Comunications Fundamentals

Communications Fundamentals
Resources:
Palais, Joseph C., Fiber Optic Communications, Prentice Hall: 1984.
Gibson, Jerry D., Principles of Digital and Analog Communications, Second Edition, Prentice
Hall: 1993.
Driscoll, Frederick F., Data Communications, Saunders Co Ltd: 1992.
COM401_CommunicationsFundamentals_r3 1
Teleprotection schemes provide high-speed simultaneous fault clearing. This helps provide reclosing
functions and mitigate stability and voltage issues. Teleprotection schemes are mostly applied in
high-voltage and extra high-voltage transmission systems.
Automation functions allow for situational reconfiguration of the power system to accommodate
changes, such as load shedding, generation shedding, islanding, or anti-islanding, etc.
Control functions provide data information for voltage or frequency control for input for operators to
act on where automation is not available.
Supervisory control and data acquisition, SCADA, provides information from remote substations to
control centers for display and control at operation centers.
You must have a common path and format for the receiver to understand the message sent. The
communication may be immediate, or it may be sent and stored until the receiver is available.
The path may be direct or multipoint, depending on purpose.
Source: Where the data reside that are going to be communicated
Transmitter: Device that sends the data
Channel: Transports the data; must be a common path and a common format
Receiver: Device that must understand the data correctly
User: Who needs the data
The more complex, the more it costs.
Simplex: Unidirectional
Half duplex: Bidirectional, but only one direction at a time (think walkie-talkie: message then ending
with “over”)
Full duplex: Bidirectional, simultaneous communication (think normal telephone conversation)
What is communicated will dictate the communications requirements. Some are simple go/no go
decisions, such as trip or no trip (protect and isolate, restore, and control); some are more
complicated, such as where was the fault and when did it occur (calculate and locate). Some are time
critical; some need accurate time stamps, but the information is not needed in real time (report,
diagnose, and analyze). Some are needed for long-term decisions (measure and educate).
The performance of a communications channel is generally defined in terms of system throughput,

