CHAPTER 1

VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Why this chapter is so important?

Why study this topic?
Fluid problem – flow in pipes

Viscous fluid

Shear stress and friction

uniform velocity profile to parabolic velocity profile

other flow properties also changed

CHAPTER 1: VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Introduction

Piping systems are encountered in almost every engineering area.

Problems are related to flow in ducts or pipes with various velocities,

fluids, duct and pipe shapes and sizes.

When ‘real world’ (viscous effect) effects are important, it is difficult to

use theoretical method to obtain the desired result.

A combination of experimental data with theoretical considerations

and dimensional analysis provide the desired results.

Pipe Flow Characteristics

Not all conduits used to transport fluid are round in cross section.

Heating and air conditioning ducts are often of rectangular cross

section. Why?

For heating and air conditioning, pressure difference between inside

and outside is relatively small and basic principle involved are
independent of the cross sectional shape.

Assume involved in this chapter

- The pipe is round in cross section
- The pipe is completely filled with fluid
- Viscous fluid
- Incompressible fluid

Pipe flow vs Open channel flow

- Pipe flow – pressure gradient in the driving force (gravity may
be important).
- Open channel flow - gravity is the driving force.
 Steady and unsteady flow
- Steady flows occur when flow parameters such as pressure,
velocity, temperature etc. do not vary with time.
- If flow parameters vary with time, it is called unsteady.

Laminar and turbulent flow

- Flow is said to be laminar when adjacent fluid layers move at
same velocity and paths of individual particles of fluid do not
cross each other. Occur at low velocities and high viscosity (Re
≤ 2100).
- Flow is turbulent when streamlines cross each other and mixing
of fluid flow occur. Occur at high velocities and low viscosity
(Re ≥ 4000).
- 2100 < Re < 4000 ?

Reynold’s Experiment : Dye Streaks

 Fluid velocity at a point

Compressible and incompressible

- Fluid is incompressible when its density does not depend on
pressure. (Volume does not change when pressure is applied).
- When density changes when pressure is applied, it is called
compressible.

Example : Water at temperature 16oC flows through a pipe of

diameter 0.018 m.
a. Determine the minimum time taken to fill a 3.54 x 10-4
m3 glass with water if the flow in pipe is to be laminar.
b. Determine the maximum time taken to fill a 3.54 x 10-4
m3 glass with water if the flow in pipe is to be turbulent.

Solution :

Given, D = 0.018 m
V = 3.54 x 10-4 m3

a. Minimum time occur when Reynolds number is maximum allowed

for laminar flow (maximum velocity)

v = Re (µ)/ρD
= 2100 (1.12 x 10-3)/[1000(0.018)]
= 0.131 m/s

Q = vA
= 0.131[ (0.018)2/4]
= 3.33 x 10-5 m3/s
 t = V/Q
= 3.54 x 10-4/3.33 x 10-5
= 10.63 s

b. Maximum time occur when Reynolds number is minimum allowed

for turbulent flow (minimum velocity)

v = Re (µ)/ρD
= 4000 (1.12 x 10-3)/[1000(0.018)]
= 0.249 m/s

Q = vA
= 0.249 [ (0.018)2/4]
= 6.33 x 10-5 m3/s

t = V/Q
= 3.54 x 10-4/6.33 x 10-5
= 5.59 s

Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow

Entrance region - the region of flow near where the fluid enters the
pipe.

The fluid enters the pipe with nearly uniform velocity profile [section
(1)].

Entrance region, developing flow and fully developed flow

As the fluid move through the pipe, viscous effects cause it to stick to
the pipe wall. Thus boundary layer is produced along the pipe such that
the initial velocity profile changes with distance along the pipe until the
fluid reaches the end of the entrance length [section (2)].

From section (2) to section (3), the velocity profile does not vary with
pipe length and the boundary layer is fully developed (fully developed
flow).

