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FUNDAMENTALS OF
WELDING
1. Overview of Welding Technology
2. The Weld Joint
3. Physics of Welding
What is Welding?
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint
Butt Joint
Consists of two
overlapping parts
One part is
perpendicular to the
other in the
approximate shape
of the letter "T"
Figure
30.6 (a)
Spot weld
Typical Fusion Welded Joint
Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
• Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Advantages:
• Good arc stability
• Better penetration control than other AW
• High travel speeds
• Excellent weld quality
• Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Larger torch size than other AW
– Tends to restrict access in some joints
Resistance Welding (RW)
Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force &
current in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off,
(5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
Advantages:
• High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
• Limited heat affected zone, low thermal
distortion
• High welding speeds
• No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Precise joint preparation & alignment required
• Vacuum chamber required
• Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
• Forge welding
• Cold welding
• Roll welding
• Hot pressure welding
• Diffusion welding
• Explosion welding
• Friction welding
• Ultrasonic welding
Forge Welding
Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
• Cracks
• Cavities
• Solid inclusions
• Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
• Incomplete fusion
• Miscellaneous defects
Welding Cracks
Figure 31.33 Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in
which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill,
a depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal
surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the
joint onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.
Inspection and Testing Methods
• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation
• Destructive testing
Arc Welding Positions
Figure 32.2 (a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap
joint for brazing: (b) cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and
(d) use of sleeve to convert butt joint into lap joint.
Applying Filler Metal
Figure 32.8 Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means prior
to soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on PC
board; (b) plated through-hole on PC board to maximize solder
contact surface; (c) hooked wire on flat terminal; and (d) twisted
wires.
Soldering Methods
Figure 32.11 Some joint designs for adhesive bonding: (a) through
(d) butt joints; (e) through (f) T-joints; (b) and (g) through (j)
corner joints.
Adhesive Types
• - ,
Causes Lower arc current, faster arc travel speed presence of
oxides, rust, scale, and other impurities which do not permit the
deposited metal to fuse properly with the base metal.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Spatter- Small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during
welding and get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead
along its length.
• Causes- excessive current, longer arcs, damp electrodes, improper
coating on the electrode.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Under current – groove gets formed in the base metal along the
sides of the weld bead. Groove reduce the thickness of the plate
and thus the area along the bead.
• Causes- too large electrode diameter, longer arc, faster travel of arc,
rusty and scaly job surfaces.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Overlapping- It is reverse of under cutting. An overlap occurs when
the molten metal from the electrode flows over the parent metal
surface and remains there without getting properly fused and united
with the same.
• Cause- lower arc current, slower arc travel speed, longer arcs,
improper joint geometry.
Mechanical Assembly
Technology
1. Threaded Fasteners
2. Rivets and Eyelets
3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference
Fits
4. Other Mechanical Fastening Methods
5. Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners
6. Design for Assembly
Mechanical Assembly Defined
Use of various fastening methods to
mechanically attach two or more parts
together
• In most cases, discrete hardware
components, called fasteners, are added
to the parts during assembly
• In other cases, fastening involves shaping
or reshaping of a component, and no
separate fasteners are required
Products of Mechanical
Assembly
• Many consumer products are assembled
largely by mechanical fastening methods
– Examples: automobiles, large and small appliances,
telephones
• Many capital goods products are
assembled using mechanical fastening
methods
– Examples: commercial airplanes, trucks, railway
locomotives and cars, machine tools
Two Major Types of Mechanical
Assembly
1. Methods that allow for disassembly
– Example: threaded fasteners
2. Methods that create a permanent joint
– Example: rivets
Why Use Mechanical
Assembly?
• Ease of assembly – can be
accomplished with relatively ease
by unskilled workers
– Minimum of special tooling required
– In a relatively short time
• Ease of disassembly – at least for
the methods that permit
disassembly
– Some disassembly is required for most
products to perform maintenance and repair
Threaded Fasteners
Discrete hardware components that have
external or internal threads for assembly of
parts
• Most important category of mechanical
assembly
• In nearly all cases, threaded fasteners
permit disassembly
• Common threaded fastener types are
screws, bolts, and nuts
Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
Screw - externally threaded fastener
generally assembled into a blind threaded
hole
Bolt - externally threaded fastener inserted
into through holes and "screwed" into a
nut on the opposite side
Nut - internally threaded fastener having
standard threads that match those on bolts
of the same diameter, pitch, and thread
form
Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
Figure 33.1 Typical assemblies when screws and bolts are used.
Head Styles on Screws and Bolts
Figure 33.6 Screw thread inserts: (a) before insertion, and (b) after
insertion into hole and screw is turned into insert.
Washer
Hardware component often used with
threaded fasteners to ensure tightness of
the mechanical joint
• Simplest form = flat thin ring of sheet metal
• Functions:
– Distribute stresses
– Provide support for large clearance holes
– Protect part surfaces and seal the joint
– Increase spring tension
– Resist inadvertent unfastening
Washer Types
Figure 33.8 Types of washers: (a) plain (flat) washers; (b) spring
washers, used to dampen vibration or compensate for wear; and
(c) lock washer designed to resist loosening of the bolt or screw.
Basic Functions of Threaded
Fasteners
• To provide relative rotation between
external and internal threads during
fastening
• To apply sufficient torque to secure the
assembly
– Product designer often specifies required preload to
secure assembly
– Assembly operator must apply the right torque to
achieve the specified preload
Methods to Apply Required
Torque
1. Operator feel - not very accurate, but
adequate for most assemblies
2. Torque wrench – indicates amount of
torque during tightening
3. Stall-motor - motorized wrench is set to
stall when required torque is reached
4. Torque-turn tightening - fastener is initially
tightened to a low torque level and then
rotated a specified additional amount
Rivets
Unthreaded, headed pin used to
join two or more parts by passing
pin through holes in parts and
forming a second head in the pin
on the opposite side
• Widely used fasteners for
achieving a permanent
mechanically fastened joint
• Clearance hole into which rivet is
inserted must be close to the
Types of Rivets