Issue were held between December
1988 and June 1993. Progress was also
made in reducing tensions on the border
via mutual troop reductions, regular
meetings of local military commanders,
and advance notification about military
exercises. In July 1992, Sharad Pawar
visited Beijing, the first Indian Minister of
Defence to do so. Consulates reopened in
Bombay (Mumbai) and Shanghai in
December 1992. During
In 1993, The sixth-round of the joint

working group talks was held in New Delhi
but resulted in only minor developments.
Prime Minister Narasimha Rao and
Premier Li Peng signed a border
agreement dealing with cross-border trade,
cooperation on environmental issues (e.g.
Pollution, Animal extinction, Global
Warming, etc.) and radio and television
broadcasting. A senior-level Chinese
military delegation made a goodwill visit to
India in December 1993 aimed at
"fostering confidence-building measures
between the defence forces of the two
countries." The visit, however, came at a
time when China was providing greater
military support to Burma. The presence of
Chinese radar technicians in Burma's Coco
Islands, which border India's Andaman and
Nicobar Islands caused concern in India.
In January 1994, Beijing announced that it

not only favored a negotiated solution on
Kashmir, but also opposed any form of
independence for the region. Talks were
held in New Delhi in February aimed at
confirming established "confidence-
building measures", discussing
clarification of the "line of actual control",
reduction of armed forces along the line,
and prior information about forthcoming
military exercises. China's hope for
settlement of the boundary issue was
reiterated.
In 1995, talks by the India-China Expert

Group led to an agreement to set up two
additional points of contact along the
4,000 km border to facilitate meetings
between military personnel. The two sides
were reportedly "seriously engaged" in
defining the McMahon Line and the line of
actual control vis-à-vis military exercises
and prevention of air intrusion. Talks were
held in Beijing in July and in New Delhi in
August to improve border security, combat
cross-border crimes and on additional
troop withdrawals from the border. These
talks further reduced tensions. [147]
There was little notice taken in Beijing of

the April 1995 announcement of the
opening of the Taipei Economic and
Cultural Centre in New Delhi. The Centre
serves as the representative office of the
Republic of China (Taiwan) and is the
counterpart of the India-Taipei Association
located in Taiwan. Both institutions share
the goal of improving India-ROC relations,
which have been strained since New
Delhi's recognition of Beijing in 1950.
Sino-Indian relations hit a low point in

1998 following India's nuclear tests. Indian
Defence Minister George Fernandes
declared that "“in my perception of
national security, China is enemy No 1.…
and any person who is concerned about
India’s security must agree with that
fact",[148] hinting that India developed
nuclear weapons in defence against
China's nuclear arsenal. In 1998, China
was one of the strongest international
critics of India's nuclear tests and entry
into the nuclear club. During the 1999
Kargil War China voiced support for
Pakistan, but also counseled Pakistan to
withdraw its forces.
2000s
Indian and Chinese officers at Nathu La. Nathu La was

re-opened in 2006 following numerous bilateral trade
agreements. The opening of the pass is expected to
bolster the economy of the region and play a key role
in the growing Sino-Indian trade.
In a major embarrassment for China, the

17th Karmapa, Urgyen Trinley Dorje, who
was proclaimed by China, made a
dramatic escape from Tibet to the Rumtek
Monastery in Sikkim. Chinese officials
were in a quandary on this issue as any
protest to India on the issue would mean
an explicit endorsement on India's
governance of Sikkim, which the Chinese
still hadn't recognised. In 2003, China
officially recognised Indian sovereignty
over Sikkim as the two countries moved
towards resolving their border disputes.
In 2004, the two countries proposed
opening up the Nathula and Jelepla
Passes in Sikkim. 2004 was a milestone in
Sino-Indian bilateral trade, surpassing the
US$10 billion mark for the first time. In
April 2005, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao
visited Bangalore to push for increased
Sino-Indian cooperation in high-tech
industries. Wen stated that the 21st
century will be "the Asian century of the IT
industry."Regarding the issue of India
gaining a permanent seat on the UN
Security Council, Wen Jiabao initially
seemed to support the idea, but had
returned to a neutral position.
In the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Summit in
2005, China was granted an observer
status. While other countries in the region
are ready to consider China for permanent
membership in the SAARC, India seemed
reluctant.
Issues surrounding energy has risen in