The shape of velocity profile and the dimensionless entrance length, le/D
depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulence.
- le/D = 0.06 Re for laminar flow (1.1)
1/6
- le/D = 4.4 (Re) for turbulent flow (1.2)

Because of the character of the pipe changes from section (3) to

section (4), the flow gradually begin its return to its fully developed
character (section (5)).

Example : Water flows through a 15m pipe with 1.3 cm diameter at 20

l/min. Determine the length of entrance region, le?

Solution :

Given, L = 15m
D = 1.3 cm = 0.013 m
Q = 20 l/min = 20/(1000 x 60)m3/s = 3.33 x 10-4 m3/s

v = Q/A
= 3.33 x 10-4/[ (0.013)2/4]
= 3.33 x 10-4/1.33 x 10-4
= 2.50 m/s

Re = ρvD/µ
= 1000(2.5)(0.013)/1 x 10-3
= 32500 (> 4000, turbulent flow)
 therefore

le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6

le = 4.4 (Re)1/6D
le = 4.4(32500)1/6(0.013)
= 0.32 m

Pressure and Shear Stress

Pressure different between 2 section/point forces the fluid through the

horizontal pipe and viscous effects provide the restraining force that
exactly balances the pressure force.

In the entrance region, fluid accelerate or decelerate as it flow, thus

there is a balance between pressure, viscous and inertia (acceleration)

The magnitude of the pressure gradient δp/δx is larger in the entrance

region than in the fully develop flow, where it is a constant,
δp/δx = -Δp/l < 0

Pressure distribution along the pipe

Equation for Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Pipes

Fully developed laminar flow - velocity profile is the same at any cross
section of the pipe.
 From the velocity profile, we can get other information regarding the
flow such as pressure drop, flow rate, shear stress etc.

3 method can be used to derive equations pertaining to fully developed

laminar flow in pipes.
- Applying F = ma to a fluid element.
- Dimensional analysis.
- Navier-Stokes equation of motion.

Applying F = ma to a Fluid Element

Consider fluid element at time t – circular cylinder of fluid of length l

and radius r.

Even though the fluid is moving, it is not accelerating, so ax = 0

Free body diagram of fluid element

Apply F = ma

(p1) r2 – (p1 - Δp) r2 – (τ)2 rl = 0

Δp/l = 2τ/r (1.3)

This equation represents the basic balance in force needed to drive
each fluid particle along the pipe with constant velocity.

τ is depending on r

τ = Cr

where C is a constant

at r = 0, there is no shear stress (τ = 0)

at r = D/2, the shear stress is maximum (τ = τw)

C = 2τw/D

therefore

τ = 2τwr/D (1.4)

and

Δp = 4lτw/D (1.5)

These equation (1.3, 1.4, 1.5) valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.

How shear stress related to velocity?

Two governing laws for fully developed laminar flow
- Δp/l = 2τ/r
- τ = -µδu/δr

Combine this two equation

δu/δr = - (Δp/2µl)r

velocity profile

∫ δu = - (Δp/2µl)r δr
 u = - (Δp/4µl)r 2 + C1

at r = D/2, u = 0 and C1 = (Δp/16µl)D 2

ur = (ΔpD2/16µl)[1 – (2r/D) 2]

at r = 0, centerline velocity, Vc

Vc = (ΔpD2/16µl)

therefore

ur = Vc [1 – (2r/D) 2] (1.6)

combine equation 1.5 and 1.6, and D/2 = R

ur = τw D/4µ [1 – (r/R) 2]