system latency, transmitter power, and receiver sensitivity. Changing one will affect the overall
performance.
In analog systems, the capacity is termed channel bandwidth. The wider the channel, the faster the
channel, and, depending on the modulation technique, the more information it is possible to send.
The bandwidth also dictates how close the next channel can be placed.
Data rate is not the same as throughput. Data rate is a raw figure indicating how fast the bits are
transmitted. Throughput is the useful portion of the data—taking into account overhead data such as
error detection/correction as well as format. Some sources use a one-way measurement for
throughput and some use a two-way measurement to include acknowledgment of receipt of the data.
Throughput and bandwidth are considered interchangeable.
Channel time is inversely proportional to the bandwidth of the channel. Channel time or latency is
the time it takes to get from Point A to Point B plus whatever decoding time is needed at the receiver
(or filtering time).
Tradeoffs occur when you increase the bandwidth, which results in faster channels, but it also allows
more noise in the channel.
Latency can be affected by how fast the data are transmitted, how far they have to go, and the
processing time of the signal once it is received.
The abbreviation dB stands for decibel. Note the lowercase d and the uppercase B. Doubling power is
+3 dB. Halving power is –3 dB. Named for Alexander Graham Bell, decibels are a level above or
below some other level, unitless.
Notice on the graph that 1 milliwatt (mW) of power equals 0 decibel-to-milliwatt (dBm) of power.
The stronger the transmitter output, the more interference the channel produces to adjacent channels.
Receiver sensitivity is the minimum signal level that can be received and still produce a proper and
correct output. Influences on the ability of the receiver to detect the signal include noise, the
bandwidth of the receiver operations, and the type of modulation used. The more noise, the more
difficult it is for the receiver to produce the proper output (and thereby could produce incorrect
operations). Some modulation techniques are more vulnerable to noise than others. For example,
AM radio signals are more susceptible to noise than FM radio signals.
A gain in signal strength would be denoted as a positive (+) number and a loss as a negative (–)
number. Therefore, by having transmitted the signal in decibel-to-milliwatts (dBm), the loss or gain
can easily be added for a received level.
As an example, consider a transmitter that is producing a 1 watt output while the receiver is seeing
0.25 watts. Determine the attenuation of the path.
Approximate by thinking:
½ • 1 W = 0.5 W
½ • 0.5 W = 0.25 W
Each half power is equal to 3 dB, and the calculations above show two instances.
3 dB + 3 dB = 6 dB
Noise represents many things to many people. For a person trying to communicate, all of the
examples can qualify as noise.
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is measured in decibels. This is a relative measure of how strong the
signal is over the noise in the given channel. It is also an indication of the quality of the channel.
PSD is the power spectral density, illustrating how power is distributed based on frequency (power
per hertz [Hz] vs. frequency). Here we can see that as frequency increases, the density decreases.
Given two receivers of different bandwidths but close in frequency (x, 2x), we can approximate the
amount of noise either one would see by taking the area of the rectangle. The downside of using the
widest bandwidth possible is that it allows more noise into the system. More noise indicates less
security. There is the tradeoff between speed and security.
From the previous slide, we know that noise is a function of what the receiver could allow in. When
you are measuring for noise, the measuring instrument will typically have a different bandwidth than
the receiver in question (3,000 Hz is common). The noise the receiver experiences is called “in-band”
noise. The equation above has the correction needed to determine the noise of a particular receiver. If
your receiver in question is narrower than the instrument, it will have a better SNR than is actually
measured.
The choice of the communications type depends on the required results. It can be a simple “yes” or
“no” (binary communications), or it can be more complex. We will begin to define these different
aspects.
There is a very close relationship between data and communications channels, but they each can be
very different, depending upon the requirements.
Modulation Techniques
COM401_ModulationTechniques_r3 1
Analog signals are used for communications. The sine wave is the basis for this. If only the signal is
imposed on the path, without making changes, only the path has been verified. Something needs to
be modified to allow communications to take place.
We can change (modulate) three components to convey the message:
A(t): Amplitude of the signal
ω: Frequency of the signal where ω = 2πf
Φ: Phase angle
Amplitude: The height of the wave above or below a given reference point
Frequency: The number of times a signal makes a complete cycle within a given timeframe
Phase angle (or phasor): References the position of the waveform relative to a given moment of time
or relative to time zero. A change in phase can be any number of angles between 0 and 360 degrees
and often can occur on common angles, such as 45, 90, 135 degrees, etc.
Many modulation types exist. We will review the basic analog modulations. Many more modulation
types combine multiple modulations to provide the needed performance.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is usually modulated by another analog signal, whereas amplitude shift
keying (ASK) is modulated by two bits. On/off is what is typically used in protection schemes
denoted as blocking schemes, where the channel is normally off and turns on to send a block signal.
The slide shows a sine wave amplitude modulated with an analog signal. When we compare the
original signal with the modulated signal, the original signal appears as the peaks of the modulated
signal.
The slide shows a sine wave modulated with a binary signal. Use a binary signal to modulate the
results in two levels or amplitudes of the sine wave, with the frequency and phase angle unchanged.
Frequency modulation (FM) is usually modulated by another analog signal, whereas frequency shift
keying (FSK) is modulated by two bits. FSK-type schemes are typically used in protection schemes
that normally send one frequency (guard) and then shift to another frequency to provide permission
to trip to the protection system.
The slide shows a sine wave frequency modulated with an analog signal. We see that the resultant
modulated signal shows higher frequencies at the peak of the original signal and lower frequencies at
the valley of the original signal.
The slide shows a sine wave frequency modulated with a binary signal. These two signals have the
same amplitude and phase angle. They have two different frequencies, as shown by the number of
waves in the same amount of time.
Phase modulation (PM) is usually modulated by another analog signal, whereas phase shift keying
(PSK) is modulated by two bits. Traditional analog protection schemes did not use the phase
modulation system due to the more expensive circuitry and not much improvement over frequency
modulation.
The slide shows a sine wave phase modulated with an analog signal. We see that the resultant
modulated signal shows higher frequencies at the rising portion of the original signal and lower
frequencies at the falling portion.
The slide shows a sine wave phase modulated with a binary signal. This is shown at 180 degrees
differences to magnify the difference between the two signals. If these two signals were coincident
on the same media, the signals would cancel each other (no signal).
Comparing the two types of modulation reveals that the resultant signals are very similar; in fact, the
only way to know if the signal has been phase modulated or frequency modulated is to see the
original unmodulated wave. Frequency modulation reveals a higher frequency at the peak and a
lower frequency is at the valley, whereas phase modulation has higher frequency at the rising edge
and a lower frequency at the falling edge of the original wave. The circuits needed to create
frequency modulation were traditionally more cost effective than those needed for phase modulation,
but with advent of digital signal processing, this is no longer an issue. Some later communications
systems use variations of phase modulation.
Amplitude modulation is the most susceptible to noise; phase modulation is the least. Historically
phase modulation was expensive to develop and manufacture, but as digital techniques developed, it
has become more viable. One way to think of this is to compare AM broadcast radio signals with
FM radio signals. AM stations are sensitive to noise during lightning storms, whereas FM stations are
not.
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) allows two analog signals to be transmitted at the same
frequency without mutual interference. One signal modulates a cosine waveform while the other
modulates a sine waveform, which doubles the capacity of the channel. Essentially, it is a combined
amplitude and phase modulation.
The image on the slide shows 4 bits per symbol. The baud is 2,400 symbols per second; the data rate
is 4 times that at 9,600 bps. (It is not correct to say baud rate.)
QAM (V.29) is an International Telecommunications Union (ITU) modem standard for assigning
numbers to samples (quantizing). This ITU-1 Modem Standard allows a 4,800 bps, 7,200 bps, or
9,600 bps data rate.
Modems take a digital signal, modulate and transmit it as an analog signal, and then demodulate it
back to a digital signal at the receiving end.
V.33 is yet another standard for modem communications. By sampling and quantizing more data
points, we can achieve a higher data rate (14.4 kbps) for the same baud (2,400 baud). The extra bits
usually contain error encoding data.
To digitize voice channels, phone companies performed an analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion with
an A/D converter, which converts analog (voice) signals into digital data. Phone companies used
what became known as a coder/decoder (codec) for signal conversion. The coder portion would
convert the incoming analog value into digital data, and the decoder would convert the digital data
back to analog on the other end. These conversions made it possible to carry voice channels over
digital T1 lines.
The original purpose of pulse code modulation (PCM) was to transmit digital signals over the same
wires as analog voice signals, using a 4-wire analog channel for 24 digital channels.
To accurately replicate voice signals in a digital format, the Nyquist theorem states that the sampling
rate must be twice the highest frequency. The highest frequency in the voice band is 4 kHz, so a
sampling rate of 8,000 times per second is required. In the PCM process, analog signals are
converted into an 8-bit word, which is sampled at 8,000 times per second, giving a data rate of
64 kbps. This is known as a Digital Signal Level 0 or DS0.
Pulse code modulation is used to digitize voice in T1 lines in North America. PCM consists of three
subprocesses:
• Samples incoming analog signals 8,000 times per second and converts sampled values to
pulses
• Assigns the height of each pulse an equivalent 8-bit value
• Creates a 64 kbps DS0 signal (8,000 samples per second multiplied by 8 bits)
The first step in the PCM process is to sample the incoming analog signal at a rate of 8,000 times per
second, a rate sufficient to adequately represent voice information. These sample values are then
converted to pulses using a process known as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
The next step in the PCM process is to assign a numerical value to the pulse height of each pulse.
Once quantified, the pulse height is converted into an 8-bit binary word, with the first bit designating
the positive (0) or negative (1) polarity of the pulse.
The last step of the PCM process is to combine (multiplex) the data for transmission over a single
communications channel.
When you are transmitting a series of voltages on a wire, if the average of the voltages are not equal
to zero, then a residual or average dc results on the line. This requires more power to transmit the
signal than if there is no dc residual. As line length increases, the dc residual will increase. The dc
residual is typical in unipolar encoding, where only a positive voltage is applied. By using alternate
voltages, one positive and one negative of the same magnitude, there is no dc residual developed.
This is bipolar encoding.
NRZ-L encoding is the typical positive signaling used in digital circuits. This shows that the 0 is the
positive voltage.
In this unipolar encoding, it is the 1 that causes the transition; the 0 does not have a transition.
With the average of the signal being zero, there is no dc residual or component generated.
Differential Manchester is the encoding used in Ethernet communications.
The 4B/5B encoding scheme was made quite popular by 10/100 Mbps Ethernet. It does not fully
eliminate low-frequency signal components (wander) requiring (in the Ethernet channel case) faithful
transmission of frequencies as low as 10 kHz. This problem can be alleviated with more complex
encoding schemes like 8B/10B, which are used by 1 Gbps Ethernet and other popular standards.
Here is the 4B/5B encoding scheme illustrated. This shows how the original data are encoded and
then transmitted on the wire. Note that codes with three or more consecutive zeroes are invalid.
Just as analog channels have bandwidth and signal-to-noise performance indicators, digital channels
are evaluated based on throughput and error rate. Ultimately digital channels are still dictated by
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The next section explores digital channels in more detail.
Communications Media
COM401_CommunicationsMedia_r3 1
Although many proven technologies exist, media does not define the signal modulation or
propagation. Analog or digital communications are applicable to almost any media, given constraints
to work within.
The images on the slide are available through Wikimedia Commons:
• Coaxial cable cutaway, provided by Tkgd2007, available at:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coaxial_cable_cutaway.svg
• Triaxial cable, provided by wdwd, available at:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Triaxialkabel_Aufbau.svg
UTP is unshielded, twisted pair and the typical connector is an RJ45.
STP is shielded, twisted pair.
S/STP is shielded, shielded twisted pair.
Pilot wire relaying using STP or S/STP can typically be applied at distances up to 9 miles.
Applications for serial communications (EIA-232) should be limited to 50 feet or less, due to use of
nontwisted pairs.
Applications for serial communications (EIA-485) using STP or S/STP can be applied at longer
distances, up to 4,000 feet.
The images on the slide are available from Wikimedia Commons at the following locations:
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UTP_cable.jpg
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UTP-cable.svg
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S-STP-cable.svg
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:STP-cable.svg
Alexander Graham Bell first patented twisting wires for noise immunity in 1881.
Since the communications path is already present (the power line), there is no need for an additional
media path. We can apply a single power-line carrier (PLC) channel on a 100+ mile transmission line
for a relatively low cost. This is a point-to-point path. Broadband power-line carrier (BPL) is another
technology applied over the power lines, usually at the distribution level. BPL is for data
communications typically.
Example: During the Second World War, British intelligence did an excellent job intercepting and
decoding German radio communications. This became much more difficult toward the end of the war
when Germans switched over to the wire-based communications that were widely deployed on the
continent.
Attenuation is a function of frequency, so the applicable length will vary based on the frequency
used. Noise can be from several different sources. Ground potential rise (GPR) inside of substations
can have extreme effects on wired communications. Proper grounding can help mitigate issues due to
GPR.
Modern communications are using short-distance wireless to help eliminate physical cables.
Bluetooth® is usually limited to about 100 meters. With Wi-Fi, usually a distance of about 250 meters
is possible. These two technologies have become ubiquitous.
Semaphore and smoke signals are early nontechnical communications that pre-date Alexander
Graham Bell’s invention of the telephone. They could be classified as wireless or optical. Smoke
signals were used in ancient China, where they could transmit a signal 750 km within a few hours.
The images on the slide are available via Wikimedia Commons at the following locations:
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederic_Remington_smoke_signal.jpg
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:020118-N-6520M-011_Semaphore_Flags.jpg
Fiber optics have a very long history. French scientist Claude Chappe invented his optical telegraph
in the 1790s. It consisted of signals relayed from tower to tower using lights. However, by the
mid-1800s, it was replaced by the electric telegraph. Atmospheric transmission of light was too
problematic for anything more than signaling applications, typically naval in nature.
By the early 1900s, more applications were being developed. These were primarily focused on
medical imaging. While patents were filed for communications applications, materials were not
available to realize these inventions. The best available materials had attenuation (loss of signal
intensity) properties of greater than 1000 dB/km. In 1966, Dr. Charles Kao and George Hockham of
Standard Telecommunication Laboratories published a paper demonstrating a communications
channel of 1 Gbps, and they theorized that materials with attenuation in the tens of dB/km should be
possible. The race to develop such materials began. By September 1970, Corning Glass Works
announced development of a single-mode fiber with attenuation below 20 dB/km. In the same year,
the first semiconductor diode laser capable of continuous room-temperature operation became
available. Technology continued to improve at a rapid pace.
In 1988, Bell Labs installed the first transatlantic fiber carrying a total of 565 Mbps in two fiber pairs.
With the advent of longer wavelength lasers and optical amplifiers, a 1998 transatlantic cable reached
20 Gbps with four separate wavelengths through a single fiber pair.
By 2001, equipment was available to transmit 100 separate wavelengths at 10 Gbps each for a total
of 1 terabit per second (Tbps). Technology development continues with recent research reporting
31 Tbps over a 7,200 km distance (Alcatel Lucent, 2013).
*Image source (left image): Provided by Timwether, available via Wikimedia Commons at the
following location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Laser_in_fibre.jpg.
Since their development, fiber optics have been deployed in a plethora of unique ways. Most applications fall
into these general categories.
• Communications: Fiber optics are ideal for communications applications, as you will see in later
slides. They are capable of low and very high data rates and are immune to most external factors, thus
providing a very reliable communications channel. Most phone, Internet, and video traffic in the
world today passes through fiber-optic equipment somewhere on its path from sender to recipient.
• Lighting and illumination: Some of the earliest fiber-optic applications were for illumination in dental
and medical applications. While they are not yet commonplace, some commercial lighting systems
are based on fiber optics.
• Imaging: The medical world saw the usefulness of fiber optics very early. The small size of the fibers
makes them ideal for seeing into small places, even inside the human body. Fiber-optic imaging
equipment is now commonly used in many applications, including medical, automotive repair,
construction, clock repair, and security. The lower picture on the slide is a fiber-optic image of the
inside of an antique clock. Notice the pixilation of the image caused by the individual fiber strands of
this scope.
• Sensing: Fiber-optic sensing applications may employ the fiber itself as a sensor for measuring strain,
temperature, pressure, light, etc. They may also use the fiber as an extrinsic sensor to transmit a
measurable quantity to another sensor. Extrinsic fiber-optic sensors commonly measure vibration,
rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting.
The images on the slide are available on Wikimedia Commons at the following locations:
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fiberscope_(view_inside_clock).png
• Provided by Hustvedt, available at:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fiber_optic_illuminated.jpg
Fiber-optic cables provide many benefits over alternative technologies. In most applications, they are
used in place of copper or other conductive materials to replace electrical data transmission with light
transmission. Fiber provides large bandwidth capabilities with much lower attenuation levels than
electrical communications. The light traveling inside a fiber-optic cable is unaffected by
electromagnetic interference (EMI), making it ideally suited for many applications, such as electrical
power systems. Apart from being immune to outside sources of EMI, fiber does not produce EMI
that might interfere with other equipment in its vicinity. Most fiber-optic cables are constructed of all
dielectric materials and are well suited for installation in almost any electrical environment.
Because fiber-optic cable is very compact and lightweight, it is very economical to install. It is also
feasible (and very common) to install excess capacity during the initial installation. Many electric
utilities install fiber-optic cable inside their power system conductors. The addition in weight and
cost is not very large, and it provides an invaluable resource, even if it is not needed at the time of
installation.
The transmission of light does not cause any sparks or electrical arcing, even if the cable is broken or
damaged. This allows fiber to be used in applications where flammable gases or other safety factors
are a primary concern.
At the heart of every fiber-optic cable is a core. The core material is typically silica glass, but in some
cases it may be made of plastic. The core is surrounded by some form of cladding that has a lower
refractive index than the core material. The higher the refractive index, the slower the light will travel
through the material. This difference in refractive index causes all light that strikes the cladding at an
angle greater than some critical angle to be reflected back into the core. The critical angle is
dependent on the materials used and the difference in their refractive indices. When the light is totally
contained and propagates from one end of the fiber to the other, it is known as total internal
reflection. This principle is illustrated on the previous optical fiber slide. The green light entering the
acrylic rod is completely internally reflected until it reaches the other end of the rod.
In step-index multimode fiber, the core is made from material with a uniform refraction index. As
light enters one end of the fiber, it may take many paths to reach the other end of the fiber. These
paths are known as modes, and they are the source of the designation “multimode.”
Because the light may take many paths of varying length, not all the light from a pulse will reach the
far end at the same time. This lengthening of the pulse duration is part of what is known as modal
dispersion (to be discussed later). Sufficient dead time must be allowed between light pulses to allow
all light to reach the opposite end of the fiber. This limits the attainable bandwidth.
Light that contacts the cladding at greater than its critical angle escapes the core and is absorbed by
the cladding.
Graded-index fiber has a core constructed with varying indices of refraction so that light closer to the
center travels more slowly, while light near its edges travels faster. Therefore, the light that is
traveling the shortest paths moves more slowly than the light that is traveling the longer paths. This
minimizes the spreading or modal dispersion of the light, and all the light reaches the other end of the
fiber at nearly the same time. Thus, there is a shorter dead time between light pulses or, in essence,
higher possible bandwidth. Graded-index fiber has higher possible bandwidths than step-index fiber.
Ideally, graded-index fiber would have a continuous change in its index of refraction from its center
all the way to the edge. However, in practice, these cables are made by adding many layers of
slightly different glass one over the other. This creates step changes in the index of refraction that
only approximate the ideal case.
Single-mode fiber has an extremely small core that is less than ten times the wavelength of the
transmitted light. At this level, the light propagation can no longer be analyzed by geometric optics.
Instead, it follows Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. Single-mode fiber also has a smaller
difference in index of refraction between core and cladding materials. These factors cause light to
travel through these fibers along only one path or mode. Hence, the designation of single mode.
Because all light travels along a single path, it all reaches the other end of the fiber at the same time,
further increasing possible bandwidth.
Note that while most diagrams depict light traveling through single-mode fiber in a straight line, this
is not necessarily the case. The light will take a reflected path, but all light will follow the same path.
Fiber-optic cable is only the carrier of the light. A transmitter must first create that light based on
some input signal. Depending on the type of fiber and the application, the transmitter may use an
LED or a laser. LEDs are typically used in shorter distance and lower bandwidth applications
because they are less expensive. However, LEDs cannot switch on and off fast enough for high-
bandwidth applications, necessitating the use of lasers in those applications. Lasers are also typically
more capable of the higher power output required for longer distance data transmission.
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) have a manufacturing process and cost similar to
LEDs, but they operate as lasers. They also require little supporting circuitry. They have become the
preferred devices for implementing low-cost, high-bandwidth applications.
After the light has travelled through the fiber, it must then be sensed by a receiver. The receiver
typically consists of a photodiode and circuitry to convert incoming signals into a usable output.
The distance capability of fiber-optic equipment is heavily dependent on the type of fiber used, the
strength of the transmitting device, and the sensitivity of the receiver.
There are two main causes of attenuation in fiber-optic cables. The largest of these is scattering. As
light strikes individual atoms and molecules in the glass, it can be reflected by the nonuniform
surfaces. Light reflected beyond the critical angle of the fiber will escape and be absorbed by the
cladding. Some light may even be reflected back toward the source.
Scattering is a function of the wavelength of the light being transmitted. Scattering is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the light wavelength. Therefore, tripling the wavelength leads to a
reduction in scattering of 81 times (34 = 81). So, it is advantageous to use the longest practical
wavelength for an application.
The second cause of light attenuation in fiber is absorption. As a light pulse travels the length of a
fiber, some of the light energy is absorbed by molecules in the fiber and converted to heat.
Absorption occurs primarily in impurities caused by the dopants (intentional impurities) used to
modify the refractive index of the core glass. This absorption occurs at discrete wavelengths,
dependent on the dopants used, typically strongest at 1000 nm, 1400 nm, and over 1600 nm. Some
manufacturing techniques have been developed to minimize the impurities, and thereby minimize
absorption, in certain fiber types.
The absorption phenomenon is the same principle as visible color to the human eye. As sunlight,
composed of all visible colors, strikes a material, some wavelengths of light are absorbed and
converted to heat. Remaining wavelengths are reflected. That reflected light defines the color of the
material. Different materials absorb different wavelengths of light, creating the colorful world in
which we live.
Dispersion causes distortion of fiber-optic signals. This distortion limits attainable bandwidth because it
requires more dead time between light pulses to ensure that they are still discernable. It is composed of three
different components.
• Modal Dispersion (Multimode Dispersion): Modal dispersion occurs only in multimode fiber. As light
travels the length of the fiber via various paths (modes), some light takes longer to reach the end of
the fiber. This results in a lengthening of the light pulse. As shown on the slight dispersion graph on
the slide, output pulses are lengthened slightly when compared to the original input pulses.
• Chromatic Dispersion: The speed of light in a fiber is dependent on the refractive index of the core
material. However, the refractive index of the core is dependent on the wavelength of the light being
transmitted. Fiber light sources produce a spectrum that includes many different wavelengths of light.
The different wavelengths included in a light pulse will travel through the fiber at different speeds.
This again results in a spreading or lengthening of the light pulse. These effects can be reduced using
special compensation fibers and devices, or by using a fiber light source with a narrower light
spectrum.
• Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD): PMD occurs only in single-mode fiber. Although light can
travel only one path (mode) in this fiber, it can travel that path in two different polarizations. Slight
imperfections and distortions in the fiber can alter the velocity of these two different polarizations,
resulting in signal distortion. Where necessary, special polarization-maintaining fiber can be used to
limit or eliminate this problem. PMD is typically not an issue below 2.5 Gbps, but it must be
measured because it is affected by fiber installation factors such as bending, pressure, and
temperature.
As shown by the severe dispersion line above, strong dispersion coupled with attenuation can render a signal
unusable.
The table shows general guidelines on how susceptible each fiber type is to the various forms of
signal degradation.
Utilities use several types of fiber cable construction.
Optical ground wire (OPGW) is the most common for use with transmission towers. One of the
ground wires (the wires on the top of the tower) is replaced with a cable that has fiber embedded in
the cable.
Figure-eight self-supporting (FESS) is designed to be hung on poles. It gets its name from its cross-
sectional view. The top cable is the messenger, while the bottom half is the fiber cable.
All dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is the most popular for use on distribution circuits
because it has no electrically conductive components.
The OPGW photo is courtesy of AFL (www.AFLglobal.com) and used with permission.
The FESS and ADSS photos are courtesy of Corning Optical Communications and used with
permission.
Outdoor fiber cables in premise applications, such as buildings or substations, may be buried or
placed inside conduits. Because outdoor fiber cable is more exposed to environmental stresses than
indoor cable, it is typically enclosed within a tough outer jacket that is water and UV resistant. In
some cases, armor may be required as a deterrent to rodent damage.
The number of fiber units in a cable varies widely, and in low-fiber-count versions, some filler
material may be used to maintain the round shape of the cable. A central strength member is used to
provide tensile pulling strength and to prevent overbending of the fiber.
Individual fiber units can be terminated as needed for the application. This termination may be done
in the field, or the cable may be ordered preterminated. Greater care is required when installing
preterminated cable.
Indoor fiber cables may be placed inside conduits, walls, cable raceways, etc. They are available in a
variety of fire ratings (plenum, riser, etc.). In some cases, armor may be required as a deterrent to
rodent damage, but this is not as common as in outdoor applications.
Two-fiber zip cord is the most common configuration; however, single-fiber simplex is frequently
used as well. Aramid yarn is used to provide tensile pulling strength and to protect the core from
mechanical stresses.
Individual fibers can be terminated as needed for the application. This termination may be done in
the field, or the cable may be ordered preterminated. Greater care is required when installing
preterminated cable.
Many different fiber-optic cable connectors are in use. New connectors are added frequently because those in
use rise and fall in popularity. The slide shows some of those that currently see frequent use.
• V-pin: V-system connectors are used for multimode applications. They are fast and easy to terminate
in the field, and they use a simple click-in design. Duplex latch kits are available for applications
requiring latched retention of the connectors.
• LC: Lucent connectors, also sometimes known as little connectors, are used for both multimode and
single-mode applications. They provide latching connector retention in a very compact package. The
LC connector is continuing to gain popularity because its small size allows for very dense fiber
installations. LC field termination kits are available.
• FC: Ferrule connectors are typically used in single-mode applications. Their screw-on design was
originally created for use in high-vibration environments.
• ST®: Straight Tip, also known as Bayonet Fiber-Optic connector (BFOC), connectors are used
primarily in multimode applications, but they are sometimes seen in single-mode applications. The
bayonet style of the connector provides for quick installation with latching connector retention.
• SC: Subscriber connectors, or standard connectors, are used in both multimode and single-mode
applications. Although they have a large installed base, they are beginning to lose popularity in North
America in favor of the more compact LC connector.
• MT-RJ: Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack connectors are duplex connectors designed to fit in the
same space as a standard phone (RJ45) jack. They are losing popularity in favor of the less expensive
LC connector.
SC and FC images by Adamantios, via Wikimedia Commons, available at:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SC-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg and
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FC-optical-fiber-connector-hdr-0a.jpg
MT-RJ image by Shh, via Wikimedia Commons, available at:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lwl_mtrj.jpg
When designing a fiber-optic system, consider all losses in the fiber path. Weigh these against
available transmit power and receiver sensitivity. Additional equipment may be necessary if losses
are too great. Typical distances of fiber are under 60 miles without additional equipment. Fiber costs
are relatively expensive, so typical applications are multiple channels with high bandwidth or a single
channel for the most critical applications, such as line current differential relaying on EHV (extra
high voltage) lines or other highly critical transmission lines.
Fiber-Optic Exercise
The objective of this exercise is to determine the available budget for a fiber installation.
Link Loss Budget Exercise