significance. Both countries have growing
energy demand to support economic
growth. Both countries signed an
agreement in 2006 to envisage ONGC
Videsh Ltd (OVL) and the China National
Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) to placing
joint bids for promising projects.
In 2006, China and India re-opened
Nathula pass for trading. Nathula was
closed 44 years prior to 2006. Re-opening
of border trade will help ease the
economic isolation of the region.[149] In
November 2006, China and India had a
verbal spat over claim of the north-east
Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. India
claimed that China was occupying 38,000
square kilometres of its territory in
Kashmir, while China claimed the whole of
Arunachal Pradesh as its own.[150]
In 2007, China denied the application for

visa from an Indian Administrative Service
officer in Arunachal Pradesh. According to
China, since Arunachal Pradesh is a
territory of China, he would not need a visa
to visit his own country.[151] Later in
December 2007, China reversed its policy
by granting a visa to Marpe Sora, an
Arunachal born professor in computer
science.[152][153] In January 2008, Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh visited China to
discuss trade, commerce, defence,
military, and various other issues.
Until 2008 the British Government's

position remained the same as had been
since the Simla Accord of 1913: that China
held suzerainty over Tibet but not
sovereignty. Britain revised this view on 29
October 2008, when it recognized Chinese
sovereignty over Tibet through its
website.[154][155][156] The Economist stated
that although the British Foreign Office's
website does not use the word
sovereignty, officials at the Foreign Office
said "it means that, as far as Britain is
concerned, 'Tibet is part of China. Full
stop.'"[157] This change in Britain's position
affects India's claim to its North Eastern
territories which rely on the same Simla
Accord that Britain's prior position on
Tibet's sovereignty was based upon.[158]
In October 2009, Asian Development Bank

formally acknowledging Arunachal
Pradesh as part of India, approved a loan
to India for a development project there.
Earlier China had exercised pressure on
the bank to cease the loan,[159] however
India succeeded in securing the loan with
the help of the United States and Japan.
China expressed displeasure at
ADB.[160][161]
2010s
Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao paid an

official visit to India from 15–17 December
2010 at the invitation of Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh.[162] He was
accompanied by 400 Chinese business
leaders, who wished to sign business
deals with Indian companies.[163]
“ India and China are two very
populous countries with ancient
civilisations, friendship between the
two countries has a time-honoured
history, which can be dated back
2,000 years, and since the
establishment of diplomatic ties
between our two countries, in
particular the last ten years,
friendship and cooperation has
made significant progress.[164]
Premier Wen Jiabao at the Tagore
International School, 15th December
2010 ”
In April 2011, during the BRICS summit in
Sanya, Hainan, China[165] the two countries
agreed to restore defence co-operation
and China had hinted that it may reverse
its policy of administering stapled visas to
residents of Jammu and Kashmir.[166][167]
This practice was later stopped,[168] and as
a result, defence ties were resumed
between the two countries and joint
military drills were expected.
It was reported in February 2012 that India

will reach US$100 billion trade with China
by 2015.[169] Bilateral trade between the
two countries reached US$73 billion in
2011, making China India's largest trade
partner, but slipped to US$66 billion in
2012.[170]
In the 2012 BRICS summit in New Delhi,

India, Chinese President Hu Jintao told
Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
that "it is China's unswerving policy to
develop Sino-Indian friendship, deepen
strategic cooperation and seek common
development" and "China hopes to see a
peaceful, prosperous and continually
developing India and is committed to
building more dynamic China-India
relationship".[171] Other topics were
discussed, including border dispute
problems and a unified BRICS central
bank.
In response to India's test of an Agni-V

missile capable of carrying a nuclear
warhead to Beijing, the PRC called for the
two countries to "cherish the hard-earned
momentum of co-operation".[172]
A three-week standoff between Indian and

Chinese troops in close proximity to each
other and the Line of Actual Control
between Jammu and Kashmir's Ladakh
region and Aksai Chin was defused on 5
May 2013,[173] days before a trip by Indian
Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid to
China; Khurshid said that both countries
had a shared interest in not having the
border issue exacerbate or "destroy" long-
term progress in relations. The Chinese
agreed to withdraw their troops in
exchange for an Indian agreement to
demolish several "live-in bunkers" 250 km
to the south in the disputed Chumar
sector.[174]
The BRICS leaders in China, 2016