Flowrate

Q = ∫ u dA

Q = ∫ u 2 r dr

Q=2 Vc ∫[1 – (r/R) 2]r dr

Q= R2 Vc/2

knowing that average velocity, V = Q/A = Q/ R2

V=( R2 Vc/2)/ R2 = Vc/2 = ΔpD2/32µl (1.7)

and

Q= D4Δp/128µl (1.8)
Summary - Flow properties for horizontal pipe
Flow Properties Equation Remarks
Entrance Length, le/D = 0.06 Re Laminar flow
1/6
le/D le/D = 4.4 (Re) Turbulent flow
Pressure drop per Δp/l = 2τ/r Valid for both
unit length laminar and
turbulent flow
Shear stress τ = 2τwr/D Valid for both
laminar and
turbulent flow
Pressure drop Δp = 4lτw/D Valid for both
laminar and
turbulent flow
Velocity profile 2
ur = Vc [1 – (2r/D) ] Laminar flow
Average velocity V = ( R2 Vc/2)/ R2 Laminar flow
V= Vc/2
V = ΔpD2/32µl
Flowrate Q = D4Δp/128µl Laminar flow

Adjustment to account for non horizontal pipe – gravity

effect

Free body diagram of fluid element for non horizontal pipe

- angle between pipe centerline axis and horizontal axis

Apply F = ma

(p + Δp) r2 – (p) r2 – mgsin – (τ)2 rl = 0

(p + Δp) r2 – (p) r2 – ρ( r2)lgsin – (τ)2 rl = 0

 (Δ p – lsin )/l = 2τ/r
(1.9)

effects of non horizontal pipe

Δp →→→→→ (Δ p – lsin )

therefore

V = (Δ p – lsin )D2/32µl (1.10)

and

Q= D 4 (Δ p – lsin )/128µl
(1.11)

Summary - Flow properties for non horizontal pipe

Flow Properties Equation Remarks
Entrance Length, - le/D = 0.06 Re Laminar flow
1/6
le/D - le/D = 4.4 (Re) Turbulent flow
Pressure drop per (Δp – lsin )/l = 2τ/r Valid for both
unit length laminar and
turbulent flow
Shear stress τ = 2τwr/D Valid for both
laminar and
turbulent flow
Pressure drop Δp – lsin = 4lτw/D Valid for both
laminar and
turbulent flow
Velocity profile ur = Vc [1 – (2r/D) 2]
Average velocity V = ( R2 Vc/2)/ R2
V= Vc/2
V = (Δp– lsin )D2/32µl
Flowrate Q = D 4 (Δ p – lsin
)/128µl
 Example : An oil with a viscosity of µ = 0.40 N.s/m2 and density ρ =
900 kg/m3 flows in pipe of diameter D = 0.020 m.
a. What pressure drop is needed to produce a flowrate of
Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s if the pipe is horizontal and x1 = 0
m and x2 = 10 m.
b. How steep a hill, , must the pipe be on if the oil is to
flow at the same rate as in part (a) but with p1 = p2.
c. For a condition of part (b), if p1 = 200 kPa, what is the
pressure at x3 = 5 m.

Solution :

a. Given, µ = 0.40 N.s/m2

ρ = 900 kg/m3
D = 0.020 m
Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s
x1 =0m
x2 = 10 m.

from equation Q = D4Δp/128µl

Δp = Q(128µl)/ D4
= [128(2.0 x 10-5)(0.40)10]/[3.14(0.02)4]
= 20400 N/m2

b. Given, µ = 0.40 N.s/m2

ρ = 900 kg/m3
D = 0.020 m
Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s
x1 = 0 m
x2 = 10 m
Δp= 0

from equation Q = D 4 (Δ p – lsin )/128µl

Δp – lsin = Q(128µl)/ D4
 sin = - 128Qµ/ D4
= - 128(2.0 x 10-5)(0.40)/[3.14(0.02)4(900)(9.81)]

= sin-1[[- 128(2.0 x 10-5)(0.40)]/[3.14(0.02)4(900)(9.81)]]

= -13.340

c. Condition as part (b), pressure different along the pipe, Δp = 0 and

p1 = p2 = p3

therefore, at x3 = 5 m, p3 = 200kPa

Pressure Drop and Head Loss

Important of pressure drop – it is related to power required by pump

or fan to maintain fluid flow.

