Anti-Russian sentiment

Anti-Russian sentiment or Russophobia is a diverse spectrum of negative feelings, dislikes, fears, aversion, derision
and/or prejudice of Russia, Russians or Russian culture.[1] A wide variety of mass culture clichés about Russia and
Russians exists. Many of these stereotypes were developed during the Cold War,[2][3] and were used as elements of political
war against the Soviet Union. Some of these prejudices are still observed in the discussions of the relations with Russia.[4]
Negative representation of Russia and Russians in modern popular culture is also often described as functional, as
stereotypes about Russia may be used for framing reality, like creating an image of an enemy, or an excuse, or an
explanation for compensatory reasons.[5][6][7][8] Decades after the end of the Cold War, Russians are still portrayed as
"Hollywood's go-to villains".[9]

On the other hand, Russian nationalists and apologists of the politics of Russia use the allegations of "Russophobia" as a
form of propaganda to counter the criticism of Russia.[10][11]

Contents
History
Statistics
By country
Former Soviet Union
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Georgia
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania The Chimera of the Mysterious
Northern Caucasus Russian Soul, by Lena Hades,
depicting common stereotypes of
Ukraine
foreigners about Russians[12]
Former Eastern Bloc
Czech Republic
Poland
Romania
Croatia
Albania
Bulgaria
Germany
Rest of the world
Australia
Finland
Sweden
France
Venezuela
New Zealand
China
United Kingdom
Iran
 Japan
Turkey
United States
Vietnam
South Korea

Business
View of Russia in Western media
Russian nationalist ideology
See also
Footnotes
References
External links

History
On 19 October 1797 the French Directory received a document from a Polish
general, Michał Sokolnicki, entitled "Aperçu sur la Russie". This became
"Exposed to the world's contempt".
known as the so-called "Testament of Peter the Great" and was first published Illustration from the "Puck" satirical
in October 1812, during the Napoleonic wars, in Charles Louis-Lesur's much- magazine, 1903
read Des progrès de la puissance russe: this was at the behest of Napoleon I,
who ordered a series of articles to be published showing that "Europe is
inevitably in the process of becoming booty for Russia".[13][14] Subsequent
to the Napoleonic wars, propaganda against Russia was continued by
Napoleon's former confessor, Dominique Georges-Frédéric de Pradt, who
in a series of books portrayed Russia as a "despotic" and "Asiatic" power
hungry to conquer Europe.[15] With reference to Russia's new
constitutional laws in 1811 the Savoyard philosopher Joseph de Maistre
wrote the now famous statement: "Every nation gets the government it
Propaganda depiction of a barbaric
deserves" ("Toute nation a le gouvernement qu'elle mérite").[16][17]
Russian invasion of Europe. Early 19th
In 1867, Fyodor Tyutchev, a Russian poet, diplomat and member of His century, France.
Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, introduced the actual term of
"russophobia" in a letter to his daughter Anna Aksakova on 20 September
1867, where he applied it to a number of pro-Western Russian liberals who, pretending that they were merely following
their liberal principles, developed a negative attitude towards their own country and always stood on a pro-Western and
anti-Russian position, regardless of any changes in the Russian society and having a blind eye on any violations of these
principles in the West, "violations in the sphere of justice, morality, and even civilization". He put the emphasis on the
irrationality of this sentiment.[18] Tyuchev saw Western anti-Russian sentiment as the result of misunderstanding caused
by civilizational differences between East and West.[19] Being an adherent of Pan-Slavism, he believed that the historical
mission of Slavic peoples was to be united in a Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Christian Russian Empire to preserve their Slavic
identity and avoid cultural assimilation; in his lyrics Poland, a Slavic yet Catholic country, was poetically referred to as
Judas among the Slavs.[20] The term returned into political dictionaries of the Soviet Union only in the middle 1930s.
Further works by Russian academics, such as Igor Shafarevich's Russophobia[21] or the treaty from the 1980s attributed
the spread of russophobia to Zionists.[11]
In 1843 the Marquis de Custine published his hugely successful 1800-page, four volume travelogue La Russie en 1839.
Custine's scathing narrative reran what were by now clichés which presented Russia as a place where "the veneer of
European civilization was too thin to be credible". Such was its huge success that several official and pirated editions
quickly followed, as well as condensed versions and translations in German, Dutch and English. By 1846 approximately
200 thousand copies had been sold.[22]

The influential British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote controversially on Russia, that the oppression in the
country, rooted in the Red Revolution, perhaps was "the fruit of some beastliness in the Russian nature", also attributing
"cruelty and stupidity" to tyranny in both the "Old Russia" (tsarist) and "New Russia" (Soviet).[23]

In the 1930s and 1940s, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party viewed the Soviet
Union as populated by Slavs ruled by "Jewish Bolshevik" masters.[27]

Hitler stated in Mein Kampf his belief that the Russian state was the work of
German elements in the state and not of the Slavs:

Here Fate itself seems desirous of giving us a sign. By handing

Russia to Bolshevism, it robbed the Russian nation of that
intelligentsia which previously brought about and guaranteed its
existence as a state. For the organization of a Russian state
formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs
in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming
efficacity of the German element in an inferior race.[28]

A secret Nazi plan, the Generalplan Ost called for the enslavement, expulsion
or extermination of most Slavic peoples in Europe. Approximately 2.8 million
Nazi propaganda minister Joseph
Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight
Goebbels, in Das Reich, explained
months of 1941–42.[29]
Russian resistance in terms of a
stubborn but bestial soul.[24]
"Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been the Russians' lot for Russians were termed "Asiatic"[25]
centuries. No false compassion, as their stomachs are perfectly and the Red Army as "Asiatic
extendible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to Hordes".[26]
change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the
Germans. [...] Help yourselves, and may God help you!"

— "12 precepts for the German officer in the East",

1941[30]

On July 13, 1941, three weeks after the invasion of the Soviet Union, Nazi SS leader Heinrich Himmler told the group of
Waffen SS men:

This is an ideological battle and a struggle of races. Here in this struggle stands National Socialism: an
ideology based on the value of our Germanic, Nordic blood. ... On the other side stands a population of 180
million, a mixture of races, whose very names are unpronounceable, and whose physique is such that one
can shoot them down without pity and compassion. These animals, that torture and ill-treat every prisoner
from our side, every wounded man that they come across and do not treat them the way decent soldiers
would, you will see for yourself. These people have been welded by the Jews into one religion, one ideology,
 that is called Bolshevism... When you, my men, fight over there in the East, you are carrying on the same
struggle, against the same subhumanity, the same inferior races, that at one time appeared under the name
of Huns, another time— 1000 years ago at the time of King Henry and Otto I— under the name of Magyars,
another time under the name of Tartars, and still another time under the name of Genghis Khan and the
Mongols. Today they appear as Russians under the political banner of Bolshevism.[31]

Heinrich Himmler's speech at Poznań (Posen) on October 4, 1943:

What happens to a Russian, to a Czech, does not interest me in the slightest. What the nations can offer in
good blood of our type, we will take, if necessary by kidnapping their children and raising them with us.
Whether nations live in prosperity or starve to death interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for
our culture; otherwise, it is of no interest to me. Whether 10,000 Russian females fall down from exhaustion
while digging an anti-tank ditch interest me only in so far as the anti-tank ditch for Germany is finished. We
shall never be rough and heartless when it is not necessary, that is clear. We Germans, who are the only
people in the world who have a decent attitude towards animals, will also assume a decent attitude towards
these human animals.[32]

Modern anti-Russian sentiment peaked during the Cold War, driven by Western fears of the Soviet role in communism's
mission to take over the "Free World".

Post-Soviet distrust of Russia and Russians is attributable to backlash against the historical memory of Russification
pursued by Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union, and backlash against modern policies of the Russian government.[33]

In 2007, Vlad Sobell[34] said that "Russophobic sentiment" in the West reflected the West's failure to adapt and change its
historical attitude towards Russia, even as Russia had (in his view) abandoned past ideology for pragmatism, successfully
driving its economic revival. With the West victorious over totalitarianism, Russia served to perpetuate the role of a
needed adversary owing to its "unashamed continuity with the communist Soviet Union."[35]

Statistics
In October 2004, the International Gallup Organization announced that according to its poll, anti-Russia sentiment
remained fairly strong throughout Europe and the West in general. It found that Russia was the least popular G-8 country
globally. The percentage of population with a "very negative" or "fairly negative" perception of Russia was 73% in Kosovo,
62% in Finland, 57% in Norway, 42% in the Czech Republic and Switzerland, 37% in Germany, 32% in Denmark and
Poland, and 23% in Estonia. Overall, the percentage of respondents with a positive view of Russia was only 31%.[37][38][39]

According to a 2014 survey by Pew Research Center, attitudes towards Russia in most countries worsened considerably
during Russia's involvement in the 2014 crisis in Ukraine. From 2013 to 2014, the median negative attitudes in Europe
rose from 54% to 75%, and from 43% to 72% in the United States. Negative attitudes also rose compared to 2013
throughout the Middle East, Latin America, Asia and Africa.[40]

Negative attitudes towards Russia and frequent criticism of the Russian government in western media should not be
confused with negative attitudes towards Russian people and culture. In a 2012 survey, the percentage of Russian
immigrants in the EU that indicated that they had experienced racially motivated hate crimes was 5%, which is less than
the average of 10% reported by several groups of immigrants and ethnic minorities in the EU.[41] 17% of Russian
immigrants in the EU said that they had been victims of crimes the last 12 months, for example theft, attacks, frightening
threats or harassment, as compared to an average of 24% among several groups of immigrants and ethnic minorities.[42]
By country Results of 2017 Pew Research Center poll.
Views of Russia's influence by country[36]
Sorted by Unfavorable
Former Soviet Union Country polled Favorable Unfavorable Neutral Change from 2015

