“POWER QUALITY CHALLENGES and

EMERGING TRENDS in POWER SYSTEMS

ONBOARD SHIPS and SUBMARINES’’
Sebastian Fernandes, Ganesh Kundalwal, DadaSaheb Suryawanshi
Precision Power Products (India) Pvt .Ltd. India.

sebastianfernandes@pppgroup.co.in
Abstract— There is an evolution in electrical power
management of Ships and Submarines. Limited knowledge
exists on power quality aspects and requirement on ships to
the same extent as similar applications for offshore and
power island systems. The Harmonics, Power factor,
Transients, grounding/bonding, ElectroMagnetic
Interference have become the deciding factor in defining
the power quality onboard in addition to the frequency and
voltage disturbances. However now It has become possible
to model the power distribution using higher end analytical
tools which can predict fault levels, harmonics, generator
stability. Various instruments make it possible the
measurement of the Power quality. The modern vessels use
Static Frequency Conversions, Soft Starters, Harmonic and
Line filters, Auto Power Factor Controllers. Sophisticated
Battery Monitoring is possible onboard Submarines for
very accurate evaluation of cells and DC power system.
Keywords— Power systems onboard, Power Quality
Onboard, Static Frequency Convertors, Battery
Monitoring System, Analysis’ of onboard Power Supply.
I. INTRODUCTION
The deployment of modern warfare equipments has
surfaced the Power Quality Challenges onboard vessel
while it is under refit or overhaul. While the new trends
in Power Electronics has made it possible for enhanced
Power to Volume ratios, efficiency, easy maintenance
and better versatility. Recently made available expertise
and tools enable a designer to undertake contingency
analysis and user defined contingencies onboard
electrical Power System. One can predict the various
challenges like Harmonics of higher order (up to 100),
fault co ordination and also map an onboard electrical
system. It is possible by design to decide on inter-
tripping and load transfers. Various practical solutions
are then made available using insertion of filters,
modifying the input stages of non linear loads, use of
IPQC technology incorporating hybrid switching
techniques and providing Soft starters and switches. This
effectively avoids inrush of large currents, reduces fault
currents, offers faster changeover time and early
clearance of the faults thus avoiding large down time.
II. POWER QUALITY
The quality of power onboard is defined at the source
and consumer end at present. It is in terms of limits or
boundaries beyond which an electrical equipments
performance or life is at threat. Generally SOR
prescribes the limits of only voltage and frequency
deviations for short and long term. However the concern
for Power Quality in general will be as per Fig. 1
The on board Power quality standards for ships are
MIL 1399 and for submarine SD/SOR/14/0140/REV 6.
All devices are prone to failure or malfunction when
exposed to one or more power quality problems.
A. Harmonics
Fig. 1 Power Quality concerns
It must be understood that two different equipments
will perform differently in the same power environment
and a good example would be a controller and motor.
Where the motor could be very robust to quality issues in
the Power Supply, the controller would be quite
susceptible making the integrated system sensitive to
power quality. Further such equipment can affect the
harmonics, power factor and be interference to the
system. Considerable knowhow and facility is available
in our country on dealing with the EMI and EMC issue.
The Navy has its own expertise and it being a vast topic
itself, the authors have decided to elaborate on other
aspects governing the Power Quality. Though it must be
understood that the EMI/EMC plays vital role in Power
Quality.
A. Terminology used in defining Power Quality.
When the Power System quality is being defined a
terminology is used where the quantification of various
parameters affecting the quality is possible. This also
helps to define the perimeter for safe operation of the
equipment.
1) Bonding: This term is used where a common level
of potential is defined as reference. Boding of two
conductive parts also ensures safe passage of current in
case of fault conditions. This term is used as ‘Earth
bonding” or bonding to earth potential. It is primarily
done for safety reason.
2) Capacitance and Coupling: This is a
reactance offered for a signal from one conductive part
to another when insulation exists between them. And
the process by which such signal is transmitted is
called coupling. Normally unwarranted high frequency
signals termed as noise are coupled to other circuits
through the capacitance of the circuit as its physical
property. Capacitance between two conductive parts
can be made infinitely small but it may not be
completely eliminated.
3) Crest factor: This is the ratio of the peak value to
the RMS value of the waveform. It is an indication of
distortion in the waveform due to the load.
 These type of loads fall into non-linear loads category.
Since a ship’s supply is essentially from Generator
Alternator, there are restrictions on tolerance on the
nonlinear load content in the load distribution. Such
load injects harmonics in to the Power System.
10) Power Factor: This is the ratio of active power
(Watts) to the apparent power (Volt-Amperes).
Normally it is lagging which indicates poor utilization
of power.
11) Transients and recovery time: The sharp repetitive
or non repetitive changes in supply voltages beyond the
boundaries are called transients. Fig 3 explains such
incidence during motor starting. The recovery in terms
of time of the waveform within its specified boundaries
is called recovery time.

Fig. 2 Crest factor in a sinusoidal and square waveform.

