HYDROLOGY

(BFC 3092)

Prepared by:-

WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
e-mail: afnizan@uthm.edu.my
 CHAPTER 2

PRECIPITATION
 Learning Objectives
Define precipitation, its form and types.
Illustrate techniques for estimating point
and areal precipitation.
 CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION

 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATON

 CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION

 PRECIPITATION TYPES
.... Cont ‘
CONTENT
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
☻ NON RECORDING GAUGES
☻ RECORDING GAUGES
(PLUVIOGRAPH)
Weighing gauge
Tipping bucket
Float type
.... Cont ‘
CONTENT
 LOCATION OF INSTALLATION RAIN
GAUGE

 GAUGE CONSISTENCY

 MISSING DATA
☻ POINT PRECIPITATION

 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

INTRODUCTION

What
is
Precipitation
.... Cont ‘ INTRODUCTION

 Any product of the condensation of atmospheric

water vapor (solid or liquid) that is deposited on
the earth’s surface .
 Major component of the hydrologic cycle .
 can occur in many different forms :-
 Rain (Titisan air)
 Storm (Ribut)
 Snow (Salji)
 Hail (Hujan batu)
 Drizzle (Hujan panas)
 Sleet (Separa salji)
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION

How Precipitation is
Formed
 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
... Cont ‘

Droplets become heavy

enough to fall (~ 0.1 mm)

Many droplets decrease in

size by evaporation Some droplets
increase in size by
Droplets increase in size by impact and
condensation aggregation

Larger drops break up

( 3- 5 mm)

Droplets form by nucleation -

condensing of vapor on tiny
solid particles called
aerosols (0.001 – 10 mm)

Water vapor Rain drops

(0.1 – 3 mm)
 CLASSIFICATION / FORM OF
PRECIPITATION
 SNOW
 Complex ice crystals

 HAIL
 Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter
Advantage : Potential for agricultural
Disadvantage : Property damage

 SLEET
 Combination of snow and rain

 RAIN
 Liquid water drops of a size 0.5 – 7 mm 

 DRIZZLE
 Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water drops ( < 0.5
milimeter diameter)
 PRECIPITATION TYPES

 Classified according to the conditions that

generate vertical air motion.
 Category of precipitation :-

 Convective Precipitation

 Orographic Precipitation

 Cyclonic Precipitation
.... Cont ‘ PRECIPITATION TYPES

 CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
- Typical tropics eg : South East Asia
- How ??  by heating of the air at the interface with the ground.
- Forms (light showers or extremely high intensity storms)

 OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
- Results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents over
natural barriers (mountains).
- Very common on the West Coast of the United States.

 CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION
- Associated with the movement of air masses from high pressure regions
to low pressure regions.
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
 Measured as vertical depth on a flat level surface
(if still remains).
 Data of precipitation measurement includes :-
 Depth
- Sum of rainfall on flat water surface
 Intensity
- Depth of rainfall per unit time (mm/hr)
- Data can be reported either in graphical or
tabular form
 Durations
- Time from the beginning of rainfall until the
rain stops
 Frequency
- Sometimes called Return Period
 Area
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘

How Precipitation
Data is Presented
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘

 Can be plotted as :-

 Accumulated total rainfall

 Rainfall intensity  HYETOGRAPH

EXAMPLE 2.1

From the precipitation data given, estimate

CUMULATIVE RAINFALL & RAINFALL
INTENSITY.
SOLUTION

Step !!
SOLUTION

Rainfall Depth (cm)

Ra inf all Intensity 
Time Interval (hr)

0.18 60
i  0.18   1.08 cm/hr
 10  10
 
 60 
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES

 Rain gauge  measure how much rain has

fallen.
 Grouped into :-
 Recording Rain Gauge
(Pluviograph)
 Non Recording Rain Gauge
 Rain-Intensity Gauge
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘
TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES

NON RECORDING GAUGES

8²
 Data is observed manually.
2.53²

 Small tube inside larger overflow

24²
can.
Receiver cap  funnel the rain
20²

8²

inside small tube
Support (wood) Overflow can Measuring
tube
Receiver
 Measurement using special
050
Measuring stick
(to road directly in .01 of an inch of precipitation)
measuring stick.
040

