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冖
to a battery of voltage V at one end and a resistor R at the
other 共see Fig. 5兲. The momentum carried by the fields is d⌽
E · d艎 = − 共7兲
2
dt
lV
pem = x̂. 共5兲 共which, by Lenz’s law, runs counterclockwise in Fig. 7兲. The
c 2R
x component of the force on the strip shown is dFx
It seems strange 共to say the least!兲 for purely static fields = Exwdx, where is the surface charge density, and the net
to carry momentum. Can this possibly be the whole story? force on the capacitor is Fx = w养E · d艎, where the integral is
And what happens to the momentum when we turn off the taken clockwise around the dotted loop, and we have ignored
fields? In Sec. II we explore the latter question in what the two short ends. The magnetic flux through this loop
826 Am. J. Phys. 77 共9兲, September 2009 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2009 American Association of Physics Teachers 826
E
pem
Fx = w 冉冕 top
E · d艎 − 冕
bottom
E · d艎 冊 共11a兲
B = w 冋1 dB d 1 dB
l−
2 dt 2 2 dt
d 1
冉 冊册
dB
− l = wld ,
2 2 dt
共11b兲
Fig. 1. An electromagnetic wave carries momentum in the direction of which is half of what we obtained before. The two ends are
propagation; when it hits an absorber, this momentum is transferred in the shorter 共兰dy = d兲, but they are farther out 共x = l / 2兲, and their
form of the pressure of light.
contribution to 养E · d艎 is the same as the top and bottom; but
they do not contribute to the force because there is no charge
there. Apparently, the impulse delivered to the capacitor
共counting inward as positive, for consistency兲 is ⌽ = −Bld, so when B is turned off is not the same as the momentum origi-
Fx = wld共dB / dt兲, and the impulse delivered to the capacitor nally stored in the fields.
is But that is not all. Our naive expression for the momentum
冕冉 冊
in the fields in Eq. 共2兲 ignored the fringing field of the ca-
I= 冕 Fdt = wld
dB
dt
dtx̂ pacitor, and when this field is correctly included,3 the answer
is half as great 共see Table II兲. Now lines 1 and 3 are consis-
827 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 827
y Table II. Capacitor in a magnetic field—corrected.
1
Momentum initially stored in fields − 2 BQdx̂
pem Momentum delivered to capacitor as it discharges −BQdx̂
m 1
Momentum delivered to capacitor as B decreases − 2 BQdx̂
a x
q
z
1
Fig. 3. There is electromagnetic momentum in the fields of a point charge phid = 共m ⫻ E兲, 共16兲
near a magnetic dipole even though both are stationary. c2
where m is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop 共兩m兩
= Ilw兲. If we integrate ℘em = ⑀0共E ⫻ B兲 for a magnetic dipole
qNt qNb in an electric field,17 we obtain18
I= vt = vb , 共12a兲
l l 1
pem = − 共m ⫻ E兲. 共17兲
c2
so
The hidden momentum exactly cancels the field momentum,
Il as the center of energy theorem requires.
N tv t = N bv b = , 共12b兲
q It is easy to generalize this result. In terms of the electric
potential V, 共␥t − ␥b兲mc2 = −q共Vt − Vb兲, and hence19
where q is the charge of each particle and l is the length of
the rectangle. Nonrelativistically, the momentum of a single mIl q
phid = − 共Vt − Vb兲x̂
particle is p = mv, where m is its mass, so the total momen- q mc2
tum 共to the right兲 is
Il Il
pclass = mNtvt − mNbvb = m − m = 0, 共13兲
=−
c
I
c
I
2 共Vt − Vb兲lx̂ = − 2 冖 Vd艎, 共18兲
q q
where the integral is around the loop in the direction of the
as we would expect 共after all, the loop as a whole does not current 共the ends cancel兲. For surface or volume currents, we
move兲. But relativistically the momentum of a particle is p have
= ␥mv, and we get
q and
which is not zero because the particles in the upper segment
move faster.
