CHAPTER 7:

FUNDAMENTALS OF
WELDING
1. Overview of Welding Technology
2. The Weld Joint
3. Physics of Welding
 What is Welding?

• Joining process in which two (or more) parts are

coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application of
heat and/or pressure
 Why Welding is Important

• Provides a permanent joint

– Welded components become a single entity
• Usually the most economical way to join parts in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs
• Not restricted to a factory environment
– Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
 Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding

• Most welding operations are performed manually and

are expensive in terms of labor cost
• Most welding processes utilize high energy and are
inherently dangerous
• Welded joints can have quality defects that are difficult to
detect
 Types of Welding Processes

• Some 50 different types of welding processes have been

catalogued by the American Welding Society (AWS)
• Welding processes can be divided into two major
categories:
– Fusion welding
– Solid state welding
 Fusion Welding

• Joining processes that melt the base metals

• In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added
to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide
bulk and added strength to the welded joint
• A fusion welding operation in which no filler metal is
added is called an autogenous weld
 Arc Welding

A manual arc welding

operation
 Solid State Welding

• Joining processes in which coalescence results from

application of pressure alone or a combination of heat
and pressure
• If heat is used, temperature is below melting point of
metals being welded
• No filler metal is added in solid state welding
 Principal Applications of Welding

• Construction - buildings and bridges

• Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks
• Shipbuilding
• Aircraft and aerospace
• Automotive
• Railroad
 Welder and Fitter

• Welder - manually controls path or placement of welding

gun
• Often assisted by second worker, called a fitter, who
arranges the parts prior to welding
– Welding fixtures and positioners are used to assist in
this function
 Special Hazards in Arc Welding

• Ultraviolet radiation emitted in arc welding is injurious to

human vision
– Welder must wear a special helmet with a dark
viewing window
• Filters out dangerous radiation but welder is blind
except when arc is struck
• Sparks, spatters of molten metal, smoke, and fumes add
to the risks
– Ventilation needed to exhaust dangerous fumes from
fluxes and molten metals
 The Weld Joint

• The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have

been joined by welding
• Two issues about weld joints:
– Types of joints
– Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the
joints
 Five Types of Joints

1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint
 Butt Joint

Parts lie in same plane and are joined at their

edges

Figure 30.2 Five basic

types of joints: (a) butt
 Corner Joint

Parts in a corner joint

form a right angle
and are joined at
the corner of the
angle

Figure 30.2 (b) corner

 Lap Joint

Consists of two
overlapping parts

Figure 30.2 (c) lap

 Tee Joint

One part is
perpendicular to the
other in the
approximate shape
of the letter "T"

Figure 30.2 (d) tee

 Edge Joint

Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is
made at the
common edge(s)

Figure 30.2 (e) edge

 Types of Welds

• Each of the preceding joints can be made by welding

• Other joining processes can also be used for some of
the joint types
• There is a difference between joint type and the way it is
welded - the weld type
 Fillet Weld

• Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap,

and tee joints
• Filler metal used to provide cross section in approximate
shape of a right triangle
• Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding
• Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds

Figure 30.3 Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single

fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c)
double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint.
Dashed lines show the original part edges.
 Groove Welds

• Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove

to facilitate weld penetration
• Edge preparation increases cost of parts fabrication
• Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in
single or double sides
• Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds

Figure 30.4 Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld,

one side; (b) single bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove
weld; (d) single U-groove weld; (e) single J-groove weld;
(f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections. Dashed lines
show original part edges.
 Spot Weld

Fused section between surfaces of two plates

• Used for lap joints
• Closely associated with resistance welding

Figure
30.6 (a)
Spot weld
 Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure 30.8 Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint:

(a) principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain
structure.
 Features of Fusion Welded Joint

Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has been

added consists of:
• Fusion zone
• Weld interface
• Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Unaffected base metal zone
 Heat Affected Zone

• Metal has experienced temperatures below melting

point, but high enough to cause microstructural changes
in the solid metal
• Chemical composition same as base metal, but this
region has been heat treated so that its properties and
structure have been altered
– Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually
negative, and it is here that welding failures often
occur
END OF PART 1
 WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
 Arc Welding (AW)