030

020

010 One - tenth inch

One - hundredth inch division

 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘
TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES

RECORDING GAUGES (PLUVIOGRAPH)

 Three types of gauging

 Weighing Gauge
- Consists of storage bin
- Can measure rain, hail & snow as well as
quantity of chemicals.
 Tipping Bucket
- can measure light, meadium or heavy rain
 Float Type
 LOCATION OF RAIN GAUGE INSTALLATION

 Should be installed at an open area

that is protected from the wind in all
directions  reduced errors
 MISSING DATA

POINT PRECIPITATION

 Precipitation measured at rain gauge.

 Three method used to estimate missing point precipitation :-

 Arithmatic Mean Method

 Normal Ratio Method

 Quadrant Method
 MISSING DATA - POINT PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 1st APPROACH
ARITHMATIC MEAN METHOD

 Valid if (-10%Nx < NA & NB, & NC … < +10%Nx)

 Formula used for missing precipitation, Px (depth) :-

𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = 𝑷𝒊
𝑴

Which :-
Pi = Precipitation depth at each station (A,B,C,…) within the
basin (mm)
M = Total station within the basin
Nx = Annual precipitation at missing station
NA,NB,NC … = Annual precipitation at adjacent stations
EXAMPLE 2.2

Rain gauge X was out of operation for a

month during which there was a storm.
The rainfall amounts at three adjacent
stations A, B, and C were 37, 42, dan 49
mm, respectively. The average annual
precipitation amounts for the gauges are
X = 694, A = 726, B = 752 and C = 760
mm. Using the arithmatic method,
estimate the amount of rainfall for gauge
X.
 SOLUTION
Checking for method
Given :-

 Check each station whether the annual precipitation is

differed by  10% from the missing station
10
10% of Nx =  694 =  69.4 𝑚𝑚
100
 SOLUTION
 The range of annual precipitation allowed at each station :-
Minimum range = 𝑁𝑥 − 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑥
= 694 – 69.4 = 624.6 mm
Maximum range = 𝑁𝑥 + 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑥
= 694 + 69.4 = 763.4 mm
 Value of annual precipitation at each station should be :-
to

Station Annual Allowable range Remark

precipitation
(mm) (mm)
A 726 Within range  OK!
(-10%) (+10%) All
B 752 624.6 to 763.4 Within range  OK! complied!!
C 760 Within range  OK!
 SOLUTION

Thus, use arithmetic mean method to find rainfall at gauge x :-

1 1
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑖 = 37 + 42 + 49 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟕 𝒎𝒎
𝑀 3
 MISSING DATA - POINT PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 2nd APPROACH
NORMAL RATIO METHOD

 Valid if NA or NB, or NC … > +10%Nx)

 Formula used for missing precipitation, Px (depth) :-

𝑵𝒙 𝑷𝒊
𝑷𝒙 =
𝑴 𝑵𝒊

Which :-
Pi = Precipitation depth at each station (A,B,C,..) within the
basin (mm)
M = Total station within the basin
Nx = Annual precipitation at missing station
Ni = Annual precipitation at adjacent stations (A,B,C,….)
EXAMPLE 2.3

The average annual precipitation amounts

for the gauges A, B, C and D are 1120,
935, 1200 and 978 mm. In year 1975,
station D was out of operation. Stations
A, B and C recorded rainfall amounts of
107, 89 and 122 mm, respectively.
Estimate the amount of precipitation for
station D in year 1975.
 SOLUTION

Given :- Checking for method

 Check each station whether the annual precipitation is

differed by  10% from the missing station
10
10% of Nx =  978 =  97.8 𝑚𝑚
100
 SOLUTION
 The range of annual precipitation allowed at each station :-
Minimum range = 𝑁𝑥 − 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑥
= 978 – 97.8 = 880.2 mm
Maximum range = 𝑁𝑥 + 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑥
= 978 + 97.8 = 1075.8 mm
 Value of annual precipitation at each station should be :-
to

Station Annual Allowable range Remark

precipitation (checking)
(mm) (mm)
A 1120 (-10%) (+10%)
> 1075.8 OK!
B 935 880.2 to 1075.8 Within range  X OK!
C 1200 > 1075.8 OK!