As a particle goes up the left side, it gains energy equal to
phid = −
1
c2
冕 VJd . 共19b兲
the work done by the electric force, This model of electric current is artificial, and one might
prefer to treat it as an incompressible fluid.20 In that case,
␥tmc − ␥bmc = qEw,
2 2
共15a兲
assuming that the wire has a constant cross section, the speed
so and spacing of the charges are the same all the way around
the loop, but those in the top segment are under higher pres-
IlEw sure. Now, a moving fluid under high pressure carries greater
prel = , 共15b兲 momentum than the same fluid under low pressure. The
c2
quickest way to see this is by examining the stress-energy
and hence tensor for a simple fluid,21
T = 0v v + P 冉 v v
c2
− g , 冊 共20兲
I
E + + I
_
+ +
x
V _ _ _ _ _ R
Fig. 5. A coaxial cable, with current flowing from a battery at one end
Fig. 4. A sphere with uniform polarization P and uniform magnetization M through a resistor at the other and returning, carries electromagnetic momen-
carries electromagnetic momentum proportional to M ⫻ P. tum in the direction of the high-voltage current.
828 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 828
y
+
I F y
d φ
B _ x
x
E r
z B
z
Fig. 6. A fine wire between the plates allows current I to flow, discharging
the capacitor. The magnetic force on the current delivers an impulse to the
capacitor.
Fig. 8. In this model the magnetic field is produced by a long solenoid, and
the induced electric field can be calculated explicitly 关Eq. 共9兲兴.
冉
T0i = ␥2 0c +
P i
c
冊
v = 㜷ic. 共21兲
phid =
c 2 EAw =
c2
,
℘fluid = ␥2 0 +冉 P
c2
冊
v. 共22兲 IV. ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT THE CENTER
OF A SPINNING, UNIFORMLY CHARGED
The first term represents the ordinary flow of mass; the sec- SPHERICAL SHELL
ond is the “extra” momentum associated with pressure.22 The What about a capacitor in the magnetic field of a solenoid?
latter accounts for the hidden momentum, In this case the hidden momentum is located in the solenoid
␥2 共that is where the moving charges are兲, and the electric field
phid = 共㜷t − 㜷b兲lA = 共Pt − Pb兲vlA, 共23兲 responsible for the variation in ␥ must be the exterior 共fring-
c2
ing兲 field of the capacitor.24 The fringing field is notoriously
where A is the cross-sectional area of the wire. difficult to calculate, and the results are independent of the
The difference in pressure between the top and bottom geometry, so we begin with a simpler model, replacing the
segments is due to the 共electric兲 force on the charges in 共say兲 capacitor by an electric dipole with dipole moment p = pŷ,25
the left segment of the loop. In relativity, the force per unit and the solenoid by a spherical shell of radius R which car-
volume acting on a fluid is given by23 ries a uniform surface charge and spins at a constant an-
gular velocity = ẑ 共see Fig. 10兲.26 This configuration pro-
f = T . 共24兲 duces a uniform magnetic field,
x
B = 32 0R 共28兲
If x is the vertical direction, then from Eq. 共20兲
1
冉 冊
for points inside the sphere, and a dipole field
dP ␥2v2
1
f = 1 +1 共25a兲 0 1 4 4
dx c2 B= 关3共m · r̂兲r̂ − m兴, where m = R 共29兲
4 r3 3
or
for points outside. The field of the electric dipole is
f = ␥2 ⵜ P. 共25b兲
1 1 1
Equation 共25b兲 is the 共relativistic兲 relation between the force E= 3 关3共p · r̂兲r̂ − p兴 − p␦3共r兲. 共30兲
density and the pressure gradient. In our case the force per 4⑀0 r 3⑀0
unit volume is E, so ␥2 ⵜ P = E, or integrating over the
volume of the left segment,
vt
␥2共Pt − Pb兲A = EAw. 共26兲
Putting Eq. 共26兲 into Eq. 共23兲 and using I = Av, we get I
w I E I
y
l I
w
dx +σ
vb
d _σ
B x l
z Fig. 9. The simplest model for hidden momentum: a steady current I con-
sisting of noninteracting charges constrained to move around a rectangular
Fig. 7. If the magnetic field is gradually reduced, an electric field is induced, tube. In the presence of an external electric field E, the charges accelerate up
in the counterclockwise direction, imparting an impulse to the capacitor. the left segment and decelerate down the right segment.
829 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 829
y
phid = −
1
c2
冕 VKda
σ =−
1
c2
冕冉 p · r̂
冊
4 ⑀ 0r 2
关共 ⫻ r兲兴da 共35a兲
p
B
x
=− ⑀00
p
4⑀0
R 冕 sin sin 关sin cos ŷ
z − sin sin x̂兴sin dd 共35b兲
冉 冊
Fig. 10. A uniformly charged spherical shell spins at constant angular ve-
locity, producing a uniform magnetic field at interior points; an electric 0 4 1
dipole is located at the center. = pR x̂ = 共p ⫻ B兲. 共35c兲
4 3 2
So far, so good: the momentum, pem + phid, is zero.