Power, W = ρgQhL

From energy equation

p1/ρg + α1v12/2g + z1 = p2/ρg + α2v22/2g + z2 + hL

for horizontal pipe, v1 = v2 and z1 = z2, α = kinetic energy coefficient

and for uniform flow α1 = α2 = 1

hL = Δp/ρg (1.12)

from previous researcher, for laminar flow

hL = f(l/D)(v2/2g) (1.13)

combine equation (1.12) and (1.13), and f = 64/Re

Δp/ρg = (64/Re)(l/D)(v2/2g)

Δp = 32µlv/D2 (1.14)

combine equation (1.3)and (1.12)

 hLρg = 2τl/r

hL = 2τl/ρgr

hL = 4τwl/ρgD (1.15)

Example : Water with a viscosity of µ = 1.545 x 10-3 kg.s/m and

density ρ = 998 kg/m3 is flowing through 0.003 m
diameter 9 m long horizontal pipe steadily at an average
velocity of 0.9 m/s. Determine
a. the head loss
b. the pressure drop
c. the pumping power requirement to overcome this
pressure drop.

Solution :

a. head loss?
Re = ρvD/µ
= 998(0.9)(0.003)/ 1.545 x 10-3
= 1744 (< 2100, laminar flow)

for laminar flow

f = 64/Re
= 64/1744
= 0.0367

and

hL = f(l/D)(v2/2g)
= (0.0367)(9/0.003)[0.92/2(9.81)]
= 4.545 m

b. pressure drop?

for laminar flow

 Δp/ρg = (64/Re)(l/D)(v2/2g)
Δp = (64/Re)(l/D)( ρv2/2)

= 0.0367(9/0.003)[998(0.92)/2]
= 44.5 kPa

c. power required?

P = ρgQhL

and

Δp/ρg = hL

therefore

P = QΔp
= 0.9 (0.0032/4)(44500)
= 0.283 W

Concept of Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow in Pipes

- Re ≥ 4000.
- Random movements of eddies which mixes up the layers of
fluid.
- Particle path is irregular.
- Most common type of flow.
- Difficult mathematical analysis to describe the flow.

Important of turbulent flow

- mixing process
- heat and mass transfer process
 transition from laminar to turbulent flow in pipe

axial velocity measured at a given location

Turbulent Shear Stress

Random 3-dimensional fluid motions (eddies) produce shear force for

the turbulent flow.

3-dimensional eddies conveys mass with average velocity . Therefore

flow momentum exists. The result of this momentum transfer is shear
force.

Shear stress in pipe is given as the summation of laminar shear stress

and turbulent shear stress
 = +
lam turb

structure of turbulent flow in a pipe

 Laminar shear stress is dominant near the pipe wall and the turbulent
shear stress dominates the flow at center of pipe.

The region where laminar shear force dominates is called the viscous
sublayer or the viscous wall layer.

The region where turbulent shear force dominates is called the outer
turbulent layer or simply the outer layer.

There is also a region where both laminar and shear are important.
This region is called the overlap region.

The character of the each layers such as their velocity are different, so
we need different equations to describe them

Turbulent Velocity Profile

Velocity profile for viscous sublayer

/u* = yu*/ν (1.16)

where = average velocity

y = distance measured from wall = R – r
* 1/2
u = friction velocity = ( /ρ)
w
ν = kinematic viscosity

This equation is called the Law of Wall which is valid only near a
smooth wall for 0 ≤ yu*/ν ≤ 5

Velocity profile for overlap region

/u* = 2.5 ln (yu*/ν) + 5.0 (1.17)

where 2.5 and 5.0 are constants determined by experiments

For the outer layer, the Power Law is used from the following
expression.

/Vc = [1 – (r/R)]1/n (1.18)

The value of n which indicates the “power” of the equation is a

function of Re and determined experimentally.

exponent, n, for power laws velocity profiles

The relationship between average velocity, V, volume flowrate, Q, and

centerline velocity, VC can be obtained by integrating the power law
velocity profile.