Jordan 5% 93% 2 18
Armenia
Netherlands 15% 82% 4 No Data
According to a July 2007 poll,
only 2% of Armenians see Sweden 18% 78% 4 No Data
Russia as a threat, as opposed
Poland 21% 69% 10 15
to 88% who view Russia as
Armenia's partner.[43] Germany 27% 67% 6 27
According to Manvel Sargsyan,
the Director of the Armenian Japan 26% 64% 10 21
Center of National and 29% 63%
United States 9 22
Strategic Research, "There are
no special anti-Russian Turkey 32% 62% 6 15
sentiments in Armenia."[44]
France 36% 62% 2 30
Armenia's first president
Levon Ter-Petrosyan stated in Israel 35% 61% 3 25
2013 that anti-Russian
Spain 27% 60% 14 25
sentiment "has never existed
and still does not exist" in United Kingdom 26% 59% 15 18
Armenia, except "some
marginal elements and some Canada 27% 59% 14 26
individuals with anti-Russian 37% 55%
Australia 7 24
sentiment."[45] During the
dissolution of the Soviet Union Italy 35% 54% 11 27
and rise of nationalism in the
Hungary 39% 48% 13 No Data
Soviet republics and Eastern
bloc countries, Armenian Lebanon 47% 48% 5 44
nationalists were among the
South Korea 36% 41% 23 46
few that did not "interpret
Russia as their most significant Indonesia 36% 40% 24 28
threat."[46] Armenian Foreign
Minister Vartan Oskanian South Africa 28% 40% 32 25
stated in 2001 that "Anti- 39% 37%
Tunisia 24 No Data
Soviet sentiment did not mean
anti-Russian in Armenia's Brazil 35% 36% 29 26
case."[47]
Venezuela 38% 33% 30 31
On several occasions, however,
Chile 34% 31% 34 31
anti-Russian sentiment has
been expressed in Armenia, Colombia 32% 31% 37 No Data
particularly in response to real
Greece 64% 31% 5 No Data
or perceived anti-Armenian
actions by Russia. In June
1903, Nicholas II issued a Country polled Favorable Unfavorable Neutral Change from 2015
decree ordering the
Peru 41% 31% 28 33
confiscation of all Armenian
Church properties (including Kenya 27% 29% 44 35
church-run schools) and its
Nigeria 45% 29% 27 39
transfer to the Russian Interior
Ministry. The decision was Argentina 27% 27% 46 27
perceived by Armenians to be
an effort of Russification and it Philippines 55% 26% 19 44
met widespread popular 32% 25%
Mexico 43 24
resistance by the Russian
Armenian population and led Ghana 33% 24% 43 56
by the Dashnak and Hunchak
Tanzania 45% 21% 34 38
parties. This included attacks
on Russian authorities in Senegal 34% 18% 48 32
attempts to prevent the
India 47% 13% 40 43
confiscation. The decree being
eventually canceled in 1905.[48] Vietnam 83% 13% 5 75
In more recent times, in July
1988, during the Karabakh Russia 88% 10% 1 93

movement, the killing of an Armenian man and the injury of tens of

others by the Soviet army in a violent clash at Zvartnots Airport near
Yerevan sparked anti-Russian and anti-Soviet sentiment in the
Armenian public.[49]

Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijani society, Russians are perceived mostly as invaders
that have controlled Azerbaijan for almost 200 years with a two-year
halfway break.[50] For current generations, Russians are seen as
direct and indirect perpetrators of the two most terrible events
Anti-Russian protest in Yerevan, 2 December which have occurred in Azerbaijan's modern history. One is the
2013 Black January (when Soviet soldiers entered Baku to suppress the
independence movement and killed over 100 people in 1990);[51] the
other is the Khojali massacre during the Karabakh War.

Georgia
According to a 2012 poll, 35% of Georgians perceive Russia as Georgia's biggest enemy, while the percentage was
significantly higher in 2011, at 51%.[52] In a February 2013 poll, 63% of Georgians said Russia is Georgia's biggest political
and economic threat as opposed to 35% of those who looked at Russia as the most important partner for Georgia.[53]

"ღრუსი" (ghrusi) is a Georgian slur, created by combinations of words "ghori" (pig) and "rusi" (Russian) and is widely
used in Georgian Internet forums.

Estonia
According to veteran German author, journalist and Russia-correspondent Gabriele Krone-Schmalz, there is deep
disapproval of everything Russian in Estonia.[54] A poll conducted by Gallup International suggested that 34% Estonians
have a positive attitude towards Russia, but it is supposed that survey results were likely impacted by a large ethnic
Russian minority in country.[37] In a 2012 poll, 3% of the Russian minority in Estonia reported that they had experienced a
racially motivated hate crime (as compared to an average of 10% among ethnic minorities and immigrants in EU).[41]

According to Estonian philosopher Jaan Kaplinski, the birth of anti-Russian sentiment in Estonia dates back to 1940, as
there was little or none during the czarist and first independence period, when anti-German sentiment predominated.
Kaplinski states the imposition of Soviet rule under Joseph Stalin in 1940 and subsequent actions by Soviet authorities led
to the replacement of anti-German sentiment with anti-Russian sentiment within just one year, and characterized it as
"one of the greatest achievements of the Soviet authorities".[55] Kaplinski supposes that anti-Russian sentiment could
disappear as quickly as anti-German sentiment did in 1940, however he believes the prevailing sentiment in Estonia is
sustained by Estonia's politicians who employ "the use of anti-Russian sentiments in political combat," together with the
"tendentious attitude of the [Estonian] media."[55] Kaplinski says that a "rigid East-West attitude is to be found to some
degree in Estonia when it comes to Russia, in the form that everything good comes from the West and everything bad from
the East";[55] this attitude, in Kaplinski's view, "probably does not date back further than 1940 and presumably originates
from Nazi propaganda."[55]

Latvia
According to Andrei Tsygankov (a Russian himself), ethnic Russians in Latvia are subjected to ethnic discrimination.[56] In
a 2012 poll, 2% of the Russian minority in Latvia reported that they had experienced a racially motivated hate crime (as
compared to an average of 10% among immigrants and minorities in EU).[41]

Latvian American doctor and former member of the Civic Union, Aivars Slucis, wrote op-eds in The New York Times and
The Washington Post in which he explains to the Americans that Russians have invading other nations in their genes, and
they can only understand the language of force. Slucis wrote that he would personally never treat a Russian patient with
Soviet symbols tattooed on his body who came into his office.[57] In November 2010, Ģirts Valdis Kristovskis, the Latvian
Foreign Affairs Minister, became embroiled in a scandal with Slucis after email correspondence between the two from
2009 was released by journalist Lato Lapsa. In one of the letters, Slucis stated that he would not be able to treat Russians
with the same level of care that we would Latvians, and also stated that in the event of a shortage of medical supplies he
would deny Russians the right to access to those supplies. In reply, Kristovskis stated that he approved of "both his
assessment and vision of the situation".[58][59] According to Lapsa, Kristovskis was also in agreeance with Slucis advocating
for freezing and reviewing all citizenships granted after 1991 with the thought of rescinding a majority.[60]

In 2016, Nils Ušakovs, the first ethnic Russian mayor of Riga in independent Latvia, was fined by the Latvian State
Language Center for using Russian language on Facebook.[61][62]

Lithuania
Lithuania has a strong anti-Russian sentiment, dated back on historical grievances from the era of Muscovite–Lithuanian
War, to the repeated occupation by the Russian Empire as well as Soviet Union. For Lithuanians, Russia has never
stopped their desire to consolidate power over the Baltics, which Lithuania is one of them, and feared Russia would plan
for an eventual invasion against Lithuania like it did to Crimea.[63] There is also concerns over Russia's increasing military
deployment, such as in Kaliningrad, an exclave of Russia bordering Lithuania.[64][65]

Northern Caucasus
In a report by the Jamestown Foundation, dealing with the topic of the (extremely positive according to the report)
reception of American Republican senator John McCain's statements about Russia's "double standards in the Caucasus"
(referring to how Russia recognized South Ossetia but would not let Chechnya go), one Chechen stated that Chechnya
"cannot exist within the borders of Russia because every 50 years... Russia kills us Chechens",[66] demonstrating local fear
of the Russian government.

Journalist Fatima Tlisova released an article in 2009 discussing the frequent occurrences of Russian Orthodox crosses
being sawed off buildings and thrown off mountains in Circassia, due to the cross being associated with the people who
initiated the mass expulsions of Circassians.[67]

In April 2015, Chechnya's leader Ramzan Kadyrov ordered Chechen security forces to “shoot to kill” if they encountered
police officers from other parts of Russia on the territory of the Chechen Republic.[68][69]

Ukraine
During the presidency of Viktor Yushchenko (2005–2010) anti-Russian
statements became common in the media, in particular, aired by right-wing
politicians.[72]

In a poll held by Kiev International Institute of Sociology in May 2009 in Ukraine,

96% of respondents were positive about Russians as an ethnic group, 93%
respected the Russian Federation and 76% respected the Russian establishment.
In a poll held by Levada Center in Russia in June 2009, 75% of respondents
respected Ukrainians as an ethnic group, but 55% were negative about Ukraine as
the state.[73]

According to the statistics released on October 21, 2010 by the Institute of

Sociology of National Academy of Science of Ukraine, positive attitudes towards
Russians have been decreasing since 1994. In response to a question gauging
tolerance of Russians, 15% of Western Ukrainians responded positively. In Central
Modern anti-swearing poster in
Ukraine, 30% responded positively (from 60% in 1994); 60% responded positively
Lviv, Ukraine, issued by the
in Southern Ukraine (from 70% in 1994); and 64% responded positively in Eastern
Ukrainian nationalist political
Ukraine (from 75% in 1994). Furthermore, 6-7% of Western Ukrainians would party Svoboda.[70][71] Ukrainian
banish Russians entirely from Ukraine, and 7-8% in Central Ukraine responded text reads: "Remember!
similarly. This level of sentiment was not found in Southern or Eastern Swearing turns you into a
Ukraine.[74] Moskal (ethnic slur, means
"Russian").
The right-wing political party "Svoboda",[70][71][75] has invoked radical
Russophobic rhetoric[76] (see poster) and has electoral support enough to garner
majority support in local councils,[77] as seen in the Ternopil regional council in Western Ukraine.[78] Analysts explained
Svoboda’s victory in Eastern Galicia during the 2010 Ukrainian local elections as a result of the policies of the Azarov
Government who were seen as too pro-Russian by the voters of "Svoboda".[79][80]

Oleh Tyahnybok, the leader of the far-right Svoboda party, whose members held senior positions in the short-lived First
Yatsenyuk government, urged his party to fight "the Moscow-Jewish mafia" ruling Ukraine.[81] Right Sector's leader for
West Ukraine, Oleksandr Muzychko, has talked about fighting "communists, Jews and Russians for as long as blood flows
in my veins."[82]
Former Eastern Bloc

Czech Republic
The attitude to Russia and Russians sharply deteriorated in Czechoslovakia after the
Soviet-led military crackdown of the Prague Spring in 1968.[83]

Poland
According to a 2013 BBC World Service poll, 19% of Poles viewed Russia's influence
positively, with 49% expressing a negative view.[84]