To calculate the electromagnetic momentum, we integrate Now let’s connect a wire between the ends of the electric
⑀0共E ⫻ B兲 over the interior and exterior of the sphere,27
再冕 冋
dipole, allowing it to discharge. The impulse delivered to the
1 1 dipole is
pin = ⑀0 关3共p · r̂兲r̂ − p兴
4⑀0 r3
冕 冕
册冎
Idip = Fdt = I共d ⫻ B兲dt
1
冉冕 冊
− p␦3共r兲 d ⫻ B 共31a兲
3⑀0 0
= dq d ⫻ B = − 共p ⫻ B兲, 共36兲
1 q
=− 共p ⫻ B兲. 共31b兲
3 where d is the separation of the charges, and p = qd. At the
This part comes exclusively from the delta function because same time, the changing electric field of the dipole induces a
the angular integral of the first term 共using spherical coordi- magnetic field, which exerts a force on the spinning sphere.
To calculate the induced magnetic field, we orient the polar
nates and p = pŷ兲,
axis along p 共see Fig. 11兲 and apply the Ampere–Maxwell
冕 关3共p sin sin 兲共sin cos x̂ + sin sin ŷ
law 共养B · d艎 = 0Ienc + 0⑀0d⌽E / dt兲 to the dotted “Amperian
loop” using the spherical cap to determine ⌽E,
+ cos ẑ兲 − pŷ兴sin dd ,
is zero. The contribution from outside the sphere is
共32兲
⌽E = 冕 E · da
pout = ⑀0
1 0
4⑀0 4
冕 1
r6
关3共p · r̂兲r̂ − p兴 =
1
4⑀0
冕 1
r3
关3共p · r̂兲r̂ − p兴 · r2 sin ddr̂ 共37a兲
冉 冊
where B is the magnetic field inside the sphere. So
d p sin2
pem = pin + pout = − 21 共p ⫻ B兲. 共34兲 B共2r sin 兲 = 0⑀0 , 共38兲
dt 2⑀0r
The hidden momentum in the spinning sphere is 关see Eq.
共19a兲兴 so
p =−
0R ṗ
x̂, 共40兲
3
Fig. 11. Geometry for calculating the magnetic field of a discharging electric
dipole. and the impulse delivered to the shell is
830 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 830
Table III. Electric dipole inside spinning sphere—naive solution. y
1 1
Initial momentum pem = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲 phid = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0
1 1 rmax
Dipole discharges Idip = −共p ⫻ B兲 Isphere = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲 R
1 1 θ p
Sphere slows Idip = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲 Isphere = 0 ptot = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲
z
Isphere = 冕 1
Fdt = 共p ⫻ B兲.
2
共41兲
Fig. 12. A long solenoid produces a uniform magnetic field at interior
points; an electric dipole is located on the axis.
E = − 21 Ḃr sin
ˆ, 共42兲
pem = ⑀0 再冕 冋 1 1
4⑀0 r3
关3共p · r̂兲r̂ − p兴
册冎
which exerts a force on the two ends of the dipole,
F = 2q 冉 冊Ḃ d
22
1
x̂ = pḂx̂.
2
共43兲
−
1
3⑀0
p␦3共r兲 d ⫻ B 共46a兲
冕
stitute the current; as the fields are reduced, the excess mo-
1
mentum of the charges is delivered to the structure that keeps p 关3 sin sin 共sin sin x̂ − sin cos ŷ兲
them on track 共in this case the spherical shell兲.28 Thus the r3
hidden momentum should be added to the impulse delivered
− x̂兴r2 sin drdd
冕 再冕 冎
to the sphere as the fields are turned off, and finally every-
R/sin
thing works out 共see Table IV兲. 1
= px̂ dr 共3 sin2 − 2兲sin d
0 ⑀ r
V. ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN THE FIELD
共48a兲
OF A LONG SOLENOID
The calculations are no more difficult for the solenoid
model 共see Fig. 12兲.29 In this case, the magnetic field is = px̂ 冕
关ln R − ln共sin 兲 − ln ⑀兴
B共s兲 = 再 Bẑ 共s ⬍ R兲
0 共s ⬎ R兲,
冎 共45兲
0
0
ln共sin 兲共1 − 3 cos2 兲sin d
The delta function term in the dipole field in Eq. 共30兲 must 2
be handled with care: this represents the field inside a sphere = − px̂. 共48c兲
of radius ⑀ 共in the limit ⑀ → 0兲; the “ordinary” dipole field 3
Thus
Table IV. Electric dipole inside spinning sphere—corrected.