Thus, found that 2 stations exceed the maximum range

  USE NORMAL RATIO METHOD
 SOLUTION
Hence, precipitation at missing station D is :-

m Station Annual Precipitation 𝑷𝒊

precipitation (mm) 𝑵𝒊
(mm)
1 A 1120 107 0.0955
2 B 935 89 0.0952
3 C 1200 122 0.1017
=3  = 0.2924

𝑁𝑥 𝑃𝑖 978
𝑃𝑥 = = 0.2924 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝑀 𝑁𝑖 3
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH

QUADRANT METHOD
 Based on station weighting technique.
 PROCEDURES :-

1. ESTABLISH a set of AXES (or 4 quadrants) running through X.

y
I II

x
X
III IV
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH

QUADRANT METHOD

2. Determine the DISTANCE (Li2) of unknown station (X) to the nearest

surrounding points P, Q, R, S, T and U. ONLY ONE station is selected in
each quadrant. y

I II

x
X

III
IV
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH

QUADRANT METHOD

3. The DISTANCE, (Li2) & WEIGHTED AVERAGE, (Wi) are calculated

using the following equations :-

𝑳𝒊 𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐 + 𝒀𝟐
𝟏 𝑳𝒊 𝟐
𝑾𝒊 = 𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝟏 𝑳𝒊 𝟐
Where :-
X = Coordinate of x direction
Y = Coordinate of y direction
L = Distance from unknown station (Station X) to the other
station
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH

QUADRANT METHOD

4. Formula used for missing precipitation, Px (depth) :-

𝑷𝒙 = 𝑾𝒊 𝑷𝒊

Where :-

Pi = The nearest precipitation depth at each quadrant

within the basin (mm).
EXAMPLE 2.4

Stations A, B, C, D, E, F and G are the

gauge stations. Rain gauge at station A
was out of operation. Precipitation
amounts for other stations were 40, 45,
37.5, 50, 47.5 and 42.5 mm. Calculate
the rainfall depth at station A with
coordinates (0,0) using the quadrant
method.
SOLUTION

Given data Calculated values




Hence, precipitation at missing station A, PA = 41.32 mm

 GAUGE CONSISTENCY

 When the catch at rain gauges is inconsistent.

 Adjustment is necessary  provide consistent record.
 What method is employed ???  Use DOUBLE MASS
CURVE.
 DMC  technique to detect changes in data-collection
procedures / condition at location.
 Changes because :-
 Instrumentation
 Observation procedures
 Surrounding condition
.... Cont ‘ GAUGE CONSISTENCY

How
DOUBLE MASS
CURVE is constructed
.... Cont ‘ GAUGE CONSISTENCY

DOUBLE MASS CURVE

 Plot Accumulation of total precipitation over time at TEST

STATION VS Accumulation of total precipitation over time at
BASE SATIONS

Y3

Y2
X2 X3

Y1
X1
.... Cont ‘ GAUGE CONSISTENCY

DOUBLE MASS CURVE

 DMC  approximately a straight line if both test & base stations

consistent.
 However if not  will be break point (suggest possible change at test
station).
 So, if that the case  the early or later record needs to be adjusted.
 Procedures :-
1. Add the annual precipitation of base stations
2. Cummulate the sums of Step 1  (Value at x-axis).
3. Cummulate the annual precipitation for test station (changed
station)  (Value at y-axis)
4. Plot GRAPH value from STEP 3 VS. STEP 2.
5. Compute slope of ADJUSTED (Ma) & ORIGINAL (Mo)
.... Cont ‘ GAUGE CONSISTENCY

DOUBLE MASS CURVE

Formula to calculate Mo & Ma :-

Y3  Y2
Mo 
X3  X2 Note:-
Mo = Original Slope
Ma = Adjusted Slope
Y2  Y1
Ma 
X 2  X1

6. Calculate the adjusted precipitation at changed station (either

early or later using the following formula ;-
Note:-
 Ma  Po = Original precipitation
Pa  Po  
 Mo  (Station X)
Pa = Adjusted precipitation
(Station X)
EXAMPLE 2.5

Measured annual precipitation gauge for five

stations (A, B, C, D and E) from 1926 until
1942 are given below. After 5 years, gauge
A was relocated at a new location due to
changes in land use that make it impractical
to maintain the gauge at the old location.
You are required to adjust the record for
the period from 1926 to 1930 using the
records at gauges B, C, D and E .
 SOLUTION

Step !!