Mutual animosity between Poland and Russia have a long history, with military
clashes tracing as back as to the times of Kievan Rus. Since the late Middle Ages, the
Kingdom of Poland allied with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania which struggled with
the Grand Duchy of Muscovy. Over centuries, there have been several Polish- Destruction of the Russian and
Russian wars, with Poland once occupying Moscow and later Russians controlling Polish flags during the UNA-
much of Poland in the 19th century as well as in the 20th century. UNSO rally in Lviv, Ukraine in
1997
Much of the modern anti-Russian feelings in Poland is caused by grievances of the
past.[85] One contentious issue is the massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, priests and
intellectuals in Katyn Forest in 1940, and deportation of around 250,000 mostly Polish civilians and others including
soldiers to Siberia and Kazakhstan where many, around 100,000 died, even though the Russian government has officially
acknowledged and apologized for the atrocity.[86]

In 2005 The New York Times reported after the Polish daily Gazeta Wyborcza that "relations between Poland and Russia
are as bad as ever".[87]

Jakub Boratyński, the director of international programs at the independent Polish think tank Stefan Batory Foundation,
said in 2005 that anti-Russian feelings have substantially decreased since Poland joined the EU and NATO, and that Poles
feel more secure than before, but he also admitted that many people in Poland still look suspiciously at Russian foreign-
policy moves and are afraid Russia is seeking to "recreate an empire in a different form."[85]

Romania
Anti-Russian sentiment dates back to the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires in the 18th and early 19th
centuries and the ceding of part of the Moldavian principality to Russia by the Ottoman Empire in 1812 after its de facto
annexation, and to the annexations during World War II and after by the Soviet Union of Northern Bukovina and
Bessarabia and the policies of ethnic cleansing, Russification and deportations that have taken place in those territories
against ethnic Romanians. Following WWII, Romania, an ally of Nazi Germany, was occupied by Soviet forces. Soviet
dominance over the Romanian economy was manifested through the so-called Sovroms, exacting a tremendous economic
toll ostensibly as war-time reparations.[88][89][90][91][92]

Croatia
At the end of 2016, Russian experts were cited as assessing Russian–Croatian relations as ″cold″.[93] Croatia is one of the
anti-Russian countries in Europe, according to the voting on European Parliament's 23 November 2016 resolution.[94]
Croat and Ukrainian sports fans have put up hate messages towards Serbs and Russians during a match of their national
teams in the 2018 World Cup qualifier.[95] Croatia's position as a member of both NATO and the European Union can be
contrasted to that of traditional Russian ally Serbia,[96] with which it has strained relations.[97] Croats are Catholic and
Serbs are Orthodox (as the Russians are), and during the Ukrainian crisis mercenaries of the two ethnic groups were on
opposing sides, Croats fighting for Ukraine and Serbs fighting for the Russian separatists.[98][99] An article in Foreign
Affairs called Croatia the strongest Western ally against Russian expansion in the Balkans.[100]

Albania
A majority of Albanians perceived Russia as a threat due to Russia's blockade of Kosovo's independence recognition,[101]
as well as economic combat and sanctions by Russia against Albania.[102]

Bulgaria
In 2017, Bulgarian national security named Russia as a direct threat for Bulgaria's security.[103]

Germany
Anti-Russian sentiment became commonly practiced among Germans during the 20th century, when German propaganda
depicted Russians, both during World War I and World War II, notably the latter, as barbarians from the East trying to
demolish the German state and enslaving Europe. During the World War II, anti-Russian propaganda increased by efforts
of Adolf Hitler and Heinrich Himmler. These anti-Russian propaganda continued when Germany was divided into two
nations, West Germany and East Germany, and Germans still consider Russia as the perpetrator for the division of
Germany that lasted from 1947 to 1990.

Recently, Russia's propaganda disinformation, notably the recent Lisa case, becomes part of Russophobic sentiment in
Germany,[104][105] although anti-Russian sentiment in Germany isn't high like any other European nations.

Rest of the world

Australia
According to the World Public Opinion poll undertaken in 2013, 53% of Australians had a negative view of Russia, up 15%
from 2012.[106] Following the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, allegedly by Russian-backed separatists in
eastern Ukraine, which claimed the lives of at least 27 Australians, Prime Minister Tony Abbott considering barring
Russian President Vladimir Putin from attending the 2014 G-20 Brisbane summit.[107][108]

Finland
In Finland, anti-Russian sentiment has been studied since the 1970s. The history of anti-Russian sentiment has two main
theories. One of them claims that Finns and Russians have been archenemies throughout history. The position is
considered to have been dominated at least the 1700s since the days of the Greater Wrath, when the Russians "occupied
Finland and raped it." This view largely assumes that through the centuries, "Russia is a violent slayer and Finland is an
innocent, virginal victim".[109] In the 1920s and 1930s this anti-Russian and anti-Communism propaganda had a fertile
ground.[110] Failed Russian actions to terminate Finnish autonomy and cultural uniqueness (1899–1905 and 1908–1917)
contributed greatly to both the anti-Russian feelings in Finland. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which granted Finland to
Soviet Union, followed the attack of the Soviet Union against Finland during the Winter War and Soviet annexation of
large parts of Finland. This caused high casualties among the Finns and 11% of the total population had to leave their
homes, later causing great bitterness, and has endured as the Karelian question in Finnish politics.
Another theory considers anti-Russian sentiment as being born in Finland at the time of civil war 1917–1918, and the anti-
Russian political and ideological White Finland created a confrontation which deliberately blew and spread the sentiment.
Anti-Russian sentiment was created against the external threat of the Soviet Union and it was considered almost a
national duty in the 1920s and 1930s.[111] During World War II, Finns organized internment camps in the occupied East
Karelia where ethnic segregation between 'relatives' (Finnic population) and 'non-relatives' (other, primarily Russian
population) took place which has been attributed to anti-Russian sentiment.

According to polls in 2004, 62% of Finnish citizens had a negative view of Russia.[37] Deportation of Ingrian Finns,
indigenous to St. Petersburg, Ingria, and other Soviet repressions against its Finnish minorities have contributed to
negative views of Russia. In a 2012 poll, 12% of Russian immigrants in Finland reported that they had experienced a
racially motivated hate crime (as compared to an average of 10% of immigrants in the EU).[41]

Sweden
The Swedish words russofob (Russophobe) and russofobi (Russophobia) were
first recorded in 1877 and 1904 respectively and its more frequent synonym
rysskräck (fear of Russia or Russians) in 1907. Older synonyms were rysshat
(hatred of Russia or Russians) from 1846 and ryssantipati (antipathy against
Russia or Russians) from 1882.[112]

The Russian state is said to have been organized in the 9th century AD at
Novgorod by Rurik, supposedly coming from Sweden. In the 13th century,
Stockholm was founded to stop foreign navies from invading lake Mälaren.
Dra åt helvete ("Go to hell") in a
Both events are signs that hostile naval missions across the Baltic Sea go a long
Swedish university students' book of
way back, temporarily ending with the peace treaty of Nöteborg 1323 between
drinking songs printed 2007, written
Sweden and the Novgorod Republic (which later became Russia), soon to be by a Finnish student in
broken by another Catholic Swedish crusade into Greek-orthodox Novgorod. remembrance of Nikolay Bobrikov.
Russia has been described as Sweden's "archenemy" (a title also given to Translation on description page.
Denmark). The two countries have often been at war, most intensively during
the Great Northern War (1700–1721) and the Finnish War (1808–1809), when
Sweden lost that third of its territory to Russia that now is Finland. Sweden defeated a Russian army in the Battle of Narva
(1700), but was defeated by Russia in the Battle of Poltava 1709. In 1719 Russian troops burnt most Swedish cities and
industrial communities along the Baltic sea coast to the ground (from Norrköping up to Piteå in the north) in what came
to be called "Rysshärjningarna" (the Russian ravages, a term first recorded in 1730[112]). "The Russians are coming"
(ryssen kommer) is a traditional Swedish warning call.[113] After the death of king Charles XII in 1718 and the peace in
1721, Swedish politics was dominated by a peace-minded parliament, with a more aggressive opposition (Hats and Caps).
When Swedish officer Malcolm Sinclair was murdered in 1739 by two Russian officers, the anti-Russian ballad
Sinclairsvisan by Anders Odel became very popular.[114][115]

After 1809, there have been no more wars between Russia and Sweden, partly due to Swedish neutrality and
nonalignment foreign policy since then. Peaceful relationships and the Russian capital being Saint Petersburg, many
Swedish companies ran large businesses in Imperial Russia, including Branobel and Ericsson. Many poets still grieved the
loss of Finland and called for a military revenge,[116] ideas that were refueled by the Crimean War in the 1850s.[117] With
the increasing cultural exchange between neighboring countries (Scandinavism) and the nationalist revival in Finland
(through Johan Ludvig Runeberg and Elias Lönnrot), contempt with the attempts of Russification of Finland spread to
Sweden. Before World War I, travelling Russian saw filers were suspected of espionage by Swedish proponents of
increased military spending. After the Russian Revolution in the spring of 1917 and the abdication of the Tsar, great hope
was vested in the new provisional government, only to be replaced with despair after the so-called October Revolution. Old
anti-Russian sentiments were compounded by a fresh element of anti-communism, to last for the duration of the existence
of the Soviet Union. Many Swedes voluntarily joined the Finnish side in the Winter War between Finland and Soviet
Union 1939–1940. When the Soviet state was finally dissolved in 1991, anti-communism became less relevant in terms of
power politics and for some time, few seemed to recall the fear of its predecessor. The old cry ryssen kommer also seemed
obsolete.