Q=∫ δA

Q = ∫ Vc [1 – (r/R)]1/n δA

Q = ∫ Vc [1 – (r/R)]1/n 2 r δr

Q = 2 R2 Vc n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)] (1.19)

since Q = R 2V

R2V/ R2 Vc = 2n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]

 V/Vc = 2n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]

V = 2n2Vc /[(n + 1)(2n + 1)] (1.20)

Example 1.
Water at 200C ( = 998 kg/m3 , and = 1 x 10 6 m2/s flows through a
horizontal pipe of D = 0.1 m diameter with a flowrate of Q = 4 x 10 2
m3/s and a pressure gradient of ∆p/l = 2.59kPa/m.

1. Determine the approximate thickness of the viscous sublayer.

2. Determine the approximate Darcy friction coefficient f
3. Determine the approximate centerline velocity, Vc using the power– law
velocity profile theory.

Head Loss

Energy equation for steady incompressible flow in horizontal pipes,

p1/ρg + α1v12/2g + z1 = p2/ρg + α2v22/2g + z2 + hL+ w - q

where hL = head loss

w = turbine head
q = pump head

Head loss
- major loss
- minor loss

Major Losses

Major losses is caused by friction at walls and due to the resistance of

fluid particles as they roll, rub and slide each other.

Losses cause by doing work against friction

hL = flv2/2gD
 where f = friction factor
l = length
v = velocity
d = gravity acceleration

For laminar flow

f = 64/Re

For turbulent flow

1/f0.5 = - 1.8 log [(6.9/Re) + (ε/3.7D)1.1]

Surface Roughness

Equivalent Roughness, ε
Pipe
(ft) (mm)
Riveted Steel 0.003 – 0.03 0.9 – 9.0
Concrete 0.001 – 0.01 0.3 – 3.0
Wood Stave 0.0006 – 0.003 0.19 – 0.9
Cast Iron 0.00085 0.26
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.15
Commercial Steel 0.00015 0.045
Drawn Tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Plastic, glass 0.0 (smooth) 0.0 (smooth)

Normally for pipe analysis, we obtain the dependence of friction factor

on Re & /D through the Moody Chart.
To construct this chart the equivalent roughness is usually obtained
for ‘clean’ and new pipes because after considerable use, most pipes
may have increased roughness.

For high Re flows, the viscous sub-layer is so thin that the surface
roughness completely dominates the character of flow near the walls.

For smooth pipes ( = 0), we notice that friction factor (f) is not zero
because there is still head loss. These pipes are called “hydraulically
smooth”.

The moody chart offers the relationships between /D, f and Re for a
very wide range of pipe flows including that for laminar flows as long
as the flow is steady, fully developed and incompressible.

The Moody chart is useful because in real applications, a large variety

of D, V, and exists but only for small ranges win the Moody
chart.

The Moody chart is valid for all steady, fully developed, incompressible
pipe flows.
Non Circular Conduits
Air Conditioner Ducting System

Hydraulic Radius
RH = Area/ Circumference

Circle cross section area

RH = Area/ Circumference
= [ D2/4]/ D
= D/4
D = 4 RH

therefore

hf = flv2/2gD
= flv2/8gRH

ε/D = ε/4 RH

ρvD/µ =4ρv RH/µ

Minor Losses
 Minor losses are caused by the geometry of pipes such as the presence
of valves and fittings such as elbows, tees, bends etc.

In equation form

hL = KLv2/2g

where KL is loss coefficient

KL = hL2g/v2 = 2Δp/ρv2

KL vary depending on the shapes involved

Entrance loss

Head loss when liquid enters pipe from a large tank/reservoir

Exit Loss

Head loss produced when liquid leaves pipe and enters a large
tank/reservoir

The entire kinetic energy of exiting fluid v1 is dissipated through

viscous effects and eventually becomes v2 = 0

Exit loss from (1) to (2) is equivalent to one velocity head

K = 1.0
L

Sudden Expansion and Contraction

 Losses that occur where there is a sudden increase in pipe diameter
(expansion) or where there is a sudden decrease in pipe diameter
(contraction)

Loss coefficient is a function of are ratio A /A .