Chinese Premier Li Keqiang made his first
foreign visit to India on 18 May 2013 in a
bid to increase diplomatic co-operation, to
cement trade relations, and formulate
border dispute solutions.[175][176]
Indian President Pranab Mukherjee’s visit

to Arunachal Pradesh, a northeast Indian
state that China recognizes as "South
Tibet", in late November, 2013 and in his
speech calling the area an "integral and
important part of India" generated an
angry response from Beijing.[177] Foreign
ministry spokesman Qin Gang's statement
in response to Mukherjee's two-day visit to
Arunachal Pradesh was "China's stance on
the disputed area on the eastern part of
the China-India border is consistent and
clear.[178]
In September, 2014 the relationship took a

sting as troops of the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA) have reportedly entered two
kilometres inside the Line of Actual
Control (LAC) in Chumar sector.[179] The
next month, V. K. Singh said that China and
India had come to a "convergence of
views" on the threat of terrorism
emanating from Pakistan.[180]
In more modern times, China and India

have been working together to produce
films together, such as Kung Fu Yoga
starring Jackie Chan.[181] However,
disruptions have risen again due to China
building trade routes with Pakistan on
disputed Kashmir territory.[182]
2017 Doklam standoff
On 16 June 2017 Chinese troops with

construction vehicles and road-building
equipment began extending an existing
road southward in Doklam, a territory
which is claimed by both China as well as
India's ally Bhutan.[183][184][185][186][187][188]
On June 18, 2017, around 270 Indian
troops, with weapons and two bulldozers,
entered Doklam to stop the Chinese troops
from constructing the road.[189][190][191][192]
Among other charges, China accused India
of illegal intrusion into its territory across
mutually agreed China-India boundary and
violation of its territorial sovereignty and
UN Charter,[193] while India accused China
of changing status quo in violation of a
2012 understanding between the two
governments regarding the tri-juction
boundary points and causing security
concerns, widely understood as at its
strategic Siliguri Corridor.[194][195] India
media reported that on 28 June Bhutan
issued a demarche demanding China to
cease road building in Doklam and to
maintain the status quo.[196]
The Minister of External Affairs of India

Sushma Swaraj said that if China
unilaterally changes the status-quo of the
tri-junction point between China-India and
Bhutan then it poses a challenge to the
security of India.[197]
On 24 July 2017, Chinese Foreign Minister

Wang Yi told reporters that it is very clear
who is right and who is wrong in the
standoff in Doklam, and that even senior
Indian officials have publicly said that
Chinese troops have not intruded into
Indian territory.[198][199] The US expressed
concern in mid July 2017.[200][201][202][203]
China repeatedly said that India's
withdrawal was a prerequisite for
meaningful dialogue.[204][205][206] On July
21, 2017, the Minister of External Affairs of
India Sushma Swaraj said that for
dialogue, both India and China must
withdraw troops. Sushma Swaraj also said
that the road constructed by China is a
threat to Indian security.[207]
On August 2, 2017, the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs of China published a document
印度边防部队在中印边界锡⾦段越
entitled,
界进⼊中国领⼟的事实和中国的⽴场
(Indian border forces cross the border
between China and India...The facts...and
the position of China), claiming that Indian
border forces have illegally crossed the
border between China and India and
detailing China's position on the
matter.[208][209][210][211] The document says
China notified India regarding its plan to
construct road "in advance in full reflection
of China’s goodwill". The Ministry of
External Affairs of India refused to confirm
or deny the statement when asked that if
India received notification?[212][213]
On August 28, China and India have

reached a consensus to put an end to the
border stand-off. Both China and India
agreed to withdraw troops from
Doklam.[214]
Bilateral trade
China is India's largest trading partner.
Chinese imports from India amounted to

$16.4 billion or 0.8% of its overall imports,
and 4.2% of India's overall exports in 2014.
The 10 major commodities exported from
India to the China were:[215][216]
1. Cotton: $3.2 billion

2. Gems, precious metals, coins: $2.5
billion
3. Copper: $2.3 billion
4. Ores, slag, ash: $1.3 billion
5. Organic chemicals: $1.1 billion
6. Salt, sulphur, stone, cement: $958.7
million
7. Machines, engines, pumps:
$639.7lmillion
8. Plastics: $499.7 million
9. Electronic equipment: $440 million
10. Raw hides excluding furskins: $432.7
million
Chinese exports to India amounted to

$58.4 billion or 2.3% of its overall exports,
and 12.6% of India's overall imports in
2014. The 10 major commodities exported
from China to India were:[216][217]
1. Electronic equipment: $16 billion

2. Machines, engines, pumps: $9.8 billion
3. Organic chemicals: $6.3 billion
4. Fertilizers: $2.7 billion
5. Iron and steel: $2.3 billion
6. Plastics: $1.7 billion
7. Iron or steel products: $1.4 billion
8. Gems, precious metals, coins: $1.3
billion
9. Ships, boats: $1.3 billion
10. Medical, technical equipment: $1.2
billion
See also
Sino-Indian relations
Chindian People of Indo-Chinese