Step 1. Using the data shown below, calculate the total system loss using 850 nm and
1300 nm wavelengths. The following page is blank for your use.
LC-to-LC ST-to-ST
Splice Connection Connection
Transmitter Receiver
10 km 5 km 0.5 km
Typical TX RX Minimum
Power = –10 dBm Sensitivity = –51 dBm
Figure 1.
Cable attenuation:
at 850 nm: 4 dB/km
at 1300 nm: 2 dB/km

ST-to-ST
Splice bushing losses: 1.5 dB
Splice Bushing
Cable splice losses: 0.3 dB
Step 2. Is there sufficient optical budget for this application?
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 1d.1

Fiber-Optic Exercise
Calculations Page
1d.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

Fiber-Optic Exercise Solution
Link Loss Budget Exercise
Step 1. Using the data shown below, calculate the total system loss using 850 nm and
1300 nm wavelengths. The following page is blank for your use.
LC-to-LC ST-to-ST
Splice Connection Connection
Transmitter Receiver
10 km 5 km 0.5 km
Typical TX RX Minimum
Power = –10 dBm Sensitivity = –51 dBm
Figure 1.
Cable attenuation:
at 850 nm: 4 dB/km
at 1300 nm: 2 dB/km

ST-to-ST
Splice bushing losses: 1.5 dB
Splice Bushing
Cable splice losses: 0.3 dB
Step 2. Is there sufficient optical budget for this application?
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 1e.1

Fiber-Optic Exercise Solution
Answers
Step 1. First, calculate the total connection and splice losses. These losses are the sum of
the cable splice, the ST-to-ST splice bushing, and the LC-to-LC splice bushing.
Lossessplice  0.3  1.5  1.5  3.3 dB
Step 2. Next, calculate the losses due to cable attenuation. These losses are different at the
two different wavelengths.
Length  10  5  0.5  15.5 km

dB
Losses850 nm  Length • 4.0  15.5 • 4.0  62.0 dB
km
dB
Losses1300 nm  Length • 2.0  15.5 • 2.0  31.0 dB
km
Step 3. Now, calculate the total system losses.
LossesTotal @850 nm  Lossessplices  Losses850 nm  3.3  62.0  65.3 dB

LossesTotal @1300 nm  Lossessplices  Losses850 nm  3.3  31.0  34.3 dB
Step 4. To calculate the available optical budget, subtract the transmit power from the
receive sensitivity.
Budgetoptical  51 dB  ( 10 dB)  41 dB
The system can tolerate 41 dB of loss. From the calculations above, this system is
feasible at 1300 nm, but it is not possible at 850 nm.
1e.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

Traditional Applications
COM401_TraditionalApplications_r3 1
Utility communications networks use a wide range of technologies and media. In the next few slides,
we will explore some of these technologies and media.
One of the early technologies deployed and still in use is the power-line carrier. Utilities have
migrated some of their communications networks to digital networks using time-division
multiplexing (TDM) technology, i.e., T1 links and synchronous optical network (SONET) links. As
the price points of Ethernet continue to decline, more utilities are employing Ethernet in their
communications networks.
On the media side, the early networks were pilot wire and power line. Utilities then migrated to using
services provided by the telephone company in the form of analog and digital leased lines. As
performance levels are an important consideration in a utility, we see utilities building their own
private networks using either analog and digital microwave or fiber optics.
Here are the advantages and disadvantages of pilot wires as they relate to protection signal
transmission.
Advantages:
• Little interference from power lines if separate routing is used
• Cost-effective when used for short lengths
Disadvantages:
• High sensitivity to induced voltages in the event of power line faults and lightning strikes
• Issues with entry to the substation
• Possible interference between circuits in the same cable deteriorates performance and
reduces link lengths
• Buried cables may be damaged or broken by civil works
• New cables are expensive
Here are the advantages and disadvantages of power line communications.
Advantages:
• An overhead power line constitutes a very reliable transmission medium
• A power line is normally the shortest and fastest link between line ends and substations
• Power-line carrier L teleprotection links are normally hard-wired point-to-point links with little risk
of unwanted rerouting switching or tampering
• Power line and terminal equipment are under the control of the utility
• Long distances may be covered without the need for repeaters
• No earth potential rise problems occur, because the transmitter and receiver, as well as the coupling
equipment, are normally situated within the station earth network
Disadvantages:
• Channels are subject to increased disturbance during faults in the primary system
• Application for protection signal transmission is limited to the transmission of binary commands
• Power line communications are not applicable for current differential protection
• Narrow bandwidth constrains the number of signals that can be transferred and the signal transfer
time
• Limited frequency band available, limiting the number of power-line carrier links that can work in a
given network
BPL (Broadband power-line carrier) was originally thought to be able to deliver last-mile Internet
access to remote residences.
BPL is used extensively in Europe where a single transformer may serve 100 residences, but in the
U.S. this is not so. In the U.S., transformers act as traps to the power-line carrier signal, so pass-
through connections need to be established around the transformers. This becomes cost prohibitive.
Recently there has been some interest from Smart Grid applications, particularly on the distribution-
level circuits.
BPL typically uses some form of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM); therefore, fault
conditions would be unpredictable data results.
POTS (plain old telephone system): In situations where the utility asset is remote and it is not cost
effective for the utility to build its own private network, often the utility will lease services from the
Telco company. The lease services may be in the form of an analog service that is a 4-wire circuit or
a digital service that is the lease of a 56 kb service.
Advantage: Limited infrastructure is required.
Disadvantage: Dependent on Telco for service levels and monthly expenses for lease.
Spread spectrum has many advantages, particularly for short distances. Using unlicensed channels
eliminates the paperwork and expense required for licensed channels.
Code domain or spread-spectrum modulation is a difficult concept to internalize. A simple analogy