Initial momentum
1
pem = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲
1
phid = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0
pem =
B
4
− 冉
2
3
1
3
1
2
冊
px̂ − 共p ⫻ B兲 = − 共p ⫻ B兲, 共49兲
Dipole discharges Idip = −共p ⫻ B兲 Isphere + phid = 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0
Sphere slows
1
Idip = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲
1
phid = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0 which is the same as for the spinning sphere 关see Eq. 共34兲兴.
The hidden momentum in the solenoid is
831 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 831
Table V. Electric dipole in the field of a solenoid. VI. CONCLUSION
1 1
Initial momentum pem = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲 phid = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0 We considered a rectangular current loop in a uniform
Dipole discharges Idip = −共p ⫻ B兲 Isol + phid = 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0 electric field, an electric dipole at the center of a spinning
1 1
Current decreases Idip = − 2 共p ⫻ B兲 phid = 2 共p ⫻ B兲 ptot = 0 charged spherical shell, and an electric dipole in the field of
a long solenoid; in each case the hidden momentum exactly
balances the electromagnetic momentum, so the total is zero,
冕冉 冊
consistent with the center of energy theorem. Can we prove
phid = −
1
c2
冕 VKda = − 0⑀0
p · r̂
4 ⑀ 0r 2
共K
ˆ 兲Rddz.
that this cancellation always works when the fields are static?
Yes, for if we use Ampere’s law 共 ⫻ B = 0J兲 to replace the
current density in the general expression for hidden momen-
共50兲 tum 关see Eq. 共19b兲兴 and integrate by parts, we obtain
冕
In this case, it is simplest to use cylindrical coordinates
共s , , z兲, phid = −
1
VJd
c2
r = 冑R2 + z2,
pR
p · r̂ =
r
sin , ˆ = − sin x̂ + cos ŷ,
共51兲
=−
⑀ 0 0
0
冕 V共ⵜ ⫻ B兲d 共57a兲
冕
so
phid = −
0
4
pKR2 冕 sin 共− sin x̂ + cos ŷ兲
共R2 + z2兲3/2
ddz
=− ⑀0 关ⵜ ⫻ 共VB兲 + 共B ⫻ 共ⵜV兲兲兴d 共57b兲
共52a兲
= ⑀0 冖 VB ⫻ da + ⑀0 冕 共B ⫻ E兲d
1
= 0 pKR2x̂
2
冕 0
⬁
dz
共R + z2兲3/2
2
= − ⑀0 冕 共E ⫻ B兲d = − pem . 共57c兲
1 1
= pBx̂ = 共p ⫻ B兲, 共52b兲
2 2 共For a localized distribution the boundary term is zero.兲
When the electric or magnetic field is turned off, the field
as in the spherical model 关Eq. 共35兲兴.
momentum disappears, the hidden momentum is absorbed,
Now we discharge the dipole. The impulse to the dipole
and some element共s兲 in the system may receive an impulse.
itself is the same as in Eq. 共36兲, and the induced magnetic
But there is no obvious reason why this impulse should equal
field is again given by Eq. 共39兲. The force on the solenoid is
the momentum originally stored in the fields—all we can say
F= 冕 共K ⫻ B兲da =
0
4
冕 1
r2
关K ⫻ 共ṗ ⫻ r̂兲兴Rddz. 共53兲
in general is that the total momentum afterward, like the total
momentum before, is zero.30
The hero 共or is it the villain?兲 of this story is hidden mo-
But mentum. What can be said about the nature of hidden mo-
mentum in general? It seems to share three general features:
ṗK
K ⫻ 共ṗ ⫻ r̂兲 = 共− R cos2 x̂ − R sin cos ŷ • It is purely mechanical.31 Although it arises most often in
r
electromagnetic contexts, it has nothing to do with electro-
− z cos ẑ兲, 共54兲 dynamics. The force involved in Fig. 9 could just as well
so be gravity, or little rockets attached to the particles, and
Eq. 共19b兲 could be written more generally as
1
F = − 0 ṗKR2x̂
2
冕 0
⬁
1
共R + z 兲
2
1
2 3/2 dz = − Bṗx̂.