2 1

For sudden expansion

KL = [1 – (D1/D2)2]2

A /A = 0 K = 0.5 - extreme sharp edge entrance

2 1 L

A /A = 1 K = 0 - no area change
2 1 L

Vena Contracta

Fluid entering a sharp corner.

Fluid cannot through sharp corners. At a sharp corner, the flow will
separate and reattaches at the pipe wall.

This separation and reattachment forms a bubble (separation bubble)

making the area of fluid flow smaller than the actual pipe area.
 This causes the velocity of fluid passing through this small area to
increase

Maximum velocity exists at section with minimum area called the vena
contracta.

Because high speed flows cannot slow down efficiently, the kinetic
energy could not be fully converted into pressure.

Pump

Pumps are used to increase energy of the fluid (liquid).

40% - 50% of industrial energy is used to drive pumps and

compressors.

Proper design construction and selection of pumps are economically

significant.

One of the most common pump is the centrifugal pump.

It consist of rotating elements called impeller which is contained within

the pump housing.

The shaft transfers mechanical energy to the impeller.

A system of bearings and seals are required to complete the design

Flow enters the machine nearly axial at some radius through the eye of
the impeller and leaves radially outward.

Energy is added to the fluid by rotating blades and both pressure and
absolute velocity are increased as fluid flows from eye to the periphery
of the blades.

Fluid discharges into the housing which is designed to reduce velocity.

Types of pumps
- Reciprocating pistons or plunger
 - Gear pump
- Double screw pump
- Sliding vane
- Lobe pump
- Differential piston
- Flexible squeegee

In reality, pumps cause losses.

Normally pumps are driven by electric motors, IC engines etc.

In short we can say that pump draws kinetic energy and delivers it to
the fluid.

If we include energy of pump in the energy equation, we get:

p1/ρg + v12/2g + z1 + hP= p2/ρg + v22/2g + z2 + hL

where hP is the energy added to fluid and hL is the head loss discussed
earlier

Power Required by Pump

Power is the rate of work or the rate of which energy is being

transferred and is given by:

Power added to fluid:

Power = pghPQ

Unit: Watt, Nm/s or J/s

Example : A tank of water empties by gravity through a horizontal

pipe into another tank. There is a sudden enlargement in
 the pipe. At a certain time, the difference in level is 3 m.
Each pipe is 2 m long and has a friction coefficient, f =
0.005. The inlet loss coefficient is 0.3. Calculate the
flowrate at this point.

Solution :

energy equation

p1/ρg + v12/2g + z1 = p2/ρg + v22/2g + z2 + hL

p1 = p2 = 0, v1 = v2 = 0

hL = z1 - z2
=3m

major loss

hf 1 = f1lv2/2gD
= 0.005(2) [Q2/ 2
(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)(0.02)]
= 258471Q2

hf 2 = f2lv2/2gD
= 0.005(2) [Q2/ 2
(0.062/4)2]/[2(9.81)(0.06)]
= 1064Q2

minor losses
for entrance

hL1 = KL1v2/2g
= 0.3[Q2/ 2(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 155083Q2

for sudden enlargement

KL2 = [1 – (D1/D2)2]2
= [1– (0.02/0.06)2]2
= 0.79
therefore

hL2 = KL2v2/2g
= 0.79[Q2/ 2(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 408384Q2
for exit

hL3 = KL3v2/2g
= 1[Q2/ 2(0.062/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 6382Q2

total head loss

hL = 258471Q2 + 1064Q2 +155083Q2 + 408384Q2 + 6382Q2

Q2 = 3/596754
Q = 2.242 x 10-3 m3/s