1.4 The bundences othe element in he univee. Flees wih of Zee ls se than ti egthrs with even Z The lurdeces ett uber a tars of ack lament elaivew Stakes a 10, 1 Atom structure ‘Table 1.1 Subatomic particles of relevance to chenisty Parise Symbol Masia" Mass chargojet Spin unnber leans 5aab x07 7 3 Prin 10073 1 } Nowion —o 4.0087 1 i Prawn a 4 i Newita —¥ 0 4 i asin e* a 1 y csatiole a 4 + 4 Branicle — B 1c ojctd fre mucus] 0 1 } yatown 5 [elcraegntcrdavan 0 0 1 ‘on males] “Masses a exes in ata mess u,v, with 1 87,6806 x 1077 Ig “The elementary care 2s 1.602% 10-78 particles that we need to consider in chemistry are summarized in Table 1.1. The 100 or so known elements that are formed from these subatomic particles are distinguished by their atomic number, Z, the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The isotopes of clements, which are atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic masses, are distinguished by the mass number, A, the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, THE ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS Tf current views are correct, by about 2 h after the start of the universe the temperature had falien so much that most of the matter was in the form of H atoms (89 percent) and He atoms (11 percent). In one sense, ot much has happened since then, for as Fig. 1.1 shows, hydrogen and helium remain the most abundant elements in the universe. How- ever, nuclear events have formed a wide assortment of other elements and have immeasurably enriched the variety of matter in the universe, 1020304080 60-70-80 ‘Atomic number11 The nucleosynthesis of light elements 5 1.1 The nucleosynthesis of light elements ‘The condensation of clouds of H and He atoms is thought to have led to the formation of the earliest stars. The collapse of these stars under the influence of gravity gave rise to high temperatures and densities within them, and fusion reactions began as nuclei merged together. ‘The earliest nuclear reactions are closely related to those now being studied in connection with the development of controlled nuclear fusion. Energy is released when light nuclei fuse together to give elements of higher atomic number. For example, the nuclear reaction in which an a particle (a {He nucleus, consisting of two protons and two neut- rons) fuses with a carbon-12 nucleus to give an oxygen-16 nucleus and a p-ray photon (7) is BC+ fa fOry and releases 7.2 MeV. In this nuclear equation, the nuclide, a nucleus of specific atomic number Z and mass number A, is designated #E, where E is the chemical symbol of the element. Note that in a balanced nuclear equation, the mass numbers of the reactants sum to the same value as the mass numbers of the products (12+4~ 16). The atomic numbers sum likewise (6 +2=8) so long as an electron, e~, when it appears as a f-particle, is ascribed an atomic number of —1 and a positron,? ¢*, is ascribed Z= +1. Elements of atomic number up to 26 were formed inside stars. Such elements are the products of the nuclear fusion events Feferred to as ‘nuclear burning’. The burning reactions (which should not be con- fused with chemical combustion) involved H and He'nuclei and complicated fusién cycle catalyzed by C nuclei. (The stars that formed in the earliest stages of the evolution of the universe lacked C nuclei and used noncatalyzed H burning reactions.) Some of the most import- ant reactions in the cycle are Proton (p) capture by carbon-12: '3C-+ {p+ 3N-+7 Positron decay accompanied by neutrino (+) emission BN C+et ty Proton capture by carbon-I3: | C+}p + 4N+ Proton capture by nitrogen-14: MN-+ Ip + fO+y Positron decay, accompa by neutrino emission YO Ntet +y Proton capture by nitrogen-15: N+ ip 3C-+4s * Am eleewonvolt (1 eV) is the energy required to move an electron through a potential “ference of 1 V. Te follows that 1 eV 1,002 10°" Jy 1 MeV= 10" eV. 2 positron isa positively charged version of an electron: it has zero mass sumber and 2 Single poscve charge. When i is emited, the mass number of the nuclide is unchanged ‘but the atomic number decreases by 1 because the nucleus has lost one positive cha Tis emission is equivalent tothe conversion of «protan in the nucleus ino a neutron Insite ty [A neuttino v,fesembles an uncharged elecron: i is electrically neutral and has 2 ery small (posibly zero) massBinding eneray per nucleon (MeV) 0 40 80 720 Teo 200 260 Mase number 1.2 Noclabiniag engi. Te ester she ‘indng wary te nore stable th clans. The mast sale ld is 3 1 Atomic structure ‘The net result of this sequence is the conversion of four protons (four "H