Thus, in statements made by Swedish politicians, the Swedish sentiments against the Russian government have always
been about fear of military invasion, which now seemed to be gone for the foreseeable future, and also about human rights
and democracy issues. Only 31% of Swedes stated that they liked Russia in 2011, and 23% in 2012, and only 10% have
confidence in Russian elections.[39]

In June 2014, political scientist Sergey Markov complained about Russophobia in Sweden and Finland, comparing it to
antisemitism. "Would you want to be part of starting a Third World War? Antisemitism started the Second World War,
Russophobia could start a third.", he commented.[118] The retired Swedish history professor and often cited expert on
Russia Kristian Gerner said he was "almost shocked" by Markov's claim, and described his worldview as "nearly
paranoid".[119][120]

France
Anti-Russian sentiment was common in France after the French defeat by the Russians in the 1812 War.[121]

Venezuela
Anti-Russian sentiment has been increasing in Venezuela due to Russia's support to Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro
during the Venezuelan crisis, which the opposition, strongly anti-Russian, are hostile toward Russia.[122]

New Zealand
The history of early anti-Russian sentiment in New Zealand was analyzed in Glynn Barratt's book Russophobia in New
Zealand, 1838-1908,[123] expanded to cover the period up to 1939 in an article by Tony Wilson.[124]

According to Wilson, Russophobia towards the Russian Empire had no roots in the country itself, but was fueled by British
Empire attitude, at a time when New Zealand was still a British colony. It was aggravated by lack of information about
Russia and contacts with it due to the mutual remoteness. Various wars involving the Russian Empire fueled the "Russian
scare". Additional negative attitude was brought by Jewish immigration after Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire.
That immigration was halted as a combined result of Russophobia and anti-Semitism. As of 1916, there were 1242 settlers
of Russian origin in the country, including 169 Jews. During World War I Russophobia was temporarily supplanted by
Germanophobia for evident reasons; however, soon after the Russian Revolution of 1917, the fear of Marxism and
Bolshevism revived Russophobia in the form of "Red Scare". Notably, local Russians had no issues with Russophobia. By
late 1920s pragmatism moderated Russophobia in official circles, especially during the Great Depression. Sympathetic
views were propagated by visitors to the Soviet Union, such as George Bernard Shaw, impressed by Soviet
propaganda.[124]

China
China and Russia had been at war in the past. Russia and China both had historical expansions, which later led to war
between two nations. The Russians later invaded Central Asia, and drove the Chinese out of Outer Manchuria which had
been annexed by Russia and eventually, belongs to Russia today. Russia and China even later went to some fierce border
clash during the communist era of Soviet Union, and border conflict which almost resulted by using nuclear bomb from
the Soviet Union against China.[125]

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, anti-Russian sentiment arose during conflicts including the Crimean War[126] and the Anglo-
Afghan wars, which were seen as representing Russia's territorial ambitions regarding the British empire in India. This
competition for spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. The Great Game and Berlin Congress) fueled anti-Russian
sentiment in Britain. British propaganda at the time took up the theme of Russians as uncultured Asiatic barbarians.[127]
The American professor Jimmie E. Cain Jr has stated that these views were then exported to other parts of the world and
were reflected in the literature of late the 19th and early 20th centuries.[126]

Iran
Due to Russia's support of the Iranian government, many protesters started chants of "Death to Russia" after the 2009
Presidential election.[128]

Japan
Most Japanese interaction with Russian individuals – besides in major cities such as Tokyo – happens with seamen and
fishermen of the Russian fishing fleet, therefore Japanese people tend to carry the stereotypes associated with sailors over
to Russians.[129][130] According to a 2012 Pew Global Attitudes Project survey, 72% of Japanese people view Russia
unfavorably, compared with 22% who viewed it favorably, making Japan the most anti-Russian country surveyed.[131]

Turkey
According to a 2013 survey 73% of Turks look at Russia unfavorably against 16% with favorable views.[132]

In the 20th century, anti-Russian sentiment in Turkey was so great that the Russians refused to allow a Turkish military
attache to accompany their armies.[133]

United States
During the Cold War years, there was frequent confusion and conflation of terms "Russians" and "Communists"/"Soviets";
in 1973, a group of Russian immigrants in the US founded the Congress of Russian Americans with the purpose of drawing
a clear distinction between Russian national identity and Soviet ideology, and preventing the formation of anti-Russian
sentiment on the basis of Western anti-communism.[134] Members of the Congress see the conflation itself as
Russophobic, since Russians were the first nation in world history to be oppressed by a communist regime.[135]

According to a 2013 Poll, 59% of Americans had a negative view of Russia, 23% had a favorable opinion, and 18% were
uncertain.[106] According to a survey by Pew Research Center, negative attitudes towards Russia in the United States rose
from 43% to 72% from 2013 to 2014.[40]

Recent events such as the Anti-Magnitsky bill,[136] the Boston Marathon bombings[137] Russia's actions following the
Ukrainian crisis,[40] the Syrian Civil War, the allegations of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections and
the allegations of collusion between Donald Trump's presidential campaign and Russia[138][139] are deemed to have caused
a rising negative impression about Russia in the United States.[140]
In December 2016, New York Daily News columnist Gersh Kuntzman compared the assassination of the Russian
Ambassador to Turkey, Andrei Karlov, to the assassination of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Jewish student
Herschel Grynszpan, saying "justice has been served."[141]

Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Glenn Greenwald of The Intercept wrote in February 2017 that the "East Coast
newsmagazines" are "feeding Democrats the often xenophobic, hysterical Russophobia for which they have a seemingly
insatiable craving."[142]

In May 2017, the former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper was criticized by some media outlets for a
xenophobic remark in an interview with Chuck Todd from Meet the Press.[143] He told NBC's Meet The Press that
Russians are "almost genetically driven" to act deviously.[144][145]

Women's March in Women's March in Anti-Trump protest in Anti-Russian poster in

Chicago, January 21, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, January San Francisco,
2017 January 21, 2017 26, 2017 presumably associating
Russia with Soviet
Union or communism,
April 15, 2017

Anti-Russian posters in Tax March in Saint Paul, Tax March in San

Chicago, April 15, 2017 Minnesota, April 15, Francisco
2017

Hollywood
In a 2014 news story, Fox News reported, "Russians may also be unimpressed with Hollywood’s apparent negative
stereotyping of Russians in movies. "The Avengers" featured a ruthless former KGB agent, "Iron Man 2" centers on a
rogue Russian scientist with a vendetta, and action thriller "Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit" saw Kenneth Branagh play an
archetypal Russian bad guy, just to name a few."[146]
Vietnam
Anti-Russian sentiment in Vietnam is very low due to historical common alliance between communist North Vietnam and
Soviet Union during Vietnam War and Cold War period. Vietnamese population at large hold a favorable view of Russia
and Russian culture. However, from 2010s onward, the younger and middle generations are becoming aware of Russian
atrocities towards its neighbors like Belarus, Germany, Ukraine and Poland, notably rape of Eastern European and
German women by Russian troops, or the Katyń Massacre, which have sparked strong Russophobic sentiment among
Vietnamese population.[147][148] Recent good relationship between China and Russia, the former has been Vietnam's long
time adversary for years, the failure of the Soviet Union to assist Vietnam at the 1979 Sino–Vietnamese War and poor
treatments and repeated killing of Vietnamese in Russia[149][150], further deteriorated the favorable view on Russia among
Vietnamese.

Overseas Vietnamese, mostly descendants of the South Vietnamese refugees, as well as recent Vietnamese immigrants
moving abroad, perceive Russia as a direct threat of Vietnamese sovereignty after China.[151]

Common Vietnamese words used as pejorative anti-Russian sentiment in Vietnam are "Nga ngố" (idiot Russian) and
"Nga Sô" (Soviet Russia), commonly as anti-Russian remarks.[152]

South Korea
Due to the history of the Cold War and the Korean War, where the Soviet Union and South Korea fought on opposing
sides, relations between Russia and South Korea have been almost non existent until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Even so, opinion about Russia and Russians in South Korea remains low, particularly due to Russia's support for North
Korea[153]. A common pejorative term against Russians in Korea is "로스케" (Roske, the same as English Russkie).

Business
In May and June 2006, Russian media cited discrimination against Russian companies as one possible reason why the
contemplated merger between the Luxembourg-based steelmaker Arcelor and Russia's Severstal did not finalize.
According to the Russian daily Izvestiya, those opposing the merger "exploited the 'Russian threat' myth during
negotiations with shareholders and, apparently, found common ground with the Europeans",[154] while Boris Gryzlov,
speaker of the State Duma observed that "recent events show that someone does not want to allow us to enter their
markets."[155] On 27 July 2006, the New York Times quoted the analysts as saying that many Western investors still think
that anything to do with Russia is "a little bit doubtful and dubious" while others look at Russia in "comic book terms, as
mysterious and mafia-run."[156]

View of Russia in Western media

Some Russian and Western commentators express concern about a far too negative coverage of Russia in Western media
(some Russians even describe this as a "war of information").[157][158] In April 2007, David Johnson, founder of the
Johnson's Russia List, said in interview to the Moscow News: "I am sympathetic to the view that these days Putin and
Russia are perhaps getting too dark a portrayal in most Western media. Or at least that critical views need to be
supplemented with other kinds of information and analysis. An openness to different views is still warranted."[159]

In 1995, years before Vladimir Putin was elected to his first term, the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press
reported: "coverage of Russia and its president, Boris Yeltsin, was decidedly negative, even though national polls continue
to find the public feeling positive toward Russia and largely uncritical of Yeltsin."[160]
In February 2007, the Russian creativity agency E-generator put together a "rating of Russophobia" of Western media,
using for the research articles concerning a single theme—Russia's chairmanship of G8, translated into Russian by
InoSmi.Ru. The score was composed for each edition, negative values granted for negative assessments of Russia, and
positive values representing positive ones. The top in the rating were Newsday (−43, U.S.), Financial Times (−34, Great
Britain), The Wall Street Journal (−34, U.S.), Le Monde (−30, France), while editions on the opposite side of the rating
were Toronto Star (+27, Canada) and "The Conservative Voice"[161] (+26, U.S.).[162][163]

California-based international relations scholar Andrei Tsygankov has remarked that anti-Russian political rhetoric
coming from Washington circles has received wide echo in American mainstream media, asserting that "Russophobia's
revival is indicative of the fear shared by some U.S. and European politicians that their grand plans to control the world's
most precious resources and geostrategic sites may not succeed if Russia's economic and political recovery continues."[164]

In practice, anti-Russian political rhetoric usually puts emphasis on highlighting policies and practices of the Russian
government that are criticised internally - corruption, abuse of law, censorship, violence and intervention in Ukraine.
Western criticism in this aspect goes in line with Russian independent anti-government media such as (TV Rain, Novaya
Gazeta, Ekho Moskvy, The Moscow Times) and opposition human rights activists (Memorial). In defence of this rhetoric,
some sources critical of the Russian government claim that it is Russian state-owned media and administration who
attempt to discredit the "neutral" criticism by generalizing it into indiscriminate accusations of the whole Russian
population - or russophobia.[11][165][166] Some have argued, however, that the Western media doesn't make enough
distinction between Putin's regime and Russia and the Russians, thus effectively vilifying the whole nation.[167][168]

Russian nationalist ideology

The issue of anti-Russian sentiment has become an indispensable part of contemporary Russian nationalist
ideology.[11][169] Sociologist Anatoly Khazanov states that there's a national-patriotic movement which believes that there's
a clash of civilizations, a global struggle between the idealist, collectivist, morally and spiritually superior Eurasia led by
Russia, and the corrupt, materialistic, decadent, morally and spiritually polluted West led by the United States.