that might help is to think of how two people at a noisy party are able to hold a conversation. To the
bystander, the collective conversations of everyone at the party sound like noise. It is very hard to
distinguish an individual conversation from the noise. However, it is possible for two people to
understand each other by focusing on the unique voice of the other person. The human ear is able to
tune into the voice of the speaker and filter out the background noise. Strictly the listener is not
despreading (recombining) the voice of the person speaking, but this example is a close analogy of
how code domain modulation works. Each person’s unique voice signal collectively adds together to
create noise, but it is possible to extract an individual’s speech from the noise by decoding or tuning
into their unique voice.
The image on the slide is courtesy of Watton on the Web and is used with permission.
In 1941, Hedy Lamarr met George Antheil, a composer. Lamarr was preoccupied with radio-guided
torpedoes. The Germans could jam a specific frequency and disturb communications.
While playing at two pianos with Antheil, Hedy had the idea of sending radio signals, while
constantly changing their frequencies in a random way. (What would later be known as frequency
hopping spread spectrum!)
Hedy and George Antheil were granted a U.S. patent number on August 11, 1942, for their
discovery. The original synchronization between transmitter and receiver was supposed to be
achieved by using a mechanical clock mechanism, driven by paper tape, to be installed on torpedoes.
In 1962, this idea was first implemented. The patent rights had expired two years earlier, so no
royalties were paid. Hedy Lamarr never earned a penny from her invention.
The image on the slide is available at Wikimedia Commons at the following location:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hedy_lamarr_-_1940.jpg
Spread spectrum was developed for use by the military for secure and reliable communications. In
1985, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted commercial use of spread-spectrum
radio technology in three bands: industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM).
• 902 MHz to 926 MHz
• 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz
• 5.725 GHz to 5.850 GHz
All communications equipment using these bands must conform to specific FCC regulations.
The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much greater than the original message bandwidth.
The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is determined by a spreading function (code), independent of
the message, and known only to the transmitter and the intended receiver.
• These radios operate in the 900 MHz and 2.4 GHz license-free ISM band
• The total hardware cost is typically less than the cost of conventional teleprotection systems
• Once the system is installed, there are no additional recurring costs, such as license or leasing
fees
• As demonstrated through various applications, these systems can be as reliable as leased

voice channels
• These radios are secure because they use proprietary synchronization methods that allow
only a point-to-point connection
The biggest drawback of unlicensed ISM band is that it is available for anyone to use. This means
that it suffers from interference from other users accessing the same spectrum.
With interference rejection, the communications engineer can be confident in the security of the
channel. Multiuser random access allows for the application of multiple functions without need of
dedicated channels.
Direct sequence and frequency hopping were used as the basis of earlier Wi-Fi communications
(IEEE 802.11 and 802.11b).
Frequency hopping is the basis of Bluetooth® communications.
Direct sequence communication may be blocked while an interfering signal is present. The symptoms
range from reduced throughput to a complete loss of communications.
Frequency hopping communication may be blocked only when hopping frequency collides with the
interfering signal. The symptom is reduced throughput.
Data transmitted using two different frequency key patterns illustrates how the chances of the two
channels landing on the exact frequency at the same time is low. Each key sends 16 different
frequencies, but no two are at the same frequency at the same time. So while the two signals are
within the same band, they do not interfere with each other.
The ISM band is the instrument, scientific, and medical band with high power output. The
frequencies range from 6 MHz to 250 GHz. Although it was not originally intended for general
communications, now the ISM band frequencies are being used by cordless phones, Bluetooth
devices, and wireless networks at low power.
Taking the information we have learned up to this point, we can evaluate a channel’s performance
based on transmitter power, path losses, and receiver sensitivity requirements. The next slide is a
graphical representation. All of this must be above whatever noise could interfere with the channel.
Most radio systems rely on a direct line-of-sight path between the transmitting and receiving devices
to establish a reliable communications link. A fundamental property of a line-of-sight radio system is
the attenuation of the transmitted signal as the distance between transmitter and receiver is increased.
The signal attenuation with distance is referred to as propagation loss or path loss.
The use of dB and dBm in power calculations is shown on the slide.
Instead of having multiple point-to-point connections and increasing required wiring and ports, if we
network devices, the communications are still available with less maintenance and hardware.
Another method of communication is time-division multiplexing (TDM). This provides for multiple
channels over a single media.
The DS0 is the basic building block for TDM systems. It is a 64 kbps channel and is equivalent to
one voice circuit. As the bandwidth of the systems goes up, the number of voice channels increase.
This slide provides the different levels of access multiplexers, illustrating the building-block
technique. T1 = 24 DS0 (North America, Japan), 1.54 Mbps.
E1 = 30 DS0 (Europe), 2 Mbps. SONET can be OC-1 (optical carrier), OC-3, or OC-48 up to
OC-768. Europe uses synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH).
Some of the other advantages of optical fiber are as follows:
• No cross talk between fibers
• No earth potential rise problems
• Isolation between link ends
Disadvantages:
• Many channels may be lost when a high-capacity fiber-optic link fails
• Installation costs are high when only a moderate data rate is required
• Repair is difficult when fibers are integrated into high-voltage cables or optical ground wire
Microwave has been used extensively by many electric power utilities to satisfy the increasing
demand for more communications capacity.
In analog microwave systems, a number of digital data channels with 4 kHz bandwidth each are
combined into a single aggregate signal by frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
In digital microwave systems, a number of digital data channels of typically 64 kbps each are
combined into an aggregate data stream using time-division multiplexing. In digital microwave
systems, frequency modulation has been replaced by phase shift keying (PSK) modulation or by
combined phase-amplitude shift keying, which is also called quadrature amplitude modulation.
Microwave radio links are normally point-to-point links with distances between 40 km and 100 km.
Established by Xerox in 1974, Ethernet is another way to communicate large quantities of data over a
channel. Instead of using data lumped in predetermined frame sizes and information being sent
continuously as in TDM, Ethernet sends the data with its addressing information only as needed. It
could be considered to be “bursty,” where data are sent all at once and then the channel is quiet until
the next set of data are sent. We will explore Ethernet communications in more detail later.
This slide lists reasons why networked communications are better than simple point-to-point
communications.
The slide shows different types of networks we will discuss throughout the course. Depending on the
requirements of the data to be sent, you may need to use different types of networks. The type of
communication may constrain the type of network you can use.
Other devices include:
• Auxiliary relays
• Remote contactors
• Power quality monitors
• Communications processors
• Circuit breaker monitors
• Load tap changers
• Weather stations
Data Communications
Resources
• J.D. Gibson, Principles of Digital and Analog Communications, Second Edition, Prentice-
Hall, 1993.
• F.F. Driscoll, Data Communications, Saunders Co Ltd, 1992.
• Cisco Systems, Inc., “Simple Network Time Protocol,” April 13, 2013, Available at
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/ios-xml/ios/bsm/configuration/15-s/bsm-sntpv4.pdf
• E.O. Schweitzer III, K. Behrendt, and T. Lee, “Digital Communications for Power System
Protection: Security, Availability, and Speed,” Available at selinc.com.
COM401_DataCommunications_r3 1
Data Communications
Data Communications
In the previous section, we discussed transmission methods, including analog and digital
communications. The application will dictate how simple or complex the communications need to be.
Now, we will explore some theoretical limits of communications systems.
Data Communications
Throughput and bit error rate (BER) are terms used with digital communications. In the analog
world, these would be synonymous with bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
Data Communications
Channel capacity is the maximum possible rate or bandwidth of the channel. There can also be
limitations on the overall channel, such as errors and noise, that decrease the amount of correct data
delivered to receiver. This is measured by throughput. Throughput can include the round-trip time to
account for acknowledgement of data received; otherwise, the data will need to be transmitted again.
The acknowledgement time is typically much shorter than the transmission time.
Reference
CiscoNET, “Internet Speed Issue–Bandwidth vs. Throughput,” May 9, 2009. Available at

http://cisconet.com/traffic-analysis/traffic-analysis-general/239-internet-speed-issue-throughput-
vs-bandwidth.html
Data Communications
Nyquist’s, Hartley’s, and Shannon’s works have been combined to explain the limitations of
communications systems. Using these theories, we can approximate maximum values, given
bandwidth, noise, and amount of data to be transmitted.
Data Communications
From the previous section, let’s review the sampling rate required to adequately replicate a signal.
R = Nyquist rate
BW = Bandwidth of the channel in question
This is the typical sampling rate used in time-division multiplexing (TDM) systems.
Data Communications
Log base 2: Binary logarithm or the inverse of the function of the power of 2, i.e., log2 of 4 is 2, log2
of 8 is 3 (2 • 2 • 2), log2 of 32 is 5 (2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2). To calculate log2 (x), take log10 (x) / log10 (2).
Multiplying 2 times the bandwidth is the Nyquist rate to faithfully replicate the signal being sampled.
If M = 1, then this is the Nyquist rate. If we want to send more than one bit of data with each symbol,
we can calculate the number of possible levels or signals sent. Hartley did not consider noise in his
calculation.
For more information, visit: “Shannon-Hartley theorem,” Wikipedia,

http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem
Data Communications
Hartley’s theorem gives us the digital bandwidth proportional to the analog bandwidth in terms of
bits/second.
Log2(32) = 5
Data Communications
Shannon is known as the father of information theory. Shannon’s equation computes the upper
bounds of the capacity of communications system in the presence of noise. To maximize data transfer
rate, three quantities are important:
• Bandwidth: Maximum
• Signal power: Maximum
• Noise: Minimum
Data Communications
As noise decreases, the data rate increases. The capacity of 39,988 bps is the theoretical maximum
data rate that can be passed over the communications channel given the level of noise. In most
practical applications, actual data will be less.
Data Communications
Data Communications
Availability is the ratio of the time the channel is receiving valid data to the total time the link is
transmitting data. Think of satellite broadcast systems where signal is lost when heavy cloud cover
appears. The channel becomes unavailable during that time. It is typically an experienced or observed
number versus a predictable number.
Data Communications
Data Communications
Data Communications
Table 4.2 from the SEL-3060 Instruction Manual
Name Range Description