• A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
• Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
• Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume
and strength of weld joint
 Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

 Arc Shielding

• At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
– Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously
degraded by these reactions
– To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
• Arc shielding is accomplished by:
– Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
– Flux
 Consumable Electrode AW Processes

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding

• Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding
• Electrogas Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 31.3 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

• Uses a consumable bare metal wire as

electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun
• Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium for aluminum welding, and
active gases such as CO2 for steel welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag
Gas Metal Arc Welding

31.4 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

• Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire

electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc
by gravity from a hopper
– Completely submerges operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding

Figure 31.8 Submerged arc welding.

 SAW Applications and Products

• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels (except hi C steel)
• Not good for nonferrous metals
 Non-consumable Electrode Processes

• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

• Plasma Arc Welding
• Carbon Arc Welding
• Stud Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode

and an inert gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
• A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
– In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
– When filler metal used, it is added to
weld pool from separate rod or wire
• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Figure 31.9 Gas tungsten arc welding.

 Advantages / Disadvantages of GTAW

Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
• Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

• Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc

is directed at weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses
a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region
to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
• Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due
to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet of small
diameter and very high energy density
Plasma Arc Welding

Figure 31.10 Plasma arc welding (PAW).

Advantages / Disadvantages of PAW

Advantages:
• Good arc stability
• Better penetration control than other AW
• High travel speeds
• Excellent weld quality
• Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Larger torch size than other AW
– Tends to restrict access in some joints
 Resistance Welding (RW)

• A group of fusion welding processes that use a

combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at
junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.
 Spot Welding Cycle

Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force &
current in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off,
(5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

• Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap
joint
• Can produce air-tight joints
• Applications:
– Gasoline tanks
– Automobile mufflers
– Various other sheet metal containers
Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

 Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

• A resistance welding process in which coalescence

occurs at one or more small contact points on parts
• Contact points determined by design of parts to be
joined
– May consist of projections, embossments, or localized
intersections of parts
 Resistance Projection Welding

Figure 31.17 Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) start of operation,

contact between parts is at projections; (2) when current is applied,
weld nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the projections.
 Cross-Wire Welding

Figure 31.18 (b) cross-wire welding.

 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

• Group of fusion welding operations that burn various

fuels mixed with oxygen
• OFW employs several types of gases, which is the
primary distinction among the members of this group
• Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut
and separate metal plates and other parts
• Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

• Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame

from combustion of acetylene and oxygen
• Flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal is sometimes added
– Composition must be similar to base metal
– Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and
prevent oxidation
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

 Oxyacetylene Torch

• Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner

cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
 Other Fusion Welding Processes

• FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,

resistance, or oxyfuel welding
• Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
• Applications are typically unique
• Processes include:
– Electron beam welding
– Laser beam welding
– Electroslag welding
– Thermit welding
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

• Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is

provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity stream of
electrons striking work surface
• Electron beam gun operates at:
– High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to accelerate
electrons
– Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)
• Power in EBW not exceptional, but power density is
 EBW Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
• High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
• Limited heat affected zone, low thermal
distortion
• High welding speeds
• No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Precise joint preparation & alignment required
• Vacuum chamber required
• Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

• Fusion welding process in which coalescence is

achieved by energy of a highly concentrated, coherent
light beam focused on joint
• Laser = "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation"
• LBW normally performed with shielding gases to prevent
oxidation
• Filler metal not usually added
• High power density in small area, so LBW often used for
small parts
 Comparison: LBW vs. EBW

• No vacuum chamber required for LBW

• No x-rays emitted in LBW
• Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical
lenses and mirrors
• LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
– Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas
EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)
 Thermit Welding (TW)

• FW process in which heat for coalescence is produced

by superheated molten metal from the chemical reaction
of thermite
• Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders that
produce an exothermic reaction when ignited
• Also used for incendiary bombs
• Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
• Process used for joining, but has more in common with
casting than welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure 31.25 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible

tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to
produce weld joint.
 TW Applications