2
共55兲
phid = −
1
冕 uvd , 共58兲
c2
The impulse delivered to the solenoid is
Isol = 冕 1
Fdt = − Bx̂
2
冕 dp
dt
dt
where u is the potential energy density 共of whatever form兲
and v is the local velocity.
• It occurs in systems with internally moving parts 共such as
1
= − Bx̂
2
冕 p
0
1
2
1
dp = Bpx̂ = 共p ⫻ B兲,
2
共56兲
current loops兲.32
• It is intrinsically relativistic.
again reproducing the result for the spinning sphere in Eq. A definitive characterization of the phenomenon remains
共41兲. elusive, and some have suggested that the term should be
If we turn off B 共by reducing the current in the solenoid兲, expanded to include all strictly relativistic contributions to
the induced electric field is the same as in Eq. 共42兲, and the momentum 关including electromagnetic momentum, the 共␥
impulse delivered to the dipole is the same as in Eq. 共44兲; − 1兲mv piece of particle momentum, and the ␥2 Pv / c2 portion
again, there is no impulse to the solenoid. The entire table is of the momentum density of a fluid under pressure兴; others
essentially unchanged 共compare Tables IV and V兲. urged that the term be expunged altogether.33
832 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 832
1
The relation between momentum density and energy flux is not peculiar Phys. 77, 432–433 共2009兲. The essence of the argument appears also in
to electrodynamics. See R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, and M. Sands, Ref. 7, Sec. IIB. A variation is suggested by K. Szymanski, “On the
The Feynman Lectures 共Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1964兲, Vol. 2, momentum of mechanical plane waves,” Physica B 403, 2996–3001
Eq. 共27.21兲. 共2008兲, Sec. V; see also R. Medina, “The inertia of stress,” Am. J. Phys.
2
F. S. Johnson, B. L. Cragin, and R. R. Hodges, “Electromagnetic momen- 74, 1031–1034 共2006兲.
tum density and the Poynting vector in static fields,” Am. J. Phys. 62, 23
A more general version of the following argument is found in Ref. 16 and
33–41 共1994兲. in a slightly different form in V. Hnizdo, “Hidden mechanical momentum
3
K. T. McDonald, “Electromagnetic momentum of a capacitor in a uni- and the field momentum in stationary electromagnetic and gravitational
form magnetic field” ⬍www.hep.princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/ systems,” Am. J. Phys. 65, 515–518 共1997兲.
cap_momentum.pdf⬎. 24
This realization casts doubt on our original naive expression for the field
4
As we shall see, this turns out to be incorrect. momentum in Eq. 共2兲, which took the electric field to be uniform inside
5
W. H. Furry, “Examples of momentum distributions in the electromag-
the capacitor and zero outside, and as we have seen, that equation is in
netic field and in matter,” Am. J. Phys. 37, 621–636 共1969兲.
6 error 共Ref. 3兲.
R. H. Romer, “Question #26. Electromagnetic field momentum,” Am. J. 25
Because electromagnetic momentum 关see Eq. 共1兲兴 is linear in E, our
Phys. 63, 777–779 共1995兲. Romer did not use a polarized/magnetized
result—expressed in terms of the total electric dipole moment—will hold
sphere but a sphere carrying the same surface charge and current distri-
for any collection of dipoles, and hence in particular for the original
butions as they would produce. This avoids the awkward question of
whether we should use D ⫻ B in place of Eq. 共1兲 and preempts conceptual capacitor model. This is how McDonald 共Ref. 3兲 fixed the error in Eq.
problems about hidden momentum in bound currents. If such issues arise, 共2兲.
26
this example is to be interpreted in Romer’s way, as a configuration of More precisely, we want an electrically neutral spherical shell that carries
free charges and free currents. a surface current density K = 共 ⫻ r兲. In the presence of an electric field,
7
Hidden momentum occurs in moving systems as well. See, for instance, the charges constituting this current will speed up and slow down 共in the
E. Comay, “Exposing ‘hidden momentum’,” Am. J. Phys. 64, 1028– first model of Sec. III兲, spoiling the simple picture of a rigid spinning
1034 共1996兲, but it is most striking in static configurations, and we shall sphere. The incompressible fluid model is, in this sense, closer in spirit to
concentrate on such cases. the spinning sphere.