1. Based on the data given, ADD the annual

precipitation of base stations .
2. Cummulate the sums of Step 1  (Value at x-
axis).
3. Cummulate the annual precipitation for test
station (changed station)  (Value at y-axis)
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

Value at Y- axis Value at X- axis

 SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

4. Plot GRAPH value from STEP 3 VS. STEP 2

Mo

Ma
 SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

4. From Graph compute slope of ADJUSTED (Ma)

& ORIGINAL (Mo)

Y3  Y2 679  148
Mo  Mo   0.19
X3  X2 2785  774

Y2  Y1 148  33
Ma  Ma   0.26
X 2  X1 774  154
 SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

4. Calculate the adjusted precipitation at changed

station (5 years early)

 Ma 
Pa  Po  
 o
M

 0.26   0.26 
P1926  32.9    45.02 mm P1928  33.5    45.90 mm
 0.19   0 .19 

 0.26   0.26 
P1927  28.1   38.5 mm P1929  29.6   40.55 mm
 0.19   0.19 

 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

 Why???  for engineering application (represent precipitation

over a defined area).
 THREE method used to estimate MEAN AREAL precipitation :-

 Arithmatic Mean Method

 Thiessen Polygon Method

 Isohyetal Method
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 1st APPROACH
ARITHMATIC MEAN METHOD

 Only stations within the topographic basin

are considered.
 Formula used :-

 Pi
P
n
Which :-
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Precipitation depth at each station within the
basin (mm)
n = Total station within the basin
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 2nd APPROACH
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
 Advantage  quick if multiple storm (uses fixed
sub-areas)
 PROCEDURES :-
1. CONNECT each precipitation STATION with
STRAIGHT lines
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 2nd APPROACH
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

2. CONSTRUCT PERPENDICULAR bisectors of

the connecting lines and forming POLYGONS
with these bisectors.
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 2nd APPROACH
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

3. Determine the AREA of the POLYGON

4. Calculate AVERAGE PRECIPITATION using

this formula :

 AiPi
P
A
Which :-
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Precipitation depth at each station (mm)
Ai = Sub area at each station (Polygon area)
A = Total area
EXAMPLE 2.6

Using data given below, estimate the

average precipitation using Thiessen
method .
 SOLUTION

Step !!

1. Based the data given, compute AVERAGE

PRECIPITATION using Theissen formula :-

 AiPi
P
A

2. For easy calculation construct table :-

SOLUTION .... Cont ‘
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

3. Form the calculated table :-

 AiPi
P
A

69210
P  121.8 mm
568
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH
ISOHYETAL METHOD

 Based on interpolation between gauges.

 Resembles the calculation of contours in
surveying and mapping.
 PROCEDURES :-

1. PLOT the rain gauge LOCATIONS on map & record

RAINFALL AMOUNTS.
2. PERFORM INTERPOLATION between gauges 
Select suitable increments.
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH
ISOHYETAL METHOD

3. CONNECT identical depth from EACH interpolation

 ISOHYETS LINES.
 MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION
.... Cont ‘ 3rd APPROACH
ISOHYETAL METHOD

4. COMPUTE the MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

using the following formula :-.

 A i Pi
P
A
Which :-
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Average precipitation between 2 isohyets
lines (mm)
Ai = Sub area between 2 isohyets lines
A = Total area
EXAMPLE 2.7

Use the isohyetal method to determine

the average precipitation depth within the
basin for the storm .
 SOLUTION

Step !!

1. Based the data given, compute AVERAGE

PRECIPITATION using the following formula :-

 AiPi
P
A

2. For easy calculation construct table :-

SOLUTION .... Cont ‘
SOLUTION .... Cont ‘

3. Form the calculated table :-

 AiPi
P
A

16830
P  39.3 cm
428
TIME’S UP …

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