• Joining of railroad rails

• Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
• Weld surface is often smooth enough that no finishing is
required
 Solid State Welding (SSW)

• Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

– Pressure alone, or
– Heat and pressure
• If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not
enough to melt work surfaces
– For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
• No filler metal is added
• Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond
at the faying surfaces
 Solid State Welding Processes

• Forge welding
• Cold welding
• Roll welding
• Hot pressure welding
• Diffusion welding
• Explosion welding
• Friction welding
• Ultrasonic welding
 Forge Welding

• Welding process in which components to be joined are

heated to hot working temperature range and then
forged together by hammering or similar means
• Historic significance in development of manufacturing
technology
– Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of metal
• Of minor commercial importance today except for its
variants
 Cold Welding (CW)

• SSW process done by applying high pressure between

clean contacting surfaces at room temperature
• Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire brushing
immediately before joining
• No heat is applied, but deformation raises work
temperature
• At least one of the metals, preferably both, must be very
ductile
– Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW
• Applications: making electrical connections
 Roll Welding (ROW)

• SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause

coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with or
without external heat
• Variation of either forge welding or cold welding,
depending on whether heating of workparts is done prior
to process
– If no external heat, called cold roll welding
– If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
 Roll Welding

Figure 31.26 Roll welding (ROW).

 Roll Welding Applications

• Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy steel for

corrosion resistance
• Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
• "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)

• SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in a

controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for diffusion
and coalescence to occur
• Temperatures  0.5 Tm
• Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
• Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state diffusion
• Limitation: time required for diffusion can range from
seconds to hours
 Explosion Welding (EXW)

• SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two metallic

surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated
explosive
• No filler metal used
• No external heat applied
• No diffusion occurs - time is too short
• Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical
interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy interface
between the metals
 Explosive Welding

• Commonly used to bond two dissimilar

metals, in particular to clad one metal on top
of a base metal over large areas

Figure 31.27 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel

configuration, and (2) during detonation of the explosive charge.
 Friction Welding (FRW)

• SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by

frictional heat combined with pressure
• When properly carried out, no melting occurs at faying
surfaces
• No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
• Process yields a narrow HAZ
• Can be used to join dissimilar metals
• Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
 Friction Welding

Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

• Two components are held together, oscillatory shear

stresses of ultrasonic frequency are applied to interface
to cause coalescence
• Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to
allow intimate contact and strong metallurgical bonding
between surfaces
• Although heating of surfaces occurs, temperatures are
well below Tm
• No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
• Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as
aluminum and copper
 Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for

a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.
 USW Applications

• Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry
– Eliminates need for soldering
• Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
• Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
• Assembly of small parts in automotive industry
 Welding Defects

• Cracks
• Cavities
• Solid inclusions
• Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
• Incomplete fusion
• Miscellaneous defects
 Welding Cracks

• Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base

metal adjacent to weld
• Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal
that significantly reduces strength
• Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or
base metal combined with high restraint during
contraction
• In general, this defect must be repaired
 Welding Cracks

Figure 31.31 Various forms of welding cracks.

 Cavities

• Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases
entrapped during solidification
– Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in
weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during
solidification
 Solid Inclusions

• Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in weld

metal
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated during
AW processes that use flux
– Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag
become encased during solidification
• Metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals
such as aluminum, which normally has a surface coating
of Al2O3
 Incomplete Fusion

• Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a

weld bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint

Figure 31.32 Several forms of incomplete fusion.