This national-patriotic movement charges that for centuries the West has plundered Russia of her natural resources,
trying to bring Russia to her knees and undermining Russia's messianic and self-sacrificing mission to enlighten and save
mankind, with the collapse of the Soviet Union as evidence. In their view, the United States want to break up Russia and
turn it into a source of raw materials. The West being accused of Russophobia is a major part of their belief.[170]

See also
List of anti-ethnic and anti-national terms
Anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment
Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs
Anti-communism
Anti-Sovietism
McCarthyism
Russophilia
Russian irredentism
Sinophobia

Footnotes
1. "thefreedictionary" (https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Russophobe). thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
 2. "Envoy complains Britons mistreat Russians" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080221194733/http://uk.reuters.com/arti
cle/topNews/idUKL0824162420070708). Reuters. July 8, 2007. Archived from the original (http://uk.reuters.com/articl
e/topNews/idUKL0824162420070708) on February 21, 2008. Retrieved July 30, 2007.
3. Steele, Jonathan (June 30, 2006). "The west's new Russophobia is hypocritical - and wrong" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20070302135431/http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0%2C%2C1809314%2C00.html). The Guardian.
Archived from the original (https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,,1809314,00.html) on March 2, 2007.
4. Forest, Benjamin; Johnson, Juliet; Till, Karen (September 2004). "Post-totalitarian national identity: public memory in
Germany and Russia". Social & Cultural Geography. Taylor & Francis. 5 (3): 357–380.
doi:10.1080/1464936042000252778 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1464936042000252778).
5. Macgilchrist, Felicitas (January 21, 2009). "Framing Russia: The construction of Russia and Chechnya in the western
media" (https://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/vs/anthro/habilprom/macgilchrist_felicitas/index.html). Europa-
Universitat Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder). Retrieved 5 April 2015.
6. Le, E´lisabeth (2006). "Collective Memories and Representations of National Identity in Editorials: Obstacles to a
renegotiation of intercultural relations" (https://www.sfu.ca/cmns/courses/2012/487/1-Extra%20Readings/le%20journa
lists%20and%20national%20identity%20memory.pdf) (PDF). Journalism Studies. 7 (5): 708–728.
doi:10.1080/14616700600890372 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14616700600890372).
7. Mertelsmann, Olaf. "How the Russians Turned into the Image of the 'National Enemy' of the Estonians" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20130524164246/http://www.erm.ee/pdf/pro19/mertelsmann.pdf) (PDF). Estonian National Museum.
Archived from the original (http://www.erm.ee/pdf/pro19/mertelsmann.pdf) (PDF) on May 24, 2013. Retrieved
October 14, 2012.
8. Luostarinen, Heikki (May 1989). "Finnish Russophobia: The Story of an Enemy Image". Journal of Peace Research.
26 (2): 123–137. doi:10.1177/0022343389026002002 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343389026002002).
JSTOR 423864 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/423864).
9. Kurutz, Steven (January 17, 2014). "Russians: Still the Go-To Bad Guys" (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/19/opinio
n/sunday/why-are-russians-still-the-go-to-bad-guys.html?hp&rref=opinion&_r=0). The New York Times. Retrieved
January 18, 2014.
10. Umland, Andreas (January 21, 2016). "The Putinverstehers' Misconceived Charge of Russophobia: How Western
Apology for the Kremlin's Current Behavior Contradicts Russian National Interests" (http://hir.harvard.edu/the-putinver
stehers-misconceived-charge-of-russophobia/). Harvard International Review. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
11. Darczewska, Jolanta; Żochowsky, Piotr (October 2015). "Russophobia in the Kremlin's strategy: A weapon of mass
destruction" (https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/pw_56_ang_russophobia_net.pdf) (PDF). Point of View. OSW
Centre for Eastern Studies (56). ISBN 978-83-62936-72-4. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
12. "Художник Елена Хейдиз и ее цикл «Химеры», возмутивший шовинистов" (https://www.svoboda.org/a/446874.ht
ml), Radio Liberty, Russian edition, May 7, 2008
13. Neumann, Iver B. (2002). Müller, Jan-Werner, ed. Europe's post-Cold War memory of Russia: cui bono? (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=wOsSG0K8hCYC&pg=PA132). Memory and power in post-war Europe: studies in the
presence of the past. Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-5210-0070-3.
14. McNally, Raymond T. (April 1958). "The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812-1830". American Slavic and East
European Review. 17 (2): 173–189. doi:10.2307/3004165 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3004165). JSTOR 3004165 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/3004165).
15. Neumann (2002), p. 133.
16. Latham, Edward (1906). Famous Sayings and Their Authors: A Collection of Historical Sayings in English, French,
German, Greek, Italian, and Latin (https://books.google.com/books?id=xvkNAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181). Swan
Sonnenschein. p. 181.
17. Bartlett's Roget's Thesaurus (https://books.google.com/books?id=D8yVAC8CtO4C). Little Brown & Company. 2003.
ISBN 9780316735872.
18. Ширинянц А.А., Мырикова А.В. «Внутренняя» русофобия и «польский вопрос» в России XIX в. Проблемный
анализ и государственно-управленческое проектирование. № 1 (39) / том 8 / 2015. С. 16
19. Ширинянц А.А., Мырикова А.В. «Внутренняя» русофобия и «польский вопрос» в России XIX в. Проблемный
анализ и государственно-управленческое проектирование. № 1 (39) / том 8 / 2015. С. 15
20. Odesskii, Mikhail Pavlovich (2015). Антропология культуры (https://books.google.com/books?id=8etkAAAAQBAJ&
pg=PA202) [Anthropology of culture] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). LitRes. pp. 201–202. ISBN 978-5-457-36929-0. Retrieved
October 20, 2016.
21. Shafarevich, Igor (Mar 1990). Russophobia (http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=
ADA335121). Joint Publications Research Service.
22. Fisher, David C. "Russia and the Crystal Palace 1851" in Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of
1851 ed. Jeffery A. Auerbach & Peter H. Hoffenberg. Ashgate, 2008:pp. 123-124.
23. A Short View of Russia, Essays in Persuasion, (London 1932) John Maynard Keynes, 297-312
24. "The So-Called Russian Soul (http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/goeb11.htm)"
25. R. J. Overy (2004). The dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton. p. 537. ISBN 978-0-393-
02030-4.
26. Wette, Wolfram (2009). The Wehrmacht: history, myth, reality. Harvard University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-674-
04511-8.
27. Müller, Rolf-Dieter, Gerd R. Ueberschär, Hitler's War in the East, 1941–1945: A Critical Assessment, Berghahn
Books, 2002, ISBN 1-57181-293-8, page 244
28. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, Volume One - A Reckoning, Chapter XIV: Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy
29. Adam Jones (2010), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (2nd ed.), p.271. – " ' " Next to the Jews in Europe,"
wrote Alexander Werth', "the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure
and in other ways of . . . Russian war prisoners." Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the
least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of
the most intensive genocides of all time: "a holocaust that devoured millions," as Catherine Merridale acknowledges.
The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter
matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide."
30. Russian: Политика геноцида (http://www.khatyn.by/ru/genocide/belarus/treb/), Государственный мемориальный
комплекс «Хатынь»
31. Stein, George H (1984). The Waffen SS: Hitler's Elite Guard at War, 1939–1945. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
p. 126. ISBN 0-8014-9275-0.
32. "Remarks By Heinrich Himmler (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/himmler_remarks.html)"
33. Peter Lavelle is a host of CrossTalk show at RT.Peter Lavelle; et al. (July 8, 2005). "RP's Weekly Experts' Panel:
Deconstructing "Russophobia" and "Russocentric" " (https://web.archive.org/web/20060612212822/http://www.untimel
y-thoughts.com/index.html?art=1993). Russia Profile. Archived from the original (http://www.untimely-thoughts.com/in
dex.html?art=1993) on June 12, 2006. Retrieved July 30, 2007.
34. Sobell, currently at the Daiwa Research Institute, is a noted expert in the post-Soviet transition of society.
35. Western treatment of Russia signifies erosion of reason (http://theivanovosti.typepad.com/the_ivanov_report/files/dow
nload_the_article.pdf) Dr. Vlad Sobell, 2007
36. "Publics Worldwide Unfavorable Toward Putin, Russia" (http://www.pewglobal.org/2017/08/16/publics-worldwide-unfa
vorable-toward-putin-russia/). Pew Research Center. August 16, 2017.
37. Helsingin Sanomat, October 11, 2004, International poll: Anti-Russian sentiment runs very strong in Finland. Only (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20070311034013/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/International%2Bpoll%2BAnti-Russian%2B
sentiment%2Bruns%2Bvery%2Bstrong%2Bin%2BFinland/1076154202275) Kosovo has more negative attitude
38. World Doesn't Like Russia or the U.S., Survey Shows (https://web.archive.org/web/20141126080627/http://www.them
oscowtimes.com/news/article/world-doesnt-like-russia-or-the-us-survey-shows/227745.html), Moscow Times, October
13, 2014
39. "Survey: Respondents' Views on Other Countries Shift or Remain Static" (http://trends.gmfus.org/survey-respondents-
views-on-other-countries-shift-or-remain-static/). Transatlantic Trends. Retrieved April 5, 2015.
40. "Russia's Global Image Negative amid Crisis in Ukraine" (http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/07/09/russias-global-image-
negative-amid-crisis-in-ukraine/). Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
41. Pressrelase (http://fra.europa.eu/en/press-release/2012/hate-crime-reality-eu-two-new-fra-reports-show) and Fact
sheet (http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/hate_crime_pr_en.pdf) for the study "Hate crime in the European Union"
by EU Fundamental Rights Agency November 2012
42. EU-MIDIS, European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey: Minorities as victims of crime (http://fra.europa.eu/s
ites/default/files/fra-2012-eu-midis-dif6_0.pdf) (PDF). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2012.
Retrieved October 20, 2016.
43. "Armenia National Voter Study July 2007" (http://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/2007%20September%2017%20Surve
y%20of%20Armenian%20Public%20Opinion,%20July%205-12,%202007.pdf) (PDF). IRI, USAID, Baltic Surveys
Ltd./The Gallup Organization, ASA. p. 45. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
44. "Video Bridge - V. Putin's State Visit to Armenia on December 2, 2013" (http://www.publicdialogues.info/en/node/639).
Public Dialogues. 9 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
45. " 'With regard to anti-Russian sentiments, unfortunately, I consider the thoughts of the first president unrelated or
misleading from the subject.' " (http://en.aravot.am/2013/12/23/163157/). Aravot. December 23, 2013. Retrieved
November 11, 2016.
46. Abdelal, Rawi (2005). National Purpose in the World Economy: Post-Soviet States in Comparative Perspective.
Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 9780801489778.
47. "East meets West in the Caucasus" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/bh/1451057.stm). BBC News. July 22,
2001. Retrieved July 20, 2014.
48. Batalden, Stephen K.; Batalden, Sandra L. (1997). The Newly Independent States of Eurasia: Handbook of Former
Soviet Republics (2nd ed.). Phoenix: Oryx. p. 99. ISBN 9780897749404.
49. Cohen, Ariel (1998). Russian Imperialism: Development and Crisis. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 135.
ISBN 9780275964818. "At his funeral, the Armenians erupted in anti-Russian and anti-Soviet demonstrations."
50. Huseynov, Rusif (February 29, 2016). "Azerbaijan: Time to Choose Side" (http://thepoliticon.net/analytics/284-azerbaij
an-time-to-choose-side.html). The Politicon. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
51. Hunter, Shireen T. (2013). "The Evolution of the Foreign Policy of the Transcaucasian States". In Bertsch, Gary K.;
Cassady B. Craft; Scott A. Jones; Michael D. Beck. Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the
Caucasus and Central Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=NX9GAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA40). Routledge. p. 40.
ISBN 978-1-136-68445-6. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
52. Kempe, Iris, ed. (June 17, 2013). "The South Caucasus Between The EU And The Eurasian Union" (http://www.css.et
hz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/CAD-51-52.pdf) (PDF). Caucasus
Analytical Digest. Forschungsstelle Osteuropa, Bremen and Center for Security Studies, Zürich (51–52): 20–21.
ISSN 1867-9323 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1867-9323). Retrieved November 12, 2016.
53. "Georgian National Study February 18 – 27, 2013" (http://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/2013_May_16_Survey_of_Geo
rgian_Public_Opinion_February_18-27_2013.pdf) (PDF). International Republican Institute, Baltic Surveys Ltd., The
Gallup Organization, The Institute of Polling And Marketing. February 2013. p. 35. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