RSSI –100 to 0 dBm Received signal strength indication of the connected radio
Percentage of received packets that fail averaged from the last
Block Error Rate 0 to 100%
1000 data blocks
Total number of packets that have been transmitted and
Total Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109)
received by the radio
Transmitted Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109) Total number of packets transmitted out of the radio
Received Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109) Total number of packets received into the radio
Number of packets that failed to get transmitted or received by
Failed Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109)
the radio
Number of packets successfully transmitted or received by the
Passed Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109)
radio
Broadcast Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109) Number of broadcast packets sent or received by the radio
Unicast Packets 0 to (4.29 • 109) Number of unicast messages sent or received by the radio
Average size of payload data transmitted by the radio from the
Average TX Size 0 to 1536 bytes
last 32 packets
Average size of payload data received by the radio from the
Average RX Size 0 to 1536 bytes
last 32 packets
Data Communications
Data Communications
Sending additional bits for error detection increases the required capacity of the digital channel. The
greater the error checking, the less channel that is left for the message. Longitudinal redundancy
check (LRC) is employed for Telnet communications.
Checksum can refer to a specific method of adding a security check to a message, or it can refer
generically to any of the various types of security algorithms, such as LRC, cyclic redundancy check
(CRC), etc.
Data Communications
Simple error checking scheme. Adding a row and column to the matrix with the digital so that the
rows and columns add up to an even number allows efficient error detection. If the rows and the
columns do not add up to an even number, then the intersection of the row and column is the error. If
only a row or column is an odd number, then the error is in the check bit and it is not in the message.
Hamming distance is a term used to describe how many digits have been changed from the original
sent message. For a 0010 message to be converted to 1111, the Hamming distance is 3; that is,
3 digits were changed. Richard Hamming was a mathematician who also went on to describe specific
codes for erroring checking and correction.
Data Communications
Parity checking can detect a single-bit error. This does not determine where the error is, so correction
is not possible. Also, it cannot detect double-bit errors since two errors would yield a correct parity.
Even parity adds the data bits plus the parity bits, and if the number is even, it is correct. In odd
parity, the sum should be odd. Therefore the parity bit will be a one or a zero based on if it is even or
odd parity. This slide is an example of even parity. The transmitter and receiver pair must be set for
the same parity. If one bit is off, then the data will need to be retransmitted.
Data Communications
Often checksum refers to a modular sum, which consists of adding up all the bit strings, discarding
overflow bits, taking the two’s complement of the result, and placing that result at the end of the
message. The receiver performs the same operation, including the attached checksum value, and
should result in a string of zeroes.
This type of checksum is inherently not very accurate in detecting errors. As mentioned, various
other algorithms are often referred to checksums, although they may not at all resemble this method
of data checking.
Data Communications
To improve the parity check, add another check character at the end of the block of characters. This
is block check character (BCC). This gives two-dimensional checking. It detects more errors than the
simple parity check, but it fails when two double-bit errors are in the same bit positions. The next two
slides illustrate this. You can tell that this is odd parity as every row and column add up to an odd
number.
Data Communications
The double-bit error correction detects the errors in Lines 3 and 4 since they add up to an even
number. Note however that the parity bit is correct.
Data Communications
In this illustration, both the parity bit and the BCC cannot recognize the error.
Data Communications
A more involved type of error checking is a cyclic redundancy check.
Rules for determining the CRC polynomial are that it must be one bit longer than the BCC and the least
significant bit must be a logical 1. The long division does not employ subtraction but uses an exclusive OR
operation. For example:
The message is M = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 (10 bits)
The CRC polynomial is P = 1 1 0 0 1 (5 bits)
The BCC will be 4 bits
The message will need 4 bits added to the end, and they will be zeros so that this is now the same length as the
original message plus the BCC. This is now divided by the CRC polynomial. The remainder is therefore 1101.
The message to be transmitted is:
MT = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
At the receiving end, this process is duplicated. If the remainder is not zero, typically the receiver will ask for a
retransmission.
CRC error detection can detect single-bit errors, double-bit errors that are the same length as the polynomial
(5 bits in this case), bursts errors that cause fewer errors than the BCC length, and most burst errors that are
longer than the BCC length.
The polynomial can also be written in terms of power of x. This is left for the exercise in the back of this
section.
Data Communications
An automatic repeat request (ARQ) can employ three basic strategies: stop-and-wait ARQ, go-back-
N ARQ, and selective repeat ARQ. Typically requiring response from the receiver as a ACK
(acknowledgement) or a NAK (negative acknowledgement). For more information on ARQ, visit the
following webpage: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_repeat_request
A forward error correction (FEC) provides redundant message content in the original message so that
the data can be reconstructed if necessary, and it also provides a check of the message. For more
information on FEC, visit the following webpage:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction
Data Communications
Data Communications
When calculating file size, the term kilobyte represents 1024 bytes, not 1000. Sometimes in
literature, this differentiated by the uppercase K. Therefore you must first calculate the number of
bytes by multiplying by 1024 and then convert this to bits. Remember that there are 8 bits per byte.
Data Communications
Data Communications
Data Communications
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Generating
Polynomials Exercise
Rules for determining the CRC polynomial are that it must be one bit longer than the BCC
and the least significant bit must be a logical 1. The long division does not employ
subtraction but uses an exclusive OR operation. For example:

The message will need 4 bits added to the end, and they will be zeros so that this is now the
same length as the original message plus the BCC. This is now divided by the CRC
polynomial by using exclusive ORs. The remainder is therefore 1101.
MT = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
At the receiving end, this process is duplicated. If the remainder is not zero, typically the
receiver will ask for a retransmission.
CRC error detection can detect single-bit errors, double-bit errors that are the same length
as the polynomial (5 bits in this case), bursts errors that cause fewer errors than the BCC
length, and most burst errors that are longer than the BCC length.
Generating polynomials can be written either as binary patterns like 11001 or in terms of
powers of x. For example, 11001 would be written as:
1x4 + 1x3 + 0x2 + 0x1 + 1x0
Note: Remember the last term must be a 1.
Write each of the following binary patterns in terms of power of x:
1. 10101
2. 101011
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 2b.1

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Generating Polynomials Exercise
3. 1100001
Write the binary patterns for each of the following and identify the size of the block check
character (BCC) (which is 1 bit less the numbers in the CRC polynomial):
1. 1x6 + 1x4 + 1x3 + 1x2 + 1x0
2. 1x7 + 1x6 + 1x5 + 1x0
3. 1x4 + 1x0
Determine the bit format to be transmitted for the following message and polynomial:
Message M: 1110001
CRC P polynomial: 1101
BCC well be: _____ bits
Determine the message to be transmitted, MT:
2b.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Generating
Polynomials Exercise Solution
Rules for determining the CRC polynomial are that it must be one bit longer than the BCC
and the least significant bit must be a logical 1. The long division does not employ
subtraction but uses an exclusive OR operation. For example:

The message will need 4 bits added to the end, and they will be zeros so that this is now the
same length as the original message plus the BCC. This is now divided by the CRC
polynomial by using exclusive ORs. The remainder is therefore 1101.
MT = 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
At the receiving end, this process is duplicated. If the remainder is not zero, typically the
receiver will ask for a retransmission.
CRC error detection can detect single-bit errors, double-bit errors that are the same length
as the polynomial (5 bits in this case), bursts errors that cause fewer errors than the BCC
length, and most burst errors that are longer than the BCC length.
Generating polynomials can be written either as binary patterns like 11001 or in terms of
powers of x. For example, 11001 would be written as:
1x4 + 1x3 + 0x2 + 0x1 + 1x0
Note: Remember the last term must be a 1.
Write each of the following binary patterns in terms of power of x:
1. 10101
Solution: 1x4 + 0x3 + 1x2 + 0x1 + 1x0
2. 101011
Solution: 1x5 + 0x4 + 1x3 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x0
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 2c.1

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Generating Polynomials Exercise Solution
3. 1100001
Solution: 1x6 + 1x5 + 0x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 + 0x1 + 1x0
Write the binary patterns for each of the following and identify the size of the block check
character (BCC) (which is 1 bit less the numbers in the CRC polynomial):
1. 1x6 + 1x4 + 1x3 + 1x2 + 1x0
Solution: 1011101; the BCC is 6.
2. 1x7 + 1x6 + 1x5 + 1x0

3. 1x4 + 1x0
Determine the bit format to be transmitted for the following message and polynomial:
Message M: 1110001
CRC P polynomial: 1101
BCC well be: 4 bits
Determine the message to be transmitted, MT:
Solution:
M = 1110001
CRC = 1101
1010010
1101 1110001000
+ 1101
1100
+ 1101
1100
+ 1101
010 Remainder
MT = 1110001010
2c.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

Data Transmission
Resources
• J.D. Gibson, Principles of Digital and Analog Communications, Second Edition, Prentice-
Hall, 1993.
• F.F. Driscoll, Data Communications, Saunders Co Ltd, 1992.
• Cisco Systems, Inc., “Simple Network Time Protocol,” April 13, 2013, Available at
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/ios-xml/ios/bsm/configuration/15-s/bsm-sntpv4.pdf
• E.O. Schweitzer III, K. Behrendt, and T. Lee, “Digital Communications for Power System
Protection: Security, Availability, and Speed,” Available at selinc.com.
COM401_DataTransmission_r3 1
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Since we are not using an external clock, the data must contain information about when the data start
and stop, hence the start/stop bits. These frame the data bits (at beginning and end of data bits). A
parity bit can be used just prior to the stop bit and is an error detection function, not a correction. Odd
parity means the data bits plus the parity bit contain an odd number of ones; even parity is an even
number of ones for the data bits plus the parity bit. The parity bit changes based on the number of
ones in the message and if it is odd or even parity.
In this method, efficiency is reduced because each eight-bit data has either two or three bits of
nondata.
Data Transmission
Since we are not using an external clock, the data must contain information about when the data start
and stop, hence the start/stop bits. These frame the data bits (at beginning and end of data bits). A
parity bit can be used just prior to the stop bit and is an error detection function, not a correction. Odd
parity means the data bits plus the parity bit contain an odd number of ones; even parity is an even
number of ones for the data bits plus the parity bit. The parity bit changes based on the number of
ones in the message and if it is odd or even parity.
In this method, efficiency is reduced because each eight-bit data has either two or three bits of
nondata.
Data Transmission
If a separate communications line is available, clock information can be transmitted. If not (more
likely the case), then the clock information is embedded in the data transmitted and the receiver uses
these data to stay in sync with the transmitter.
As part of the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) layered model for protocols, the
data link control (DLC) is Layer 2. This will be explained in more detail in the Ethernet section.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
While parallel communication is faster (all bits are sent at once), serial communication is more cost
effective when it is external to a computer, since only one wire is required, not many as in parallel
communication.
In the following slides, we will cover:
• EIA-232, EIA-485, USB, and EIA-422: Async
• EIA-232: Point to point
• EIA-485: Point to point, multidrop, and multipoint
• USB: Replacing EIA-232
• EIA-422: Twisted-pair, balanced or differential signaling. Multidrop or point to point;