 Weld Defects in AW

Figure 31.33 Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in
which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill,
a depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal
surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the
joint onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.
 Inspection and Testing Methods

• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation
• Destructive testing
 Arc Welding Positions

 Flat welding is best position

 Overhead welding is most difficult

Figure 31.35 Welding positions (defined here for groove

welds): (a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead.
END OF PART 2
BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND
ADHESIVE BONDING
 Brazing

• Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and

distributed by capillary action between faying surfaces of
metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals occurs
 Brazing Compared to Welding

• Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals

• Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting
high production rates
• Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
• Less heat and power required than FW
• Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed; capillary action draws molten
filler metal into joint
 Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing

• Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

• Joint strength is likely to be less than the base metals
• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint
• Color of brazing metal may not match color of base
metal parts, a possible aesthetic disadvantage
 Brazing Applications

• Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)

• Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables)
• Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to
shanks)
• Jewelry
• Chemical process industry
• Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and
tubes by brazing
• Repair and maintenance work
 Brazed Joints

• Butt and lap joints common

– Geometry of butt joints is usually adapted for brazing
– Lap joints are more widely used, since they provide
larger interface area between parts
• Filler metal in a brazed lap joint is bonded to base parts
throughout entire interface area, rather than only at
edges
 Butt Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.1 (a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of

the butt joint for brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt
joint, (d) increased cross-section of the part at the joint.
 Lap Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.2 (a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap
joint for brazing: (b) cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and
(d) use of sleeve to convert butt joint into lap joint.
 Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(a) torch and filler rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.
 Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(b) ring of filler metal at entrance of gap. Sequence: (1) before,
and (2) after.
 Brazing Fluxes

• Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine

with, and otherwise inhibit formation of oxides and other
unwanted byproducts in brazing process
• Characteristics of a good flux include:
– Low melting temperature
– Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler metal
– Facilitates wetting
– Protects joint until solidification of filler metal
 Soldering

• Joining process in which a filler metal with

Tm less than or equal to 450C (840F) is
melted and distributed by capillary action
between faying surfaces of metal parts being
joined
• No melting of base metals, but filler metal
wets and combines with base metal to form
metallurgical bond
• Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the
same heating methods are used
• Filler metal called solder
• Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)
 Soldering Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
• Variety of heating methods available
• Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
• Easy repair and rework
Disadvantages:
• Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanically
means
• Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated
temperature service
 Solders
• Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both
metals have low Tm
• Lead is poisonous and its percentage is
minimized in most solders
• Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes wetting action
for successful joining
• In soldering copper, copper and tin form
intermetallic compounds that strengthen
bond
• Silver and antimony also used in soldering
alloys
 Mechanical Means to Secure Joint

Figure 32.8 Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means prior
to soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on PC
board; (b) plated through-hole on PC board to maximize solder
contact surface; (c) hooked wire on flat terminal; and (d) twisted
wires.
 Soldering Methods

• Many soldering methods same as for brazing, except

less heat and lower temperatures are required
• Additional methods:
– Hand soldering – manually operated soldering gun
– Wave soldering – soldering of multiple lead wires in
printed circuit cards
– Reflow soldering –used for surface mount
components on printed circuit cards
 Wave Soldering

Figure 32.9 Wave soldering, in which molten solder is delivered up

through a narrow slot onto the underside of a printed circuit board to
connect the component lead wires.
 Terminology in Adhesive Bonding

• Adhesive = filler material, nonmetallic, usually a polymer

• Adherends = parts being joined
• Structural adhesives – of greatest interest in engineering,
capable of forming strong, permanent joints between
strong, rigid adherends
 Curing in Adhesive Bonding

• Process by which physical properties of the adhesive are

changed from liquid to solid, usually by chemical
reaction, to accomplish surface attachment of parts
• Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
– If heat used, temperatures are relatively low
• Curing takes time - a disadvantage in production
• Pressure sometimes applied between parts to activate
bonding process
 Joint Strength

• Depends on strength of:

– Adhesive
– Attachment between adhesive and
adherends
• Attachment mechanisms:
– Chemical bonding – adhesive and
adherend form primary bond on curing
– Physical interactions - secondary
bonding forces between surface atoms
– Mechanical interlocking - roughness of
adherend causes adhesive to become
entangled in surface asperities
 Joint Design

• Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded, brazed, or

soldered joints
• Joint contact area should be maximized
• Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and tension
– Joints should be designed so applied stresses are of
these types
• Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in cleavage or
peeling
– Joints should be designed to avoid these types of
stresses
 Types of Stresses in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.10 Types of stresses that must be

considered in adhesive bonded joints: (a) tension,
(b) shear, (c) cleavage, and (d) peeling.
 Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.11 Some joint designs for adhesive bonding: (a) through
(d) butt joints; (e) through (f) T-joints; (b) and (g) through (j)
corner joints.
 Adhesive Types