54. Krone-Schmalz, Gabriele (2008). "Zweierlei Maß". Was passiert in Russland? (in German) (4 ed.). München: F.A.
Herbig. pp. 45–48. ISBN 978-3-7766-2525-7.
55. Subrenat, Jean-Jacques, ed. (2004). Estonia: Identity and Independence (https://books.google.com/books?id=kBZlHd
p7tdcC&pg=PA273). Rodopi. p. 273. ISBN 90-420-0890-3. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
56. Tsygankov, Andrei (2009). Russophobia: Anti-Russian Lobby and American Foreign Policy. Palgrave MacMillan.
p. 58. ISBN 978-0-230-61418-5.
57. Tsygankov, Andrei (2009). Russophobia: Anti-Russian Lobby and American Foreign Policy. Palgrave MacMillan.
p. 44. ISBN 978-0-230-61418-5.
58. Solovyov, Vyacheslav (10 November 2010). "Russophobe remains at his post in Latvia" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20101112060136/http://english.ruvr.ru/2010/11/10/33169952.html). Voice of Russia. Archived from the original (http://
english.ruvr.ru/2010/11/10/33169952.html) on 2010-11-12. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
59. "Integration and Minority Information Service" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101203000151/http://www.humanrights.
org.lv/html/monitor/30267.html). Latvian Centre for Human Rights. 8 November 2010. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.humanrights.org.lv/html/monitor/30267.html) on 2010-12-03. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
60. Slucis' actual mail to Kristovskis is even worse (http://www.kasjauns.lv/lv/zinas/32736/sluca-ista-vestule-kristovskim-e
sot-vel-briesmigaka), KasJauns news portal, retrieved June 10, 2011
61. "Riga mayor to have to pay EUR 140 for using Russian on social networking sites (https://www.baltictimes.com/riga_
mayor_to_have_to_pay_eur_140_for_using_russian_on_social_networking_sites/)". The Baltic Times. 13 March
2017.
62. "Latvia fines mayor for Facebook posts in Russian (https://www.eurotopics.net/en/163880/latvia-fines-mayor-for-faceb
ook-posts-in-russian)". Eurotopics. 4 August 2016.
63. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/03/lithuania-fears-russian-propaganda-is-prelude-to-eventual-invasion
64. https://news.err.ee/681001/lithuania-russia-permanently-stationing-iskander-missiles-in-kaliningrad
65. http://www.fox25boston.com/news/lithuania-russia-deploying-more-missiles-into-kaliningrad/694657732
66. "McCain's Call to Recognize Chechen Independence Has Inspired Chechens" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120113
080838/http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=5144). The Jamestown
Foundation. Archived from the original (http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=5
144) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
67. Tlisova, Fatima (21 August 2009). "The Role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the North Caucasus" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20101226154129/http://www.circassianworld.com/new/headlines/1377-role-of-orthodox-church-tlisova.ht
ml). Eurasia Daily Monitor. 6 (162). Archived from the original (http://www.circassianworld.com/new/headlines/1377-ro
le-of-orthodox-church-tlisova.html) on December 26, 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
68. "'Pro-Russia' Chechen leader threatens to kill Russian cops on his turf (https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/201
5/0423/Pro-Russia-Chechen-leader-threatens-to-kill-Russian-cops-on-his-turf)". Csmonitor.com. 23 April 2016.
69. "Chechen leader Kadyrov 'threatens whole of Russia', opposition says (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/
23/chechen-leader-ramzan-kadyrov-threatens-whole-of-russia-opposition-warns)". The Guardian. 26 February 2016.
70. The Christian Science Monitor. "Ukraine's orange-blue divide" (http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0928/p04s02-woeu.ht
ml?page=2). The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
71. Sewall, Elisabeth (16 November 2006). "David Duke makes repeat visit to controversial Kyiv university" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20080419120713/http://www.ncsj.org/AuxPages/030106JTA_MAUP.shtml). Kyiv Post. Archived from
the original (http://www.ncsj.org/AuxPages/030106JTA_MAUP.shtml) on April 19, 2008.
72. Miller, Alexey; Kasianov, Hryhoriy. "Россия-Украина: как пишется история" (http://polit.ru/article/2009/03/10/golodom
or/) (in Russian). polit.ru. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
73. "Россияне об Украине, украинцы о России - Левада-Центр" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090627092728/http://w
ww.levada.ru/press/2009062305.html). Archived from the original (http://www.levada.ru/press/2009062305.html) on
June 27, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2015.
74. "Institute of Sociology: Love for Russians dwindling in Western Ukraine" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011080919191
5/http://zik.ua/en/news/2010/10/21/251581). zik. Archived from the original (http://zik.ua/en/news/2010/10/21/251581)
on 2011-08-09. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
75. "Tiahnybok considers 'Svoboda' as the only right-wing party in Ukraine", Hazeta po-ukrainsky, 06.08.2007. edition (htt
p://gpu-ua.info/index.php?&id=176193&eid=422&lang=ruRussian), edition (http://gazeta.ua/articles/politics-newspape
r/_tyagnibok-vvazhaye-svobodu-yedinoyu-pravoyu-partiyeyu/176193)
76. UKRAINIAN APPEALS TO ANTI-SEMITISM IN ELECTION WIN (http://www.icare.to/article.php?id=29727&lang=en),
Internet Centre Anti-Racism Europe (November 4, 2010)
77. (in Ukrainian) Вибори: тотальне домінування Партії регіонів (https://web.archive.org/web/20101108052245/http://w
ww.bbc.co.uk/ukrainian/news/2010/11/101106_elex_sat_ok_is.shtml), BBC Ukrainian (November 6, 2010)
78. (in Ukrainian) Генеральна репетиція президентських виборів: на Тернопільщині стався прогнозований тріумф
націоналістів і крах Тимошенко (http://www.umoloda.kiev.ua/number/1369/180/48272/), Ukrayina Moloda (March 17,
2009)
79. Nationalist Svoboda scores election victories in western Ukraine (https://web.archive.org/web/20101114061336/http://
www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/89664/), Kyiv Post (November 11, 2010)
80. (in Ukrainian) Підсилення "Свободи" загрозою несвободи (https://web.archive.org/web/20101106125614/http://ww
w.bbc.co.uk/ukrainian/news/2010/11/101104_svoboda_analysis_it.shtml), BBC Ukrainian (November 4, 2010)
 81. The Ukrainian Nationalism at the Heart of ‘Euromaidan’ (https://web.archive.org/web/20140129112651/http://www.the
nation.com/article/178013/ukrainian-nationalism-heart-euromaidan), The Nation (January 21, 2014)
82. "Blind eye turned to influence of far-right in Ukrainian crisis: critics" (http://globalnews.ca/news/1194100/blind-eye-turn
ed-to-influence-of-far-right-in-ukrainian-crisis-critics/). Global News. March 7, 2014.
83. "Rusové přicházejí!" (http://blisty.cz/art/39166.html) (the title is the popular phrase "The Russians are coming!"),
Oskar Krejčí, February 26, 2008
84. "BBC 2013 World Service Poll: Views of China and India Slide While UK's Ratings Climb: Global Poll" (http://www.glo
bescan.com/images/images/pressreleases/bbc2013_country_ratings/2013_country_rating_poll_bbc_globescan.pdf)
(PDF). BBC. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
85. Radio Free Europe. Eastern Europe: Russian-Polish Tensions Rise Over Attack On Russian Children In Warsaw (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20050816041343/http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/08/8b87a178-6993-48f7-b7e3-f7b9
701b49fc.html), by Valentinas Mite. 3 August 2005; last accessed on 14 July 2007
86. The Saint Petersburg Times. Lingering Bitterness Over May 9. 26 April 2005. retrieved on 14 July 2007 (http://www.sp
times.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=3381)
87. "After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever" (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/
abstract.html?res=F30710F83A5E0C708CDDAE0894DD404482&incamp=archive:search) (free text (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20050802113249/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/07/03/news/poland.php))
88. Olga Popescu: Ion Iliescu pentru presa rusa: "Nu stim cine a tras la Revolutie, este o enigma. Probabil au fost oameni
extrem de devotati lui Ceausescu", http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-6753081-ion-iliescu-pentru-presa-rusa-nu-
stim-cine-tras-revolutie-este-enigma-probabil-fost-oameni-extrem-devotati-lui-ceausescu.htm
89. George Roncea: Realitatea TV, ecoul Moscovei în România contra lui Băsescu,
http://www.curentul.ro/2010/index.php/2010011138407/Actualitate/Realitatea-TV-ecoul-Moscovei-in-Romania-contra-
lui-Basescu/Page-2.html
90. Popa, Liliana (22 January 2010). "Traian Basescu tuna impotriva Rusiei, dar apropiatii sai obtin contracte grase de la
Gazprom" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013019/http://www.financiarul.com/articol_38759/traian-basescu-tun
a-impotriva-rusiei-dar-apropiatii--sai-obtin-contracte-grase-de-la-gazprom.html) [Traian Basescu thunders against
Russia, but his friends get fat contracts from Gazprom] (in Romanian). Fin.ro. Archived from the original (http://www.fi
nanciarul.com/articol_38759/traian-basescu-tuna-impotriva-rusiei-dar-apropiatii--sai-obtin-contracte-grase-de-la-gazpr
om.html) on July 20, 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
91. Dan Tapalaga: Cortina de vorbe goale, http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-opinii-5598180-cortina-vorbe-goale.htm
92. (in Romanian)
93. Лавров отмахнулся от Балкан: Между Россией и Хорватией возник спор о российской угрозе на Балканах (http
s://www.gazeta.ru/politics/2016/12/13_a_10424873.shtml) Gazeta.ru, 13 December 2016.
94. "MEPs draw map of pro- and anti-Russian countries in the EU" (https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/
meps-draw-map-of-pro-and-anti-russian-countries-in-the-eu/). EURACTIV.
95. "Croat and Ukrainian fans' hate message to Serbs and Russians" (http://www.b92.net/eng/news/region.php?yyyy=201
7&mm=03&dd=27&nav_id=100865). B92.
96. "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Serbia, Russia, and the Effects of the Ukraine Crisis" (https://theglobalobservator
y.org/2014/06/serbia-russia-and-effects-of-ukraine-crisis/). IPI Global Observatory.
97. "Serbia And Croatia: Sweeping The Real Issues Under The Carpet" (https://www.rferl.org/a/serbia-croatia-sweep-issu
es-under-rug/27811801.html). RFERL.
98. "Ukrainian Conflict involved Croatian and Serbian volunteers" (https://www.slavorum.org/ukrainian-conflict-involved-cr
oatian-and-serbian-volunteers/). Slavorum.
99. "Fight the good fight" (https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21648697-western-balkans-peace-some-go-abroad-l
ook-war-fight-good-fight). Economist.
100. "AMERIČKI ČASOPIS 'Hrvatska je najjači saveznik zapada protiv ekspanzije Rusije na Balkanu' " (http://www.novilist.
hr/Vijesti/Hrvatska/AMERICKI-CASOPIS-Hrvatska-je-najjaci-saveznik-zapada-protiv-ekspanzije-Rusije-na-Balkanu).
Novi List.
101. "Kosovo feels Russia's heavy hand, via Serbia" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/13/opinion/kosovo-feels-russias-h
eavy-hand-via-serbia.html?mcubz=3) (PDF). The New York Times. 13 April 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2017., Enver
Hoxhaj
102. "Russia's revenge against Albania" (http://illyriapress.com/russias-revenge-against-albania/) (PDF). Illyria Press. 13
August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
103. "Bulgarian national security report naming Russia as threat causes storm in Parliament" (http://sofiaglobe.com/2017/0
9/13/bulgarian-national-security-report-naming-russia-as-threat-causes-storm-in-parliament/) (PDF). The Sofia Globe.
13 September 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
104. "The "Lisa case": Germany as a target of Russian disinformation" (https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2016/Also-in-201
6/lisa-case-germany-target-russian-disinformation/EN/index.htm). NATO.
105. Maria Snegovaya. "Russian Propaganda In Germany: More Effective Than You Think" (https://www.the-american-inte
rest.com/2017/10/17/russian-propaganda-germany-effective-think/). The American Interest.
106. "BBC World Service poll: Views of China and India Slide While UK's Ratings Climb: Global Poll" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20130926224831/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/2013%20Country%20Rating%20Poll.pdf) (PDF).
BBC. May 22, 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/2013%20Country%20Rating%
20Poll.pdf) (PDF) on September 26, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
107. "Abbott holds hard line against Russia over MH17 investigation" (http://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/mh17/abb
ott-holds-hard-line-against-russia-over-mh17-investigation/story-fno88it0-1226994527026). The Australian. 19 July
2014. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
108. "Consider barring Putin from G20: Shorten" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140814010402/https://au.news.yahoo.co
m/a/24501124/consider-barring-putin-from-g20-shorten/). Seven News. 19 July 2014. Archived from the original (http
s://au.news.yahoo.com/a/24501124/consider-barring-putin-from-g20-shorten/) on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 19 July
2014.
109. Osmo Kuusi; Hanna Smith; Paula Tiihonen (eds.). "Venäjä 2017: Kolme skenaariota" (http://web.eduskunta.fi/dman/D
ocument.phx?documentId=fc13607155759048&cmd=download) (in Finnish). Eduskunnan tulevaisuusvaliokunta.
Retrieved 2008-02-15.
110. Kustaa H. J, Vilkuna (2007). Paholaisen sota (in Finnish). Helsinki: Teos.
111. "Kirja-arvostelu: Ryssävihan kulta-aika" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050224210546/http://agricola.utu.fi/nyt/arvos/t