nuclei) into an « particle (a He nucleus) Apa fat 20% +2043) ‘The nuclear reactions in the sequence are rapid at temperatures between 5 and 10 MK (where 1 MK=10° K). Heavier elements begin to be produced in significant quantities when hydrogen burning is complete and the collapse of the star's core raises the density there to 10° kg m™ (about 10° times the density of water) and the temperature ro 100 MK. Under these extreme conditions, helium burning becomes viable. The low abundance of lithium, beryllium, and boron is consistent with the events taking place during this phase in the life of a star, because any £Be formed by collisions between a particles goes on to react with more a particles: et fa BC+y ‘Thus, the helium-burning stage of stellar evolution does not result in the formation of beryllium as a stable end product; nor, for similar reasons, does it result in lithium and boron. The origin of these three elements is still uncertain, but they may result from events in which C, N, and O nuclei undergo spallation, or fragmentation by collisions with high-energy particles, Elements can also be produced by nuclear reactions such as neutron (a) capture accompanied by proton emission: MN + in C+ Ip ‘This reaction still continues in our atmosphere as a result of the impact of cosmic rays and contributes to the steady-state concentretion of radioaétive carbon-14 on earth, ‘The high abundance of iron in the universe is consistent with its having the most stable of all nuclei. This stability can be assessed from its binding eriergy, the difference in energy between the nucleus itself and the same numbers of individual protons and neutrons. This binding energy is often expressed in terms of a difference in mass, between the nucleus and its individual protons and neutrons, for according to Binstein’s theory of relativity, mass and energy are related by E=mic?, where c is the speed of light. Therefore, if the mass of a nucleus differs from the total mass of its components by Am, then its binding energy is AE= Amx ‘The binding energy of **Fe, for example, is the difference in eneray ‘between the **Fe nucleus and 26 protons and 30 neutrons. Figure 1.2 shows the binding energy (expressed as an energy per nucleon, 2 nuclear particle) for all the elements, and we see that iron occurs at the maximum of the curve, showing that its nucleons are bound more strongly than in any other nuclide,12. The aucleesymthesis of heavy elemants 1.2 The nucleosynthesis of heavy elements Elements heavier than iron are produced by a variety of energy- consuming processes. These include the capture of free neutrons, which are not present in the earliest stages of stellar evolution but are produced later in reactions such as #BNe+ $e $Me + jn Under conditions of intense neutron flux, as in @ supernova (the explo- sion of a star), a given nucleus may capture a succession of neutrons, and become a progressively heavier isotope. However, there comes a point at which it will eject an electron from the nucleus as a f particle (ahigh-velocity electron, e~ ). Because f-decay leaves the mass number of the nuclide unchanged but increases its atomic number by I (the nuclear charge increases by 1 unit when an electron is cjected), a new element is formed. An example is Neutron capture: $$Mo + Jn = 38Mo+y Followed by f-decay accompanied by neutrino emission: YM 8Te+e"+y ‘The daughter nuclide, the product of a nuclear reaction (28T, an isotope of technetium, in this example), can absorb another neutron, and the process can continue, gradually building up the heavier elements Example 1.1: Balancing equations for nuclear reactions ‘Synthesis of heavy elements occurs in the neutron capture reactions believed to take piace in the interior of cool ‘red giant’ stars. One such reaction is the conversion of $§Zn to ${Ga by neutron capture to form. $82, which then undergoes j-decay. Write balanced nuclear equations for this process. Answer. Neutron capture increases the mass number of a nuclide by 1 but [caves the atomic number (and hence the identity of the element) unchanged: ‘The excess energy is carried away as @ photon. f-decay, the loss of an electron from the nucleus, leaves the mass number unchanged but increases the atomic number by 1. Because zinc has atomic number 30, the daughter nuclide has Z = 31, corresponding to gallium. There- fore, the nuclear reaction is zn Gate (In fact, a neutrino is also emitted, but this cannot be inferred from the data as a neutrino is massless and electrically neutral.) tae ise E1.1. Write the balanced nuclear equation for neutron capture seBr.