• Natural adhesives - derived from natural sources,

including gums, starch, dextrin, soya flour, collagen
– Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons, furniture,
bookbinding, plywood
• Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate and
magnesium oxychloride
– Low cost, low strength
• Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers
 Synthetic Adhesives

• Most important category in manufacturing

• Synthetic adhesives cured by various
mechanisms:
– Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with
polymer prior to applying
– Heating to initiate chemical reaction
– Radiation curing, such as UV light
– Curing by evaporation of water
– Application as films or pressure-sensitive
coatings on surface of adherend
 Applications of Adhesives

• Automotive, aircraft, building products, shipbuilding

• Packaging industries
• Footwear
• Furniture
• Bookbinding
• Electrical and electronics
Adhesive is dispensed
by a manually
controlled dispenser to
bond parts during
assembly (photo
courtesy of EFD Inc.).
 Limitations of Adhesive Bonding

• Joints generally not as strong as other joining methods

• Adhesive must be compatible with materials being joined
• Service temperatures are limited
• Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to application
of adhesive are important
• Curing times can limit production rates
• Inspection of bonded joint is difficult
 DEFECTS IN WELDING
• Crack –due to poor weldability, fast and travel speed of
electrode,
• Distorosion –due to more number of passes, slow arc travel, type
of joint, improper welding sequence, high residual stresses in the
metal,
• Incomplete penetration-Improper joints, less arc current, angle of
holding the electrode- normally 7-80 degree recommended.
• Inclusions – long arcs, large electro diameter, under cutting,
insufficient chipping.
• Porosity- improper electrode, faster arc travel, too low or too high
arc current, presence of scale, dust, oil, grease etc.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Crack- may be in the form of microscopic scale or macroscopic
scale depending upon their size. Cracks may appear in the base
metal, base metal–weld boundary or in the weld metal. Cracks may
be on the weld surface or under the weld bead. Cracks may appear
in the crater or in the root.

• Causes- rigidity of the joint, poor ductility of the base metal,

presence of carbon, sulphur and hardenability, concave weld bead,
fast travel arc speed, electrode with high H2 content.
 DEFECTS IN WELDING
• Distortion – Base metals gets pre-heated and the base metal portion
already welded starts cooling. There is a good amount of
temperature difference at various points along the joint and thus at
any instant certain areas of base metal expand and other including
weld bead contracts.
• Causes- more number of passes with small diameter electrodes,
slow arc travel speed, types of joint. High residual stresses, welding
sequence improper.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Incomplete penetration – Penetration is the distance
from base plate top surface to the maximum extent of the weld
nugget.
• Causes- Improper joints, too small bevel angle, faster arc travel, too
larger electrode diameter, larger arc length, wrongly held electrode.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Inclusions- Inclusions may be in the form slag or any other
foreign material, which does not get a chance to float on the surface
of the solidifying weld metal and gets entrapped inside. Inclusions
lower the strength of the joint and make it weaker.
• Causes- Too high or too low arc current, long arcs, too large
electrode diameter, insufficient chipping and cleaning of previous
passes in multi-pass welding, under cutting, wrongly placed tack
welds, too small included angle.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Porosity and blow holes or gas pockets- Porosity is a group of small
voids, where as blow hole or gas pockets is a comparatively bigger
isolated hole or cavity. They occur mainly due to entrapped gases.
• Causes-Longer arcs, improper electrodes, faster arc travels, too low
and too high arc current, incorrect welding technique, electrode with
damp and damaged coating, scale , rust oil grease, etc if present on
the job surface, improper base metals.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Poor fusion- Base metal may be deposited by the electrodes
does not fuse properly with the cold base metal and the two do not
unite properly and completely.