common for extending EIA-232 communications
• G.703: Plesiochronous—nearly synchronous—running at same rate, but have a slip, and deal
with the slip in time
Data Transmission
RS-232 has been replaced by EIA-232 as the current terminology.
Data Transmission
Many pins of the DB-25 connection are legacy from old terminal interfaces and unused in modern serial
communication (DB-9 pin equivalents are in parentheses):
1: Protective ground
2 (3): Transmit data (TX, TXD)
3 (2): Receive data (RX, RXD)
4 (7): Request to send
5 (8): Clear to send
6 (6): Data set ready
7 (5): Signal ground/common return
8: Carrier detect (DCD)
12: Secondary carrier detect; only needed if second channel is being used
13: Secondary clear to send; only needed if second channel is being used
14: Secondary transmit data; only needed if second channel is being used
15: Transmit clock (TCLK, TXCLK): Used only in synchronous mode
16: Secondary receive data; only needed if second channel is being used
17: Receive clock (RCLK): Used only in synchronous mode
18: Local loopback
19: Secondary request to send; only needed if second channel is being used
20 (4): Data terminal is ready
21: Signal quality detector/remote loopback
22 (9): Ring indicator
23: Signal rate selector
24: Auxiliary clock (ACLK); secondary channel only
Data Transmission
Because a sender and receiver cannot always process data at the same rate, some method of
negotiating when to start and stop transmission is required.
Traditional hardware flow control uses two of the serial port signal lines to control data transmission.
When the sender has data to transmit, it asserts the RTS (request to send) signal line. The receiver
asserts the CTS (clear to send) signal line when it is ready to accept data. If the receiver can no
longer accept data, it deasserts the CTS signal to instruct the sender to stop sending data. When the
receiver is ready to accept data again, it reasserts the CTS signal line.
Modern RTS/CTS hardware handshaking uses the RTS/CTS pins for bidirectional flow control, with
both the data terminal equipment (DTE) and data communications equipment (DCE) able to indicate
when they can no longer receive data. In this scenario, the DTE will assert RTS when it is ready to
receive data and will not transmit data unless CTS is asserted (by the remote-end DCE). The DCE
will behave similarly in that it will assert CTS to indicate that it is ready to receive data and will not
transmit data unless RTS is asserted (by the remote-end DTE). Most implementations in modern
applications will, in fact, be a pair of DTE devices with RTS tied to the remote-end CTS signal—in
this fashion, they essentially set a permissive signal for the corresponding side to begin transmitting
data.
Software flow control uses an agreed-upon set of characters (usually XON/XOFF) as start and stop
signals. When the receiver is ready to accept data, it sends the start character (usually XON) to the
sender. The sender starts sending data until the receiver sends the stop character (usually XOFF). The
sender then stops sending data and waits for the receiver to send the start character.
Data Transmission
DTE devices transmit and/or receive data and use communications equipment for the data transfer.
DCE devices connect to a communications line for the transfer of the data, establishing, maintaining,
and terminating the connections. They do not process the data.
Data Transmission
Pin 2 is RX and Pin 3 is TX, and whether the pin is DTE or DCE defines the flow of data in and out
of the pins. Use of a null-modem serial adapter will allow crossover of DB-9 Pins 2/3 (simple
communications) and 7/8 (RTS/CTS hardware handshaking).
Data Transmission
CD: The device is receiving a carrier from the remote end.
RD, RX, or RXD: The device is receiving data from the remote end.
TD, TX, or TXD: Data are being sent to the remote end.
DTR: The device is ready to receive data; initiate a call or continue a call.
GND: Zero volt reference.
DSR: Device is ready to receive data.
RTS: Device requests the remote end to prepare to transmit data.
CTS: The device is ready to accept data from the remote end.
RI: The device has detected a ring signal on the telephone line.
Data Transmission
Note the reversal of Pins 2, 3, 7, and 8 from the DTE connector.
Data Transmission
Providing a demodulated IRIG + and – connection on (normally unused) Pins 4 and 6 allows SEL
serial devices to time-synchronize using IRIG-B sources that are connected serially. This includes
many communications processor, data concentrator, and RTU products, such as the following:
• SEL-2020, -2030, and -2032 (communications processors)
• SEL-3332, -3351, and -3354 (industrial computers)
• SEL-3530, -3530-4, and -2240 (real-time automation controller, RTAC, product family)
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
To facilitate communications between DTE devices with an existing straight-through cable, you can
apply a null-modem adapter at one end of the link, to swap the RXD/TXD and RTS/CTS lines.
Data Transmission
In data-only applications, RTS/CTS is not required. In this case, you can use the C272A cable. When
you set it for no handshaking, it sets RTS to 1 and sets CTS to ignore or not to care.
Data Transmission
When a sender is connected to a receiver over an electrical line, there is an initial state in which
communications have not yet begun, called the idle or mark state. Changing the state of the line by
shifting the voltage to a negative value is called a space.
The change from mark to space is known as the start bit. This triggers the synchronization necessary
for asynchronous serial transmission. The start bit signals the beginning of the character frame. The
receiver then samples the voltage level at periodic intervals (bit time) to determine whether a 0 bit
(space) or a 1 bit (mark) is present on the line. The bit time is expressed in samples per second,
known as baud.
After the data bits in the frame are sent, a parity bit for error checking can be sent.
To signal the end of the character frame, the sender places the line back in the mark state for a
minimum specified time interval. This signal is known as the stop bit and returns the transmission
line back to idle status.
Prior to transmission, the sender and receiver agree on the serial data format, data bits in a character
frame, number of stop bits, parity, and baud rate.
Data Transmission
A 300-baud modem transmitting 4 bits per second or 4 bits per character equals 1,200 bps or
2,400 baud with 4 bits per second equal to 9600 bps, etc.
Common bit rates are:
• 1,200
• 2,400
• 4,800
• 9,600
• 19,200
• 38,400
• 57,600
• 115,200
In general, if a longer serial cable is used, there is an increase of potential interference due to the
ground potential rising and induced voltage where higher bit rates become unstable and not suitable
for file transfer.
Data Transmission
9600 8N1 = 9600 baud, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit: The most common set of default serial parameters is
9600 8N1, although some Modbus® devices use even parity by default (8E1). Generally, if a device does not
specify data bits, parity bits, and stop bits in the configuration parameters, they are defaulted at 8N1.
Many modern SEL relays that support MIRRORED BITS® will support two types, MBx or MB8x, where x
indicates Channel A or B. The raw bit pattern for the bytes contained in these four-byte messages is as follows:
MB = 1 start, 6 data, 1 parity, 1 stop = 9 bits
MB8 = 1 start, 6 data, 1 parity, 2 stop = 10 bits
For a direct serial cable connection between relays, it is generally important only that the parameters match
each other, and it is not necessarily important which option is chosen. However, when you are using a
communications device that uses a defined bit structure for transmitting bytes (modem, radio, multiplexer,
etc.), it is very important that the bit counts match so that the MIRRORED BITS messages can be framed
properly. Common options for setting these serial formats are as follows:
8N1 = 1 start, 8 data, 1 stop = 10 bits (same as MB8)
8E1/8O1 = 1 start, 8 data, 1 parity, 1 stop = 11 bits
8E2/8O2 = 1 start, 8 data, 1 parity, 2 stop = 12 bits
6O1 = 1 start, 6 data, 1 parity, 1 stop = 9 bits (same as MB)
6O2 = 1 start, 6 data, 1 parity, 2 stop = 10 bits (same as MB8 and 8N1)
As we can see by the bit totals, MB8 conforms to a defined channel of 8N1, and MB uses a channel with the
same bit count as a 6O1 channel. In SEL-400 series relays where the MB8 option does not exist for
configuring a channel, the Stop Bits field is exposed to allow setting of 2, which is a bit-by-bit equivalent to an
MB8 byte.
Communications devices themselves do not generally care which bits are framing (data or parity); they require
only that the total number of expected bits match up.
Data Transmission
The abilities of an integrated circuit (IC) universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART)

controller will generally control the speed at which a device is able to communicate serially: the more
powerful (or less loaded) the UART, the higher the bit rate capabilities. The function of the UART
may be a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) programmed to act as a UART or as a universal
synchronous/asynchronous receiver/transmitter (USART).
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
To illustrate differences in the two types of serial communications, here are the specifications for
each.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
In EIA-422 communications, the master node is defined by always having its transmitter active,
meaning no other masters could potentially exist on the network. Technically speaking, multiple
master nodes can exist on an EIA-485 network, but this is often not the case in industrial control
systems due to the way SCADA protocols are designed.
In four-wire mode, it is important to recognize that all devices must appropriately control their
receive and transmit drivers, although not as strictly as with half-duplex two-wire networks.
In the EIA-485 network above, technically all slave devices in the network could constantly have
their receive driver active and the master device could constantly have its transmit driver active. In
this scenario, each slave device must activate and de-activate its transmit driver only at times of
actual data response to allow for other slaves to control the line and respond to the master. Because
of this differing requirement and the fact that most EIA-485 drivers do not have awareness if they are
a slave or a master, the transmit line is typically disabled after data transmission is completed.
Shields around the two-wire or four-wire pair(s) should be grounded only at one location in the
control house. If the wires extend into the switchyard, do not ground them in the switchyard. This
prevents differences in grounding from adversely affecting the signals, better known as ground
potential rise (GPR).
Data Transmission
• For many four-wire devices, two-wire behavior can be accomplished by tying together TX+
to RX+ and TX– to RX–
• Half-duplex communications require that receive/transmit be accomplished on same data

lines, so carefully timed switching is required
• Many devices will also frequently use different terminology for EIA-485 wiring terminals: A
and B are quite common replacements for + and –
• Half-duplex communications will often require channel settle time between receive and
transmit functions; use of PREDLY and PSTDLY settings on the COM port are necessary
• SEL protocol is not supported by EIA-485 multidrop networks because it is not addressable
• Shields around the two-wire or four-wire pair(s) should be grounded only at one location in
the control house. If the wires extend into the switchyard, do not ground them in the
switchyard. This prevents differences in grounding from adversely affecting the signals,
better known as ground potential rise.
Data Transmission
SEL EIA-232/-485 converters, such as the SEL-2886, offer both methods of two-wire half-duplex
flow control:
• RTS mode: In RTS mode, the transmitter is enabled whenever the connected serial device
asserts the serial port RTS line. When the RTS line is negative or not connected, the
transmitter will not enable in RTS mode.
• SDC mode: In send data control (SDC) mode, the transmitter is enabled when data are
present on the serial port TX line. Apply a one-character time delay to ensure the transmitter
stays enabled through low data transitions.
• Echo: When Echo is enabled, the receive driver is always active. When Echo is disabled, the
receiver is disabled during transmitter activity to prevent feedback of the transmitted data to
the receiver.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
The following resource is a good reference book on these types of networks:
B+B SmartWorx, “RS-422 and RS-485 Applications eBook – A Practical Guide to Using
RS-422 and RS-485 Serial Interfaces,” Oct., 2010. Available at http://www.bb-
elec.com/Learning-Center/All-White-Papers/Serial/RS-422-and-RS-485-Applications-
eBook.aspx
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Fiber-optic transceivers will accomplish the function of encoding/decoding copper/EIA-232 signals

over a fiber-optic-based link.
Unfortunately there are few industry standards for encoded serial fiber optics, so third-party devices
often do not communicate end-to-end on the fiber-optic side of a communications network.
There are several factors that must be considered when you are selecting fiber-optic transceivers for a
communications link:
• Available fiber-optic cabling, multimode or single mode
• Distance of the link
• Power requirements (SEL relays and other devices provide +5 Vdc via Pin 1 of the DB-9
connector)
• IRIG-B transmission requirement
Data Transmission
Easy installation: Plug each transceiver directly into a 9-pin serial connector (DB-9). The transceiver
is approximately the size of a DB-9 connector shell. No special mounting is required. It receives
power from the host device through the EIA-232 standard connector, requiring no separate power
supply and power wiring. There are no jumpers or settings needed to apply SEL fiber-optic
transceivers.
Data Transmission
The application requirements, the type of fiber, the connector, and the need for IRIG-B will dictate
which transceiver is best. The next slide shows those available currently. Note that 650 nm is in the
visible spectrum, so looking into the fiber is not as dangerous as with other wavelengths.
Data Transmission
The location of a product comparison sheet is https://selinc.com/api/download/2848/
SEL offers many different styles of fiber-optic serial transceivers that customers can order,
depending on the type and line length of the fiber in place:
• SEL-2800, -2810, -2820: 650 nm multimode, V-pin connectors (1 to 500 meters). The
SEL-2810 offers IRIG transmission
• SEL-2812, -2814, -2815: 850 nm multimode, ST® connectors (SEL-2812/-2814 = 1 m to

4 km, SEL-2815 = 2 to 15 km). The SEL-2812 offers IRIG transmission
• SEL-2829, -2830: 1300 nm single-mode ST connectors (0 to 23 km and 16 to 80 km)
• SEL-2831: 1550 nm single-mode ST connectors (16 to 110 km)
Data Transmission
OFS FiberWire cable is Hard Clad Silica (HCS) fiber; this is a glass fiber. Note that sometimes
people conclude (mistakenly) that the HCS cable is plastic, because plastic cables are also available
in 200-micrometer diameters.
Three types of HCS fiber-optic cables are available from SEL under the C805 part number.
• Standard-duty zip cord is for use inside cabinets or trays with no large physical strains on the
cable or exposure to water or sunlight.
• Heavy-duty PVC-jacketed cables are for dry raceways or cable trays with more demanding
physical conditions.
• Heavy-duty, water-blocked, polyethylene-jacketed cables are for installations that may be