Descent
BRICS – Brazil, Russia, India, China and
South Africa
China in the Mahabharata
Chindia – China and India together in
general, and their economies in
particular
Shanghai Co-operation Organisation
Bhutan–China relations, Bhutan is
India's military ally
Bhutan–India relations, Bhutan is India's
military ally and China's adversary
Border disputes
Sino-Indian border dispute

Aksai Chin – controlled by China and
claimed by India.
Arunachal Pradesh – controlled by India
and claimed by China. Inhabited by
Moinbas, Lhobas (Adi), and Daibameis.
Doklam
Tawang District – controlled by India
and claimed by China.
Shaksgam Valley – controlled by China
and claimed by India (Conferred to
China in 1963 by Pakistan) Trans-
Karakoram Tract.
Bhutan–China border
Territorial disputes in the South China
Sea
List of territorial disputes
References
1. Shaikh, Mohammed Uzair (15 July 2017).
"No Room For Negotiations on Doklam,
India Will Face 'Embarrassment' if Troops
Not Withdrawn: Chinese State Media" .
India.com. Archived from the original on
15 July 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
2. Backus, Maria. Ancient China. Lorenz
Educational Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7877-
0557-2.
3. Janin, Hunt. The India-China opium trade
in the nineteenth century. McFarland, 1999.
ISBN 978-0-7864-0715-6.
4. Tansen Sen (January 2003). Buddhism,
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Further reading
Bhat, R. B., & Wu, C. (2014). Xuan
Zhang's mission to the West with
Monkey King. New Delhi : Aditya
Prakashan, 2014.
Lokesh Chandra. 2016. India and China.
New Delhi : International Academy of
Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan,
2016.
Yutang, Lin. 1942. The wisdom of China
and India. New York: Random House.
Chaudhuri, S. K. (2011). Sanskrit in
China and Japan. New Delhi:
International Academy of Indian Culture
and Aditya Prakashan.
De, B. W. T. (2011). The Buddhist
tradition in India, China & Japan. New
York: Vintage Books.
Bagchi, Prabodh Chandra, Bangwei
Wang, and Tansen Sen. 2012. India and
China: interactions through Buddhism
and diplomacy : a collection of essays
by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi.
Singapore: ISEAS Pub.
Chellaney, Brahma, "Rising Powers,
Rising Tensions: The Troubled China-
India Relationship," SAIS Review (2012)
32#2 pp. 99–108 in Project MUSE
Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011).
"Past, present and future commercial
Sino-Indian links via Sikkim," in: China's
Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai:
Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
Frankel, Francine R., and Harry Harding.
The India-China Relationship: What the
United States Needs to Know . Columbia
University Press: 2004. ISBN 0-231-
13237-9.
Garver, John W. Protracted Contest:
Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth
Century. University of Washington Press:
2002. ISBN 0-295-98074-5.
Harris, Tina (2013). Geographical
Diversions: Tibetan Trade, Global
Transactions . University of Georgia
Press, United States. ISBN 0820345733.
pp. 208.
Hellström, Jerker and Korkmaz, Kaan
"Managing Mutual Mistrust:
Understanding Chinese Perspectives on
Sino-Indian Relations" , Swedish
Defence Research Agency (September
2011)
Jain, Sandhya, & Jain, Meenakshi
(2011). The India they saw: Foreign
accounts. New Delhi: Ocean Books.
Contains material about Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims and explorers to India.
Lintner, Bertil. Great game east: India,
China, and the struggle for Asia's most
volatile frontier (Yale University Press,
2015)
Lu, Chih H.. The Sino-Indian Border
Dispute: A Legal Study. Greenwood
Press: 1986. ISBN 0-313-25024-3.
China’s Response to a Rising India , Q&A
with M. Taylor Fravel (October 2011)
Strategic Asia 2011-12: Asia Responds
to Its Rising Powers - China and India ,
edited by Ashley J. Tellis, Travis Tanner,
and Jessica Keough (National Bureau of
Asian Research, 2011)
India’s Response to a Rising China:
Economic and Strategic Challenges and
Opportunities , Q&A with Harsh V. Pant
(August 2011)
Davies, Henry Rudolph. 1970. Yün-nan,
the link between India and the Yangtze.
Taipei: Ch'eng wen.
K. M. Panikkar (1957). India and China.
A study of cultural relations. Asia Pub.
House: Bombay.
Raghu, V., Yamamoto, C., Lokesh, C., &
International Academy of Indian Culture.
(2007). Sanskrit--Chinese lexicon: Being
Fan Fan Yü, the first lexicon of its kind
dated to A.D. 517. New Delhi:
Sen, Tansen. Buddhism, Diplomacy, and
Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian
Relations, 600-1400. University of Hawaii
Press: 2003. ISBN 0-8248-2593-4.
Sidhu, Waheguru Pal Singh, and Jing
Dong Yuan. China and India: Cooperation
or Conflict? Lynne Rienner Publishers:
2003. ISBN 1-58826-169-7.
Varadarajan, S. India, China and the
Asian Axis of Oil , January 2006
The India-China Relationship:What we
need to know? , January 2006
Dalal, JS: The Sino-Indian Border
Dispute: India's Current Options.
Master's Thesis, June 1993.
Deepak, BR & Tripathi, D P [1] "India
China Relations - Future Perspectives",
Vij Books, July 2012
YaarovVertzberg, The Enduring Entente:
Sino-Pakistan Relations 1960-1980, New
York: Praeger, 1982.
Van, G. R. H. (2001). Siddham: An essay
on the history of Sanskrit studies in
China and Japan. New Delhi:
Hongyu Wang, ‘Sino-Indian Relations:
Present and Future’, Asian Survey 35:6,
June 1995.
Liping Xia, ‘The Evolution of Chinese
Views Toward Cbms’, in Michael Krepon,
Dominique M. McCoy, and Matthew C.J.
Rudolp (Eds.), A Handbook of
Confidence-*Building Measures for
Regional Security, Washington, DC:
Henry L. Stimson Center, 1993.
Weimen Zhao and Giri Deshingkar,
‘Improving Sino-Indo Relations’ in
Michael Krepon and Amit Sevak (eds.),
Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building,
and *Reconciliation in South Asia, New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
Ling Zhu, ’China-Pakistan Alliance
against India’, UPI Asia.com, September
9, 2008, in Jagannath P. Panda, Dragon
Looks South: Current Drives in China’s
South *Asian Neighbourhood Policy, in
China and its neighbours (ed. Srikant
Kondapalli, Emi Mifune), Pentagon
Press, New Delhi 2010.
External links
Maritime Interactions between China
and India: Coastal India and the
Ascendancy of Chinese Maritime Power
in the Indian Ocean
Maritime Southeast Asia Between South
Asia and China to the Sixteenth Century
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China–India