• - ,
Causes Lower arc current, faster arc travel speed presence of
oxides, rust, scale, and other impurities which do not permit the
deposited metal to fuse properly with the base metal.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Spatter- Small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during
welding and get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead
along its length.
• Causes- excessive current, longer arcs, damp electrodes, improper
coating on the electrode.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Under current – groove gets formed in the base metal along the
sides of the weld bead. Groove reduce the thickness of the plate
and thus the area along the bead.
• Causes- too large electrode diameter, longer arc, faster travel of arc,
rusty and scaly job surfaces.
 DEFECTS IN WEDLING
• Overlapping- It is reverse of under cutting. An overlap occurs when
the molten metal from the electrode flows over the parent metal
surface and remains there without getting properly fused and united
with the same.
• Cause- lower arc current, slower arc travel speed, longer arcs,
improper joint geometry.
 Mechanical Assembly
Technology
1. Threaded Fasteners
2. Rivets and Eyelets
3. Assembly Methods Based on Interference
Fits
4. Other Mechanical Fastening Methods
5. Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners
6. Design for Assembly
 Mechanical Assembly Defined
Use of various fastening methods to
mechanically attach two or more parts
together
• In most cases, discrete hardware
components, called fasteners, are added
to the parts during assembly
• In other cases, fastening involves shaping
or reshaping of a component, and no
separate fasteners are required
 Products of Mechanical
Assembly
• Many consumer products are assembled
largely by mechanical fastening methods
– Examples: automobiles, large and small appliances,
telephones
• Many capital goods products are
assembled using mechanical fastening
methods
– Examples: commercial airplanes, trucks, railway
locomotives and cars, machine tools
 Two Major Types of Mechanical
Assembly
1. Methods that allow for disassembly
– Example: threaded fasteners
2. Methods that create a permanent joint
– Example: rivets
Why Use Mechanical
Assembly?
• Ease of assembly – can be
accomplished with relatively ease
by unskilled workers
– Minimum of special tooling required
– In a relatively short time
• Ease of disassembly – at least for
the methods that permit
disassembly
– Some disassembly is required for most
products to perform maintenance and repair
 Threaded Fasteners
Discrete hardware components that have
external or internal threads for assembly of
parts
• Most important category of mechanical
assembly
• In nearly all cases, threaded fasteners
permit disassembly
• Common threaded fastener types are
screws, bolts, and nuts
 Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
Screw - externally threaded fastener
generally assembled into a blind threaded
hole
Bolt - externally threaded fastener inserted
into through holes and "screwed" into a
nut on the opposite side
Nut - internally threaded fastener having
standard threads that match those on bolts
of the same diameter, pitch, and thread
form
 Screws, Bolts, and Nuts

Figure 33.1 Typical assemblies when screws and bolts are used.
 Head Styles on Screws and Bolts

Figure 33.2 Various head styles available on screws and bolts.

 Setscrews

Hardened and designed for

assembly functions such as
fastening collars, gears, and
pulleys to shafts

Figure 33.3 (a) Assembly of collar to shaft using a setscrew;

(b) various setscrew geometries (head types and points).
 Self-Tapping Screws

• Designed to form or cut threads

in a pre-existing hole into which it
is being turned
• Also called a tapping screw
Figure 33.4 Self-tapping
screws: thread-forming,
and thread-cutting.
 Screw Thread Inserts
Internally threaded plugs or wire coils
designed to be inserted into an
unthreaded hole and accept an externally
threaded fastener
• Assembled into weaker materials to
provide strong threads
• Upon assembly of screw into insert, insert
barrel expands into hole to secure the
assembly
 Screw Thread Inserts

Figure 33.6 Screw thread inserts: (a) before insertion, and (b) after
insertion into hole and screw is turned into insert.
 Washer
Hardware component often used with
threaded fasteners to ensure tightness of
the mechanical joint
• Simplest form = flat thin ring of sheet metal
• Functions:
– Distribute stresses
– Provide support for large clearance holes
– Protect part surfaces and seal the joint
– Increase spring tension
– Resist inadvertent unfastening
 Washer Types