wet or damp, such as outdoor cable trays or conduit. (Note that these cables do not have
armoring against animals, which is needed for direct burial.)
The SEL-2800 and SEL-2810 use OFS 200-micrometer multimode cable and V-pin connectors. The
SEL-2812, SEL-2814, and SEL-2815 can also use OFS 200-micrometer multimode cable,
substituting ST connectors. Compared with physically smaller fibers (6 to 62.5 micrometer), with
these installations, termination time is greatly reduced. You can terminate a pair of connectors in less
than one minute. Consult the distance versus fiber chart in this presentation or in the “Fiber-Optic
Products and Applications” data sheet to understand the applicable maximum distances using
200-micrometer optical fiber.
Data Transmission
SEL fiber serial ports always use ST connectors. Almost all SEL Ethernet devices use LC connectors.
OFS FiberWire cable is HCS. Two types of 62.5-micrometer HCS fiber-optic cables are available from SEL
under the C807 part number.
• Standard-duty zip cord (one or two fibers) is for use inside cabinets or trays with no large physical
strains on the cable or exposure to water or sunlight.
• Heavy-duty, water-blocked, polyethylene-jacketed cables (two or four fibers) are for installations that
may be wet or damp, such as outdoor cable trays or conduit. (Note that these cables do not have
armoring against animals, which is needed for direct burial.)
Medium-distance, multimode fiber connections are usually installed with a patch panel for the fiber-optic
cable. SEL provides duplex multimode ST patch cables in customer-specified lengths to connect each
SEL-2812, SEL-2814, or SEL-2815 to a patch panel. Reference the C807 part number to order SEL
62.5-micrometer jumpers. LC-terminated jumpers are also available in 1-, 2-, 5-, 10-, 12-, and 15-meter
lengths.
For cables terminated in ST male connectors instead of the typical female connections in a patch panel, use
splice bushings to connect two ST-terminated fibers.
Bulk cables, connectors, and termination kits are also available for 62.5-micrometer fiber-optic cables.
The SEL-2812, SEL-2814, SEL-2815, SEL-2894, SEL-3094, and SEL-9220 are compatible with
62.5-micrometer multimode cable with ST connectors. Consult the distance versus fiber chart in this
presentation or in the “Fiber-Optic Products and Applications” data sheet to understand the applicable
maximum distances using 62.5-micrometer optical fiber.
Data Transmission
Long-distance, single-mode fiber connections are usually installed with a patch panel for the fiber-
optic cable. SEL provides several lengths of duplex single-mode patch cables to connect the
SEL-2725, SEL-2829, SEL-2830, or SEL-2831 products to patch panels or to each other. Reference
the C809 part number to order SEL single-mode jumpers.
Available connector types and lengths include the following:
• ST-to-ST connectors: 5, 15, or 30 meters
• LC-to-ST connectors: 5, 15, or 30 meters
• LC-to-LC connectors: 5, 15, or 30 meters
• ST-to-FCPC connectors: 25, 60, 100, or 160 meters
For cables terminated in ST male connectors instead of the typical female connections in a patch
panel, use splice bushings to connect two ST-terminated fibers.
Data Transmission
The USB connection allowed for a standard for connecting computers and devices. This was needed
to eliminate the issues with EIA-232 connections that were not the same. One of the difficulties
became the specific drivers needed for each manufacturer’s USB cable. This took the unknown from
the hardware to the software. The evolution has resulted in better results today.
Many products use USB connections for the initial configurations, prior to using an Ethernet type of
connection.
For example, some of the SEL products that use USB for initial configurations are the SEL ICON®
SONET system, SEL-3031 Serial Radio Transceiver, SEL-3530 Real-Time Automation Controller
(RTAC), SEL-651R Advanced Recloser Control, SEL-351 feeder relay family.
Data Transmission
The software driver provided with the C662 cable will provide an emulated serial COM port in
Windows® device list.
Data Transmission
Conversion from one format to another….
When possible, use fiber or wireless communications where ground potential rise could be an issue
(i.e., switchyard to the control house).
Data Transmission
Bluetooth enables you to easily communicate from a convenient location, away from confined or
busy spaces, without long cables strung in between. Just plug a Bluetooth-to-serial converter into the
serial port, pair it with a laptop or smartphone, and communicate from any location within 10 meters
(32 feet).
The apps are available for Android™ and BlackBerry® devices.
Data Transmission
One of the most useful improvements with the advent of microprocessor devices is the ability to have
sequence of events or fault data right in the device. One of the most glaring findings during the
analysis of the August 14, 2003 blackout was the lack of accurate time stamps. Many devices had the
capability to be connected to a timing source, but few were actually connected. In the “old days,”
wide-area or multi-area events were lined up based on a common “known” event and analyzed from
there, but there was no real time associated. Besides time stamps, other uses of time synchronization
include synchronized communications, i.e., SONET, and some line relay protections require end-to-
end synchronization.
Data Transmission
IRIG-B, Inter-Range Instrumentation Group time code format B (protocol for precise time)
PTP, Precision Time Protocol (IEEE 1588)
SNTP, Simple Network Time Protocol
Data Transmission
As of April 22, 2016, there were 31 operational satellites in the Global Positioning System (GPS)
constellation, as well as some decommissioned satellites that may be reactivated if needed.
This image is provided courtesy of the U.S. Department of Defense.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
All GPS satellites synchronize operations so that their repeating signals are transmitted at the same
instant. The signals, moving at the speed of light, arrive at a GPS receiver at slightly different times
because some satellites are farther away than others. The distance to the GPS satellites can be
determined by estimating the amount of time it takes for their signals to reach the receiver. When the
receiver estimates the distance to at least four GPS satellites, it can calculate its position in three
dimensions. Based on its three-dimensional position relative to the GPS satellites, the receiver is able
to accurately calculate the propagation delay from each satellite. Using this technique, the receiver
clock is precisely adjusted to match the GPS satellite clock time.
There are several sources of inaccuracies:
• Signal propagation delay varies depending on what angle the received signal passes through
the atmosphere
• Problems can also occur when radio signals bounce off large objects
• Satellites occasionally send out bad almanac data, misreporting their own position
• The propagation speed in the receiver antenna and antenna lead is different than free-space
and the atmosphere. The propagation delay through the antenna lead will therefore vary with
length
• Time jitter may occur when the satellite clock receiver loses lock with one satellite and
achieves lock with another
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Time-synchronization requirements vary from the broad range of applications in power systems. For
synchronizing substation computers, a few milliseconds (ms) of accuracy is good. For revenue
metering, disturbance recording, sequence-of-events recording less than ms accuracy is sufficient.
There is a different class of applications, such as sampled values, traveling wave fault location, and
synchrophasor measurements, that demands high time-synchronization accuracies of less than 1 us.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Common forms of IRIG-B are the modulated IRIG-B1XX and DCLS (direct current level shift)
IRIG-B0XX time-code outputs.
The carrier resolution for modulated IRIG-B is fixed at two in the tens place (1 kHz amplitude-
modulated signal) and 0 for DCLS IRIG-B. The remaining units’ place numeral is determined by the
coded expression implementation. IRIG-B with extensions (from IEEE 1344, for example) is 0,
while the nonextended or regular version is the numeral 2.
There appears to be conflicting information on modulated and demodulated IRIG-B. Some have used
the term unmodulated as well, meaning that it does not have the 1 kHz carrier signal. This un- or
demodulated signal is better described as the dc level shift IRIG-B signal.
The extended IRIG-B000 signal conforms to IEEE C37.118-2005, IEEE Standard for
Synchrophasors for Power Systems (formerly IEEE 1344-1995), which defines the use of control bits
in the IRIG-B000 signal to send the year and other time-quality information along with the basic
time-of-day and day-of-year information.
The IRIG-B004 format is BCD, BCD_Year, CF, SBS.
Data Transmission
IRIG-B is the most commonly applied version of the IRIG time code. There are many variations of IRIG-B, designated by
three additional numerals:
1. Form designation:
0: DCLS (width coded; also known as demodulated or unmodulated)

1: Sine wave carrier (amplitude modulated)
2: Modified Manchester
2. Carrier resolution:
0: No carrier (DCLS)
1: 100 Hz (10 ms resolution)
2: 1 kHz (1 ms resolution)
3: 10 kHz (100 s resolution)
4: 100 kHz (10 s resolution)
5: 1 MHz (1 s resolution)
3. Coded expressions:
0: BCD, CF, SBS, also known as extended; it has IEEE C37.118 data
1: BCD, CF
2: BCD also known as regular
3: BCD, SBS
4. BCD, BCD_Year, CF, SBS
5. BCD, BCD_Year, CF
6. BCD, BCD_Year
7. BCD, BCD_Year, SBS
where DCLS is direct current level shift, BCD is binary-coded decimal for coding of time (HH, MM, SS, DDD), SBS
is straight binary seconds of the day (0–86400 s), and CF is control functions that depend on user applications.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Devices typically provide IRIG-B time-synchronization accuracy traceable to Coordinated Universal

Time (UTC) from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals. However, external events,
such as snow buildup, physical damage to the GNSS antenna, or other environmental effects, can
prevent the reception of the GNSS signals. You can mitigate the effects of these external events on
your system by combining the satellite clock with an IRIG-B distribution device with two IRIG-B
inputs, which it continuously compares. The source with the best time quality will be selected as the
primary source. GPS is the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning Satellite. GLONASS is the
Russian version: Global Navigation Satellite System.
Data Transmission
All IRIG time-code formats reserve a set of bits as control functions (CF) for the encoding control,
identification, and other special purpose functions. The IRIG specification allows users to program
the control bits in any predetermined coding system.
As an aid in implementing wide-area synchronized phasor measurements, the IEEE committee that
created IEEE C37.118 (IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for Power Systems) defined the
27 control function bits available in IRIG-B for specific purposes or “extensions” of the existing
format.
These extensions, when used, convey additional time parameters that are important for high-accuracy
longitudinal time-tracking applications such as synchrophasors. Standalone IRIG-B does not have
year information; the control function extensions provide year information encoded in BCD. The
extensions also contain notice of time jumps caused by leap seconds, daylight-saving time
adjustments, and the new values. In order to synchronize high-accuracy time applications over many
time zones, the extensions provide the time zone offset to UTC. With these offset data, the
application operates on a one-time reference, even when obtaining time data from multiple time
zones. The control function extensions also contain important information that reports the time
quality of the IRIG-B time-code signal. When we use the time-quality bits, the time-code source
clock communicates the degree of accuracy of the time output.
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Data Transmission
Using the data provided in an earlier slide, calculate how much delay there is between the satellite
clock and the intelligent electronic device (IED). Does this make much difference in the accuracy of
the time synchronization? If so, discuss it with the class. If you have many IEDs to connect to the
clock source, how would you compensate for the cable length?
Data Transmission
Providing cable compensation improves the accuracy of the time signal to the IED. If there are
multiple IEDs with varying lengths of cable, averaging the cable length among all IEDs may affect
the overall accuracy of the time synchronization. Using multiple IRIG-B outputs can improve the
accuracy if similar lengths are grouped together.
Network Architectures
COM401_NetworkArchitecture_r3 1
Historically, data flow was very well controlled with point-to-point communications, and access was
on an as-needed basis. This control was under the operations, protection, or energy management
departments individually. With the proliferation of Ethernet networks, these functions are being
combined under one information technology (IT) department, and this department has a tendency to
control the data and access for the protection and operations personnel. To ensure you have access to
the data you need, understanding is essential. Unless you communicate well with the IT department,
you risk not having access to what you need.
Webster’s New World Dictionary defines network architecture as “the design and framework of a
network, including the characteristics of individual hardware, software, and transmission system
components and how they interact in order to ensure the reliable transfer of information.”
• Hardware: Routers, switches, intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), cabling, data

concentrators, or master station computers
• Performance: Speed, path, and reliability
• Process: What action for the system to take based on inputs or events
• Protocols: Syntax of the data being communicated: which protocol you use depends upon
desired requirements
Protection: Detect faults and disconnect faulted equipment
Automation: SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition)—RTU (remote terminal unit) and
master stations, remedial action schemes
Time synchronization: IRIG, SNTP, IEEE 1588
Engineering access: Configuration of devices—remotely or locally
Synchrophasors: Real-time measurement of electrical quantities from across the power system
Diagnostics/Reporting: Event analysis and fault analysis
Remote control: Open and close breakers, etc.
Visualization: To bring data to a central screen for viewing in real time
Callout alarming: Send texts or email to notify responsible people of issues
In a broad sense, the main function of power system protection is to detect faults and abnormal
conditions and to disconnect the faulted element (or elements) or to take other corrective actions in
order to prevent further equipment damage or to avoid a system disturbance.
Another important function of protection systems is to facilitate restoration by providing an

indication of the fault. This is a target indication. In the past, substation operation personnel would
read relay targets after a relay operation and send the information to the relaying department. Modern
digital relays can send the information over a communications channel. Power system operators can
then use this information in real time to make better restoration decisions.
Reconfiguration/sectionalizing: Flexibility to isolate trouble areas while still maintaining power to

vital customers
Voltage/load control: To help balance and stabilize the power system
Fault indication/location: To assist in troubleshooting and repair
Information collection/aggregation: Gather sequence of events, operational reports, profile data