ekstit/78.html) (in Finnish). Agricola-historiaverkko. Archived from the original (http://agricola.utu.fi/nyt/arvos/tekstit/78.
html) on 2005-02-24. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
112. Svenska Akademiens Ordbok
113. "Alla ha rätt" (http://runeberg.org/allaharatt/0111.html). 'Alla ha rätt samt andra uppsatser med anledning av
världskriget. 1917 – via Project Runeberg.
114. Bernhard Elis Malmström (1866–1869). "Carelius och Odel" (http://runeberg.org/bemsamlade/1/0340.html). Bernhard
Elis Malmströms samlade skrifter. 1 – via Project Runeberg.
115. "Sjuttonhundratal" (http://runeberg.org/blm/1943/0687.html). Bonniers litterära magasin. 1943 – via Project Runeberg.
116. Grimberg, Carl (1913–1939). "Esaias Tegnér" (http://runeberg.org/sfubon/8/0331.html). Svenska folkets underbara
öden. VIII – via Project Runeberg. "1809 års män, Karl Johans och Oskar I:s tid samt Vårt näringsliv och
kommunikationsväsen under teknikens tidevarv 1809-1859"
117. Grimberg, Carl (1913–1939). "Oskar I" (http://runeberg.org/sfubon/8/0616.html). Svenska folkets underbara öden. VIII
– via Project Runeberg. "1809 års män, Karl Johans och Oskar I:s tid samt Vårt näringsliv och kommunikationsväsen
under teknikens tidevarv 1809-1859"
118. Winter, Jan (8 June 2014). "Putins sändebud varnar för tredje världskrig" (http://www.dn.se/nyheter/varlden/putins-san
debud-varnar-for-tredje-varldskrig/). Dagens Nyheter. TT. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
119. Rysslandskännare "chockad" över Markovs uttalanden (https://web.archive.org/web/20140612014926/http://www.svd.
se/nyheter/utrikes/putins-man-varnar-for-svenskt-rysshat_3640114.svd?sidan=2), Svenska Dagbladet, 9 June 2014.
120. "Vanliga ryssar är arga på västs dubbelmoral och rysshat" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140613211953/http://www.s
vd.se/nyheter/utrikes/putins-man-varnar-for-svenskt-rysshat_3640114.svd?sidan=5), Svenska Dagbladet, 10 June
2014.
121. McNally, T. (1958). "The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812 - 1830". American Slavic and East European
Review. XVII (2): 173–189. doi:10.2307/3004165 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3004165). JSTOR 3004165 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/3004165).
122. 16 August 2017. "Publics Worldwide Unfavorable Toward Putin, Russia" (http://www.pewglobal.org/2017/08/16/public
s-worldwide-unfavorable-toward-putin-russia/). Pew Research Center. Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE_author=
ignored (help)
123. Barratt, Glynn (1981). Russophobia in New Zealand, 1838-1908 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3OwmAQAAMA
AJ). Dunmore Press. ISBN 978-0-908564-75-0.
124. TONY WILSON, Russophobia and New Zealand-Russian Relations, 1900s to 1939 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4092
2035), New Zealand Slavonic Journal, (1999), pp. 273-296
125. The Sino-Soviet border War: how USSR almost nuke China (https://www.google.com.vn/search?q=sino-russian+war
&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiuxobV1sDWAhXHT7wKHQJmC-sQ_AUICSgA&biw=1280&bih=695&dpr=1)
126. Jimmie E. Cain Jr. (15 May 2006), Bram Stoker and Russophobia: Evidence of the British Fear of Russia in Dracula
and The Lady of the Shroud, McFarland & Co Inc., U.S., ISBN 0-7864-2407-9
127. Peter Hopkirk. The Great Game, Kodansha International, 1992, ISBN 4-7700-1703-0
128. For Iran’s Opposition, ‘Death to Russia’ Is the New ‘Death to America’ (http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/w
hy-death-to-russia-is-the-new-death-to-america-for-irans-opposition/?_r=0), 20 July 2009
129. Otaru onsen lawsuit, hearing 7: oral testimonies by the plaintiffs (http://www.debito.org/hearing7courttestimony.html),
March 11, 2002, Sapporo district court
130. Letman, Jon (31 March 2000). "Russian visitors boiling over Japanese bathhouses" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
70930223953/http://vlad.tribnet.com/2000/iss212/text/news3.html). Vladivostok News. Archived from the original (htt
p://vlad.tribnet.com/2000/iss212/text/news3.html) on September 30, 2007.
131. "Opinion of Russia" (http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/27/survey/14/response/Unfavorable/). Pew
Research Center. 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
132. Poushter, Jacob (31 October 2014). "The Turkish people don't look favorably upon the U.S., or any other country,
really" (http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/31/the-turkish-people-dont-look-favorably-upon-the-u-s-or-any-
other-country-really/). Pew Research Center.
133. Towle, Philip (1980). "British Assistance to the Japanese Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5". The Great
circle: journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History. Australian Association for Maritime History. 2 (1): 44–
54.
134. Steven Ferry (1995). Russian Americans (https://books.google.com/books?id=Nr9cwuNZjoAC). Benchmark Books.
p. 42. ISBN 9780761401643. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
135. The history of CRA (http://www.russian-americans.org/history/)
136. Russia blacklists more U.S. citizens from entry under "anti-Magnitsky" bill (http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/20
13-01/19/c_124251515.htm) 19 January 2013
137. What Boston Bombers' Chechen Ties May Mean for U.S.-Russia Relations (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/anya-sch
memann/boston-bomber-us-russia-ties_b_3118244.html) April 9, 2013
138. "Key Democratic Officials Now Warning Base Not to Expect Evidence of Trump/Russia Collusion (https://theintercept.
com/2017/03/16/key-democratic-officials-now-warning-base-not-to-expect-evidence-of-trumprussia-collusion/)". The
Intercept. March 16, 2017.
139. "Why the Russia Story Is a Minefield for Democrats and the Media (https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/taibbi-russia-
story-is-a-minefield-for-democrats-and-the-media-w471074)". Rolling Stone. March 8, 2017.
140. "Boston bombings must unite Russia and America not cause divisions, Putin argues" (http://www.express.co.uk/news/
world/394658/Boston-bombings-must-unite-Russia-and-America-not-cause-divisions-Putin-argues). April 25, 2013.
Retrieved November 14, 2014.
141. Gersh, Kuntzman (December 20, 2016). "Assassination of Russian Ambassador Andrei Karlov was not terrorism, but
retribution for Vladimir Putin's war crimes" (http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/don-cry-russia-slain-envoy-putin-l
ackey-article-1.2917281). New York Daily News.
142. "The New Yorker’s Big Cover Story Reveals Five Uncomfortable Truths About U.S. and Russia (https://theintercept.co
m/2017/02/28/the-new-yorkers-big-cover-story-reveals-five-uncomfortable-truths-about-u-s-and-russia/)". The
Intercept. February 28, 2017.
143. "James Clapper Tells NBC's Chuck Todd That Russians Are 'Genetically Driven' to Co-opt" (http://observer.com/2017/
05/james-clapper-russia-xenophobia/). The Observer. 30 May 2017.
144. "James Clapper on Trump-Russia Ties: 'My Dashboard Warning Light Was Clearly On" (http://www.nbcnews.com/poli
tics/politics-news/james-clapper-trump-russia-ties-my-dashboard-warning-light-was-n765601). NBC News. 28 May
2017.
145. "James Clapper Tells NBC's Chuck Todd That Russians Are 'Genetically Driven' to Co-opt" (https://www.yahoo.com/n
ews/m/9037f972-3f90-3019-8b96-fafdd5ccff9a/ss_james-clapper-tells-nbc%E2%80%99s.html). Yahoo News. 30 May
2017.
146. "Russian film industry and Hollywood uneasy with one another (http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2014/10/14/ru
ssian-film-industry-and-hollywood-uneasy-with-one-another/)." Fox News. October 14, 2014
147. (Vietnamese) "The truth of Katyń Massacre and Stalin's crime" (https://expressvnn.wordpress.com/2010/04/15/sự-thậ
t-về-vụ-thảm-sat-katyn-va-tội-ac-của-stalin/).
148. (Vietnamese) "Russian Red Army raped women after World War II" (https://khoahocnet.com/2015/05/23/phuong-ton-
hong-quan-nga-so-ham-hiep-phu-nu-sau-de-nhi-the-chien/). khoahoc.net. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
149. http://www.soviet-empire.com/ussr/viewtopic.php?t=34228
150. "Russian acquitted in murder of Vietnamese student Vu Anh Tuan" (https://www.vietnambreakingnews.com/2006/10/r
ussian-acquitted-in-murder-of-vietnamese-student-vu-anh-tuan/). 19 October 2006.
151. (Vietnamese) "Communist Russia and China again" (https://vietbao.com/a183700/lai-nga-so-va-trung-cong). Việt Báo
Daily. 11 February 2012.
152. (Vietnamese) "2015, a year to afraid of Soviet Russia and Communist China" (https://cuuhocsinhphuyencom.wordpre
ss.com/2016/01/09/2015-mot-nam-te-tai-cua-nga-so-va-trung-cong/).
153. (English) "Russia and Putin Viewed Negatively Worldwide" (http://www.pewglobal.org/2017/08/16/publics-worldwide-u
nfavorable-toward-putin-russia/). pewglobal.org. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
154. Nikolaeva, Evgenia (26 June 2006). Как закалялась "Северсталь" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060702062710/htt
p://www.izvestia.ru/economic/article3094057/) [How "Severstal" was hardened] (in Russian). Izvestija. Archived from
the original (http://www.izvestia.ru/economic/article3094057/) on July 2, 2006.
155. Russian: Председатель Госдумы Борис Грызлов, комментируя пропагандистскую кампанию против слияния
российской "Северстали" и европейской "Arcelor", заявил, что Россию не хотят пускать на мировые рынки (htt
p://www.rg.ru/2006/06/27/gryzlov-arcelor-anons.html), by Rossijskaya Gazeta 27 June 2006
156. Russian Politicians See Russophobia in Arcelor's Decision to Go With Mittal Steel (https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/
27/business/worldbusiness/27fear.html), by the New York Times 27 July 2006
157. "Pravda" on Potomac (http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9328-28.cfm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2005122
9023637/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9328-28.cfm) December 29, 2005, at the Wayback Machine., by Edward
Lozansky, Johnson's Russia List, December 2005
158. Why are the American media, both liberal and conservative, so unanimously anti-Russian? (http://www.cdi.org/russia/j
ohnson/9023-24.cfm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20050126094839/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9023
-24.cfm) January 26, 2005, at the Wayback Machine., by Ira Straus, Johnson's Russia List, January 2005
159. Interview with David Johnson (http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2007-93-1.cfm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090211191502/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2007-93-1.cfm) February 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. by
the Moscow News, April 2007
160. "A Content Analysis: International News Coverage Fits Public's Ameri-Centric Mood" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
70926002952/http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/19951031.pdf) (PDF). Pew Research Center (Press release). 1995.
Archived from the original (http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/19951031.pdf) (PDF) on September 26, 2007.
161. "The Conservative Voice" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130530181621/http://conservativevoice.us/).
conservativevoice.us. Archived from the original (http://conservativevoice.us/) on May 30, 2013.
162. Belousov, Konstantin; Natalia Zelianskaia (27 February 2007). Рейтинг русофобии: "Newsday" опережает "The
Financial Times" на 9 очков (https://web.archive.org/web/20070509002517/http://www.e-generator.ru/news/index.ph
p?news_id=8255) [Rating Russophobia: "Newsday" ahead of "The Financial Times" by 9 points] (in Russian). e-
generator.ru. Archived from the original (http://www.e-generator.ru/news/index.php?news_id=8255) on May 9, 2007.
163. Matveeva, Anna (13 December 2008). "Anna Matveeva: The western media must not spoil the vital relationship
between Russia and the west" (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/dec/13/russia-west-media-stereoty
pes). The Guardian. London.
164. Tsygankov, Andrei. "The Russophobia Card". (http://www.atlantic-community.org/index/Open_Think_Tank_Article/The
_Russophobia_Card) Atlantic Community. 19 May 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
165. "Kremlin's Campaign against Russophobia Threatens both Russia and the West, Polish Experts Say" (http://www.inte
rpretermag.com/kremlins-campaign-against-russophobia-threatens-both-russia-and-the-west-polish-experts-say/).
www.interpretermag.com. Retrieved 2015-11-15.
166. "Four Types of Russian Propaganda | Aspen Review Central Europe" (http://www.aspeninstitute.cz/en/article/4-2015-f
our-types-of-russian-propaganda/). www.aspeninstitute.cz. Retrieved 2016-03-11.
167. Bruk, Diana (19 June 2017). "Russophobia Isn't Just Hurting Donald Trump—It's Helping Vladimir Putin" (http://observ
er.com/2017/06/russophobia-hurts-trump-helps-putin/). Observer.
168. Lind-Guzik, Anna (7 June 2017). "American Russophobia is real—and it's helping Putin" (https://medium.com/the-anti
-nihilist-institute/american-russophobia-is-real-and-its-helping-putin-a48ad884f149). Medium.
169. Horvath, Robert (2005). The legacy of Soviet dissent: dissidents, democratisation and radical nationalism in Russia (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=SwGor-EgxvsC&pg=PA130). Psychology Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-415-33320-7.
170. Khazanov, Anatoly M. (2003). "A State without a Nation? Russia after Empire". In Paul, T.V. The nation-state in
question (https://books.google.com/?id=8r_B_iU9qBQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false). G. John Ikenberry, John
A. Hall. Princeton University Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 0691115095.