China–India relations, also called Sino-

Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India and President

Cultural and economic relations between

Relations between contemporary China

Despite growing economic and strategic

In June 2012, China stated its position that

According to a 2014 BBC World Service

The President of the People's Republic of

(The border between the People's Republic of China

China and India are separated by the

China and India also dispute most of

Population 1,337,364,960[22] 1,386,301,390[23]

Capital New Delhi Beijing

Largest city Mumbai Shanghai

Government Federal republic, parliamentary democracy Socialist, one-party state

Hindi, English, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati,

>10% each: non-religious,

GDP (PPP) US$7,153 US$15,424

— Hu Shih, quoted in Consolation

Hinduism is practiced by a minority of

Buddhism shaped Chinese culture in a

Bodhidharma was an Indian Buddhist

King Kumara of Assam had the Tao Te

Astronomy and mathematics

Indian astronomy reached China with the

Po-lo-men Thien Wen Ching

Brahman.a Chieh-Chhieh Hsienjen) in 30

Po-lo-men Thien Ching (Brahminical

Po-lo-men Suan Ching (Brahminical

Although these translations are lost, they

Indian medicine penetrated into the

Indian architecture has an influence on

The predominant telling of the diffusion of

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan.

The association of Bodhidharma with

The discovery of arms caches in the

The incense clock (simpliﬁed Chinese: ⾹

Xiangqi, or Chinese chess, which, like Western Chess

China and India have also had some

In the Records of the Grand Historian,

The Shaolin Monastery in Dengfeng, Henan, China.

From the 1st century onwards, many

The Cholas maintained good relationship

Under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra

Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the

Tang and Harsha dynasties

During the 7th century, Tang dynasty China

During the 8th century, the astronomical

A rich merchant from the Ma'bar Sultanate,

桑哥 Sangha was a Tibetan. [125] Tamil

Stele installed in Calicut by Zheng He (modern replica)

Chinese ﬁshing nets in Kochi, Kerala, India.

In the 18th to 19th centuries, the Sikh

The British East India Company used

Mao Zedong viewed Tibet as an integral

Founding of the Sino-Indian Friendship Association on

It is the popular perception that the catch

Nehru sought to initiate a more direct

In March 1959, the Dalai Lama, spiritual

Border disputes resulted in a short border

At the time of Sino-Indian border conflict,

The PRC continued an active propaganda