Figure 33.8 Types of washers: (a) plain (flat) washers; (b) spring
washers, used to dampen vibration or compensate for wear; and
(c) lock washer designed to resist loosening of the bolt or screw.
 Basic Functions of Threaded
Fasteners
• To provide relative rotation between
external and internal threads during
fastening
• To apply sufficient torque to secure the
assembly
– Product designer often specifies required preload to
secure assembly
– Assembly operator must apply the right torque to
achieve the specified preload
 Methods to Apply Required
Torque
1. Operator feel - not very accurate, but
adequate for most assemblies
2. Torque wrench – indicates amount of
torque during tightening
3. Stall-motor - motorized wrench is set to
stall when required torque is reached
4. Torque-turn tightening - fastener is initially
tightened to a low torque level and then
rotated a specified additional amount
 Rivets
Unthreaded, headed pin used to
join two or more parts by passing
pin through holes in parts and
forming a second head in the pin
on the opposite side
• Widely used fasteners for
achieving a permanent
mechanically fastened joint
• Clearance hole into which rivet is
inserted must be close to the
 Types of Rivets

Figure 33.10 Five basic rivet types, also shown in assembled

configuration: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) semi-tubular, (d) bifurcated,
and (e) compression.
 Interference Fits
Assembly methods based on mechanical
interference between two mating parts
being joined
• The interference, either during assembly
or after joining, holds the parts together
• Interference fit methods include:
– Press fitting
– Shrink and expansion fits
– Snap fits
– Retaining rings
 Press Fitting
• Typical case is where a pin (e.g., a straight
cylindrical pin) of a certain diameter is
pressed into a hole of a slightly smaller
diameter
• Possible functions:
– Locating and locking components - to augment
threaded fasteners by holding parts in fixed alignment
with each other
– Pivot points - to permit rotation of one component
about the other
– Shear pins
 Snap Fits
Joining of two parts in which mating
elements possess a temporary
interference during assembly, but
once assembled they interlock
– During assembly, one or both parts
elastically deform to accommodate
temporary interference
– Usually designed for slight interference
after assembly
• Originally conceived as a method
ideally suited for industrial robots
– Eureka! – it’s easier for humans too
 Snap Fit Assembly

Figure 33.13 Snap fit assembly, showing cross-sections of two

mating parts: (1) before assembly, and (2) parts snapped together.
 Retaining Ring
Fastener that snaps into a circumferential
groove on a shaft or tube to form a
shoulder
• Used to locate or restrict movement of
parts on a shaft
Stitching

U-shaped stitches are formed

one-at-a-time from steel wire and
immediately driven through parts
to be joined Applications:
sheetmetal assembly, metal
hinges, magazine binding,
corrugated boxes
Figure 33.15 Common types of wire stitches: (a) unclinched,
(b) standard loop, (c) bypass loop, and (d) flat clinch.
 Stapling
Preformed U-shaped staples are punched
through the two parts to be attached
• Supplied in convenient strips
• Usually applied by portable pneumatic
guns
• Applications: furniture and upholstery, car
seats, various light-gage sheetmetal and
plastic assembly jobs
 Molding Inserts and Integral
Fasteners
Permanent joining methods that involve
shaping or reshaping one of the
components by a manufacturing process
such as:
– Casting
– Molding
– Sheet-metal forming
 Molding Inserts

Placement of a component into mold

prior to plastic molding or metal
casting, so that it becomes a
permanent and integral part of the
molding or casting

Figure 33.17 Examples of molded-in inserts: (a) threaded

bushing, and (b) threaded stud.
 Integral Fasteners
Components are deformed so they interlock
as a mechanically fastened joint
• Methods include:
– Lanced tabs
– Seaming
– Beading
 Lanced Tabs
To attach wires or shafts to sheetmetal
parts

Figure 33.18 (a) lanced

tabs to attach wires or
shafts to sheet metal.
Seaming

Edges of two separate sheetmetal

parts or the opposite edges of the
same part are bent over to form
the fastening seam

Figure 33.18 (c) single-lock seaming.