References
(in Polish)/(in Russian) ed. Jerzy Faryno (http://www.ispan.waw.pl/proffaryno.php), Roman Bobryk, "Polacy w oczach
Rosjan — Rosjanie w oczach Polaków. Поляки глазами русских — русские глазами поляков. Zbiór studiów" -
conference proceedings; in Studia Litteraria Polono-Slavica; Slawistyczny Ośrodek Wydawniczy Instytutu Slawistyki
Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa 2000, ISBN 83-86619-93-7.

External links
The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain (https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3495927)
Anatol Lieven, Against Russophobia (http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=626),
World Policy Journal, Volume XVII, No 4, Winter 2000/01; a review of a modern Russophobia in international politics.
New York Times After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever (https://query.n
ytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30710F83A5E0C708CDDAE0894DD404482&incamp=archive:search), July 3,
2005 (subscription may be required for full text)
Sergei Yastrzhembsky: Russophobia Still Rampant (http://www.sptimes.ru/story/7071)
More Russophobia in International Press (http://english.pravda.ru/mailbox/22/101/398/13583_BBC.html)
Corruption, Russophobia Weigh on Poland (https://web.archive.org/web/20140202192328/http://www.themoscowtime
s.com/news/article/corruption-russophobia-weigh-on-poland/225569.html)
Finnish Russophobia: The Story of an Enemy Image (http://jpr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/2/123)
Battling Russophobia (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/dec/13/russia-west-media-stereotypes),
Guardian, 2008, by Anna Matveeva
The Will of Peter the Great / Testament of Peter the Great (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/czar-pet
er-i-will.htm)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-Russian_sentiment&oldid=833409946"

This page was last edited on 31 March 2018, at 10:52.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.