8 27
In this paper all such processes will be carried out quasistatically to avoid More simply, we can use the general expression for the momentum of an
electromagnetic radiation 共which would remove momentum from the sys- electric dipole in a magnetic field 共Ref. 17兲: pem = 共p · ⵜ兲A, where in this
1
tem兲. case A = − 2 共r ⫻ B兲.
9 28
This, incidentally, is the answer provided in the Solution Manual to D. J. This is the “hidden momentum force” that began the whole story. W.
Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. 共Prentice-Hall, Upper Shockley and R. P. James, “ ‘Try simplest cases’ discovery of ‘hidden
Saddle River, NJ, 1999兲, Problem 8.6. The error was caught by David momentum’ forces on ‘magnetic currents’,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 18, 876–
Babson. 879 共1967兲.
10 29
See S. Coleman and J. H. Van Vleck, “Origin of ‘hidden momentum One might worry, of course, about assuming that the solenoid is infinitely
forces’ on magnets,” Phys. Rev. 171, 1370–1375 共1968兲 and Refs. 5 and long, or—if finite—the approximations involved in treating its field as
11. uniform inside and zero outside.
11
M. G. Calkin, “Linear momentum of the source of a static electromag- 30
The rotational analog is strikingly different: Angular momentum in static
netic field,” Am. J. Phys. 39, 513–516 共1971兲. fields is not 共typically兲 compensated by hidden angular momentum 共there
12
Center-of-energy is the natural relativistic generalization of center-of- is no rotational analog to the center-of-energy theorem兲, and when the
mass: 兰rud / 兰ud, where u is the energy density. fields are removed, the system starts to rotate, with angular momentum
13
It is notoriously dangerous to speak of the momentum 共or energy兲 of a equal to that originally stored in the fields. The classic case is the “Feyn-
configuration that is not localized in space. In this context a uniform field man disk paradox” 共Ref. 1, Sec. 17-4兲. It is easy to construct configura-
should always be interpreted to mean locally uniform, but going to zero at
tions with hidden angular momentum, but because there is no analog to
infinity.
14 the center of energy theorem, hidden angular momentum is not forced on
See Refs. 11, 15, and 16.
15 us as dramatically as hidden linear momentum.
L. Vaidman, “Torque and force on a magnetic dipole,” Am. J. Phys. 58, 31
A possible counterexample is given in Ref. 7, Sec. III, where the role of
978–983 共1990兲.
16 hidden momentum is played by standing electromagnetic waves.
V. Hnizdo, “Hidden momentum of a relativistic fluid carrying current in 32
an external electric field,” Am. J. Phys. 65, 92–94 共1997兲. For example, if the magnetic field is produced by stationary magnetic
17
D. J. Griffiths, “Dipoles at rest,” Am. J. Phys. 60, 979–987 共1992兲. monopoles, instead of electric currents, then there is no hidden momen-
18
Because electromagnetic momentum 关see Eq. 共1兲兴 is linear in B, this tum, but in that case the electromagnetic momentum also vanishes 共Ref.
result—expressed in terms of the total magnetic dipole moment—holds 17兲.
33
for any collection of dipoles, and hence in particular for the rectangular Although hidden momentum was first discovered 40 years ago 共Ref. 28兲,
loop 共which could be built up as a tessellation of tiny squares兲. it continues to carry a mysterious aura and has been misunderstood and
19
See Refs. 11, 15, 16, and 3. misused by a number of authors 共including one of us, D.J.G.兲. Just last
20
See Ref. 15 for the nonrelativistic argument and Ref. 16 for the relativ- year Jon Thaler 共personal communication, August 26, 2007兲 and Timothy
istic version. Boyer, “Concerning ‘hidden momentum’,” Am. J. Phys. 76, 190–191
21
See, for example, R. J. Adler, M. J. Bazin, and M. Schiffer, Introduction 共2008兲 pointed out that the coaxial cable is not an example of hidden
to General Relativity, 2nd ed. 共McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975兲, Sec. 9.2. momentum—there is momentum in the fields, but the center of energy is
22
Why should a moving fluid under pressure carry extra momentum? This is not at rest. The battery at one end is losing energy, and the resistor at the
a surprisingly subtle relativistic effect. For a lovely explanation, see K. other end is gaining energy, and the momentum in the fields is precisely
Jagannathan, “Momentum due to pressure: A simple model,” Am. J. the momentum associated with the motion of the center of energy.
833 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 77, No. 9, September 2009 Babson et al. 833