(power quality or revenue data), system incidents (weather events, disasters)
Visualization: Breaker open/close, loading information, system topology information, etc.
From the previous section:
• IRIG-B: Inter-Range Instrumentation Group time codes (copper wired)
• NTP: Network Time Protocol (Ethernet based)
• IEEE 1588: Precision Time Protocol, PTP (Ethernet based)
Engineering access to retrieve event data and reports or to configure the IEDs can include methods
such as manufacturing message specification (MMS), Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), SEL Fast
Messaging, or a web server. The structure of the network, whether serial or Ethernet, will dictate
available methods. Prior to Ethernet, many users had dial-up communications for retrieval or
configuration of remote IEDs.
Synchronized phasor measurements (synchrophasors) provide a real-time measurement of electrical

quantities from across a power system. This provides a snapshot of the state of the power system at
any given point in time. These data can be collected and used for many different purposes.
Diagnostics and reporting features are helpful for a number of reasons, including the following:
• Transformer fault and loading provides information for life span predictions
• Through-fault information is very important when you are trying to determine end of life for
equipment
• Breaker information on the number operations and cumulative fault interruptions helps
predict equipment replacement timing
• Sequence of events can help with event analysis
Remote control can provide operators with the ability to open and close breakers, enabling automatic
reclosing as well as substation reconfiguration based on current needs or requirements. This
eliminates the need for someone to be actually in the substation.
Enabling operational data to be sent back to a central location helps system operators have a
complete picture of the power system. What is sent back can include current, voltage, power
metering, as well as status and breaker positions.
Send an immediate notification of events directly to responsible person in order to have just-in-time
information. The notification can be to an email, a phone number, or a text or SMS message.
Ethernet networks grew out of the need to connect computers together to share files and printers and
to send email. To manage those needs, informational technology grew. Now we are using the same
networks for our power system operational and protection functions. We need to create and maintain
these networks differently than the traditional IT networks.
IT is the email system, the data centers, and the financial and accounting functions: the enterprise
system.
OT is the control systems for the industrial or utility grid.
IT methods are used to move data and information among people to accomplish business processes.
OT includes a machine-to-machine exchange of messages among intelligent protection, control, and
monitoring (PCM) devices in the power system.
We need PCM devices to send and respond to data among a select few other PCM devices, not
thousands.
The same practices that make generic IT flexible are either unnecessary or counterproductive to an
OT network. Network addressing of engineering laptops and PCM devices should never change.
Unexpected addresses should be prohibited.
Confidentiality and integrity are paramount, and as a society we accept a lack of availability to
maximize the other qualities. Therefore, we have grown accustomed to frequent outages to maintain
the newest virus protection and firewall updates. We accept prolonged electronic transactions while
the IT infrastructure verifies the integrity of purchases and exchange of private information. We need
deterministic short latency—teleprotection and interlocking applications expect a less than
three-millisecond delivery of information every single time. Deterministic is the characteristic that for
a given input or initial, the output will be the same every instance. No randomness is allowed. For
protection, this implies that the time for delivery should be consistent, which in turn implies the path
should be known.
When we eliminate the unneeded IT functionality, we improve performance and reliability.
Products for IT are more readily available due to the sheer demand of the products. For our industry,
we require equipment capable of working in harsh environments.
The IT industry is used to dynamically assigned IP addresses. There is no need for that flexibility in
our industry, in fact static assignments provide more control over the data and path.
We perform very simple yet important data exchange that is unique to our industry. That is why the
IEEE has assigned the power industry unique EtherTypes to differentiate the behavior of power
system Ethernet messages.
When we eliminate the nonessential IT functionality, the performance for OT is enhanced in terms of
confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
Deterministic is the characteristic that for a given input or initial, the output will be the same every
instance. No randomness is allowed. For protection this implies that the time for delivery should be
consistent, which in turn implies the path should be known.
Security has different actors in OT versus IT. OT wants to protect against false trips, whereas IT
wants to protect against unauthorized access. Interference by machine versus human differentiates
the two.
For dependability, or correct service, IT will eventually get the message to the recipient, whereas for
OT, the system will operate as intended.
Whether the system is for IT or OT will dictate what is required. They may be the same or different,
and requirements can conflict between the two. What is acceptable for IT may not be acceptable for
OT. Performance requirements may differ for each. OT may require low throughput (one or two
messages) with fast speed and low latency, whereas IT may require high throughput (high volume of
messages) with a slower speed. If the network becomes unavailable, OT could suffer millions of
dollars of damage. For a utility IT department, once the network comes back up, they are happy.
Security in the OT world will tend to use whitelists to allow only specific network traffic.
In the past, the IT departments would not listen to what the OT requirements were, so it is important
to have open communication between the groups.
This is one representation of a power utility’s networked elements. Outlying substations may have
their own local-area networks (LANs) to allow peer-to-peer communications among many IEDs.
These may be accessible over a wide-area network (WAN) and interconnect into the SCADA
system. The corporate applications may also connect over the same wide-area network, but care must
be taken to keep the two separated using firewalls and other points of delineation.
Clearly separating the two networks allows easier maintenance and operation of the networks. The
next two slides illustrate poor demarcation in a substation design and then a secure substation design.
The example on the slide shows poor network design. With no traffic filtering between the control
center link and the substation LAN, the entire substation network is vulnerable to attack.
The example shown on the slide depicts a high-level architecture composed of relays, data
aggregation devices (such as a communications processor), a rugged PC for engineering access, and
a security gateway to filter incoming and outgoing data.
In star topology, the IEDs are connected directly to the hub device without intermediate devices.
Latency to each device is at a minimum, but differences may occur due to differences in the length of
the cables. This slide shows a basic star topology network. This network architecture has no
redundancy or recovery mechanisms built into it. It is very simple to assemble, but it is not reliable or
does not perform well. This type of design was used in the earlier days of connecting to IEDs. With
more sophisticated communications and cybersecurity requirements, this is rarely seen today.
Independent paths allow for failure of one path to not affect other paths.
If redundancy is needed, you can use dual stars.
This topology is typical of a EIA-422 or EIA-485 serial network. This is a simple, inexpensive LAN.
These networks tend to be master/slave networks, not peer-to-peer networks as Ethernet networks
tend to be.
Connecting in a ring topology mitigates for a single point of failure, but data collisions can be an
issue.
With the ring topology, cabling is usually less since it goes from device to device, as opposed to from
a central device to each individual device.
A drawback can be recovery time if the ring is broken and the data are rerouted around the ring. This
may be significant depending on the application. Therefore, it is important to know what the recovery
time would be.
Ethernet networks can be connected in a variety of topologies. Rings are an issue with Ethernet in
that, unlike other messaging protocols, Ethernet messages do not time out or expire. This can cause a
problem of messages endlessly looping through the system. STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) and RSTP
(Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol) are methodologies designed specifically to quickly and effectively
pass messages through the network without letting them get trapped in an endless loop. They do this
by keeping track of port availability and ensuring that messages are routed only to those ports that are
available, thus ensuring the fastest transport of priority messages. More details on this in a later
section.
The diagram above shows how serial communications are routed through the SEL-2032
Communications Processor. This allows access to all devices connected to the processor with a very
simple setup. Prior to use of Ethernet communications, this would be a typical setup for access to
IEDs.
The increasing availability of Ethernet connectivity creates numerous automation and integration
opportunities.
• Use a single device (in our example system, the SEL-3620) to provide strict firewall rules
and physical port restrictions to any substation network
• Use a single device (in our example system, the SEL-3530) to provide data concentration and
secure engineering access to all substation IEDs
• Use a single device (in our example system, the SEL-3610) to offer the benefits of local-area
network and wide-area network Ethernet connectivity, while expanding distributed serial
port expansion for substation IEDs
Complete the exercise to select the proper topology based on required performances.
Network Topology Exercise
For each type of data listed in Column A, check off the requirements in Columns B to G, and check off which topologies would work in
Columns H and I.
Data Type Performance Network Topology
A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.
Speed (<1 s) High Speed (<1 cycle) Acknowledgement Accuracy Reliability Redundancy Point to Point Ring
Line Protection
SCADA
Command
Automation
Event Reporting
Configuration
Time Synchronization
File Transfer
Synchrophasor
Corporate Email
File Storage
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 3b.1

Network Topology Exercise Solution
For each type of data listed in Column A, check off the requirements in Columns B to G, and check off which topologies would work in
Columns H and I.
Data Type Performance Network Topology
A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.
Speed (<1 s) High Speed (<1 cycle) Acknowledgement Accuracy Reliability Redundancy Point to Point Ring
Line Protection X X X X
SCADA X X
Command X X
Automation X X X X X X
Event Reporting X X
Configuration X X X X X
Time Synchronization X X X X X
File Transfer X X X X
Synchrophasor X X X
Corporate Email X X
File Storage X X X
*Note: With the advent of modern digital communications (SONET, SDN), virtually all network topologies can be used for all applications.
There are no wrong answers in the Network Topology column.
COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 3c.1

Comunications Fundamentals

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Communications Fundamentals

Palais, Joseph C., Fiber Optic Communications, Prentice Hall: 1984.

Driscoll, Frederick F., Data Communications, Saunders Co Ltd: 1992.

The path may be direct or multipoint, depending on purpose.

Source: Where the data reside that are going to be communicated

Transmitter: Device that sends the data

Receiver: Device that must understand the data correctly

User: Who needs the data

The more complex, the more it costs.

Full duplex: Bidirectional, simultaneous communication (think normal telephone conversation)

The performance of a communications channel is generally defined in terms of system throughput,

We can change (modulate) three components to convey the message:

A(t): Amplitude of the signal

ω: Frequency of the signal where ω = 2πf

• Assigns the height of each pulse an equivalent 8-bit value

Differential Manchester is the encoding used in Ethernet communications.

The images on the slide are available through Wikimedia Commons:

• Coaxial cable cutaway, provided by Tkgd2007, available at:

• Triaxial cable, provided by wdwd, available at:

UTP is unshielded, twisted pair and the typical connector is an RJ45.

STP is shielded, twisted pair.

S/STP is shielded, shielded twisted pair.

• Provided by Hustvedt, available at:

Utilities use several types of fiber cable construction.

SC and FC images by Adamantios, via Wikimedia Commons, available at:

MT-RJ image by Shh, via Wikimedia Commons, available at:

Link Loss Budget Exercise

at 850 nm: 4 dB/km

at 1300 nm: 2 dB/km

Step 2. Is there sufficient optical budget for this application?

COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 1d.1

1d.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

at 850 nm: 4 dB/km

at 1300 nm: 2 dB/km

Step 2. Is there sufficient optical budget for this application?

COM 401 Copyright © SEL 2017 1e.1

Lossessplice  0.3  1.5  1.5  3.3 dB

Length  10  5  0.5  15.5 km

Step 3. Now, calculate the total system losses.

LossesTotal @850 nm  Lossessplices  Losses850 nm  3.3  62.0  65.3 dB

Budgetoptical  51 dB  ( 10 dB)  41 dB

1e.2 Copyright © SEL 2017 COM 401

• Little interference from power lines if separate routing is used

• Cost-effective when used for short lengths

• Issues with entry to the substation

• Buried cables may be damaged or broken by civil works

• New cables are expensive

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of power line communications.

• An overhead power line constitutes a very reliable transmission medium

• Long distances may be covered without the need for repeaters

Advantage: Limited infrastructure is required.

Code domain or spread-spectrum modulation is a difficult concept to internalize. A simple analogy

• 902 MHz to 926 MHz

• 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz

• 5.725 GHz to 5.850 GHz

• As demonstrated through various applications, these systems can be as reliable as leased

Frequency hopping is the basis of Bluetooth® communications.

The use of dB and dBm in power calculations is shown on the slide.

Some of the other advantages of optical fiber are as follows:

• No cross talk between fibers

• No earth potential rise problems

• Isolation between link ends

• Many channels may be lost when a high-capacity fiber-optic link fails