4) Total Harmonic Distortion and Harmonics:

Harmonics are the sinusoidal components of
frequencies (integer multiples) other than the
fundamental frequency in any waveform. The ratio of
this harmonic content in percentage to the fundamental
RMS is called the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of
the waveform.
5) Electric Power System: It is the electrical power
generation and distribution system including Fig.3. Transient in waveform due to motor starting.
generation, cables, switchboards, switches, protective
devices, convertors, transformers up to the user
equipment interface. The specifications of typical ship
supply is at Table II. The System voltage is either B. Power Quality issues.
60Hz,440V AC, three phase (Ungrounded) or 50Hz,
Any power quality problem cannot be solved without
380V AC, Three phase (ungrounded) or 400Hz, 115V
understanding the various issues indicated in Fig. 1 earlier.
AC, Three Phase (ungrounded). There are other special
This is further elaborated as follows.
service supply voltages with neutral ground.
1) Power frequency disturbances: This may be source
6) Form Factor (FF): The form factor is the ratio of
or load generated due to fault like loss of prime mover
RMS to Average value of the AC waveform. Once the
which would cause voltage/frequency decay or
FF of the ideal waveform or signal is known, the
switching of loads in a power system. This can result in
deviation from the ideal waveform can be quantified
sagging or swelling in the supply voltage. It can last
from the Form Factor.
from one cycle to several seconds. Direct On Line
7) Isolation: When two electrical circuits are separated (DOL) motor starting and transformer switching are
electrically from each other, they are isolated. A double normally typical causes for such events. From the
wound transformer’s primary and secondary winding is source side the generator instability causes such events.
one such example in electrical power system. Since the When a generator is step loaded by a transformer, Helo
two energized circuits are decoupled the transmission Starting rectifier a high power motor on DOL starter
of noise (Unwarranted signal) is minimized. sag is observed in the voltage of the generator for a
short period as shown in Fig.4.
8) Inrush: When equipment is started there is a sudden
demand of current initially. This sudden rise in current
is termed as inrush. Typically a motor or a transformer
induces current inrush in a power system.
9) Linear and Nonlinear loads: Some loads like
rectifiers have a load pattern (Current) which does not
follow the voltage waveform of the Power Supply.

Time 100mS/Div
Fig. 4 Sagging of voltage during a step load on generator on board.
If such starts are frequent or the loads fluctuate
frequently then this phenomena can be observed as
Flicker. The other disturbance in frequency is
frequency modulation. It is the periodic variation in
frequency during normal operation. Normally the
frequency tolerances of submarine supply will be more
than the surface ship supply for 50/60Hz.
2) Power System harmonics: The harmonics are
characterized by waveform distortion. It does have
undesirable effect on power system and its
components. The harmonics can also resonate with the
power system line inductances and capacitances and
get amplified with severe consequence. Since the Ship
Power Supply is generator, at the source distortion in
waveform exists due to the winding pattern during the
coil winding and non uniformity in the excitation field.
Since the generator also has finite impedance, the
harmonics generated by the load add to the voltage
waveform. This Power Source when shared by other
users existing on the power line will be affected.
3) Power interruptions: The ship system has
generators for 50Hz, 60Hz and a Power convertor for
400Hz. An electrical power interruption can occur on
account of failure of prime mover, equipment failure or
by the operation of switching equipment. The voltage
may start to decay when the frequency decays to more
than 10Hz. The voltage and frequency of generator
driven by Gas turbine will fall faster than that of the
steam turbine. Generally this takes 5 to 20 Seconds.
4) Grounding and Bonding: Usually it is the metallic
hull of the ship. An ungrounded electrical system is
where ground is intentionally not connected and can
function normally when one line conductor becomes
solidly grounded. However such system can develop
five times nominal voltage due to inductive arcing
ground between one line and ground. The ship supply
is normally floating and ungrounded. Thus the power
line filters where required are preferred line to line. In
solidly grounded power system usually the neutral
point of the transformer is made common with the
ground. However a protective devices like selective
circuit breakers are required to trip when one of the
line inadvertently get shorted to the ground.
5) Leakage current for personal Safety: The safety of
personnel from electrical shock is of prime most
importance. in order to evaluate user equipment for
potential shock hazard, a test simulating humane body
impedance is conducted on equipment that requires a
dedicated conductor path to the ships hull. Neutral
point can be formed onboard ship due to the line to
ground capacitances in other systems. The low
frequency currents for such leakage are restricted to
5mA and high frequency currents till 100kHz are
restricted to 70mA.
6) Protections: Protection is provided onboard
electrical system but not to the user equipment. there
are three types of protections onboard systems such as
Type I,II and III. The type I protection is provided with
circuit breaker and fuses and is normally for 60Hz
supply system. Type II protection is by protective
devices to trip the power system within 170mSec for
abnormal voltage and frequency excursions. This is
normally for 400Hz power systems. Type III
protections are similar but are more conservative.
However the Power system does not trip for high
voltage excursions for short durations and momentary
interruption and restoration within 100mSec.
7) Insulation Resistance: The user equipment has to
withstand 500V DC by a mega-ohm insulation tester
between each power conductor and ground without
any equipment damage. The resistance to ground value
as measured shall be greater than 10 M Ohms.
8) Power Factor: Onboard power systems are
designed to operate with a power factor of 0.8 lagging
to 0.95 leading for 50/60Hz power systems and 0.8
lagging to 0.9 leading for 400Hz systems under normal
loading conditions. However this is not applicable
during start ups or pulse loads. In such conditions the
user equipment has to withstand lesser power factors as
mentioned in the standards.
C. Prognosis of Power Quality Problems
The ability of equipment to perform in a given electrical
environment is its immunity. The relationship is represented in
the Fig.5. Here since the equipment immunity is well below
the boundaries of the power system the equipment is said to
be susceptible to the electrical environment.
 Fig. 5 Criteria for Equipment Susceptibility. the power system and immunity indices to the loads (See
The objective of the study or solution would be to Table I).
take the immunity contour outside the power quality. TABLE I
Actually the power quality itself can be improved to IMMUNITY AND POWER QUALITY INDICES
bring it below within the equipment immunity but which
would be impractical onboard ship where the source of
supply is a finite impedance generator. By matching the immunity index of an equipment to
The immunity of equipment or an integrated the power quality index we can achieve balance in the
subsystem will be depending on the most susceptible power system. During the electrical design stages of the
subcomponent of the system. The process is also Ship many problems can be avoided if sufficient care is
complex as if line inductances are inserted to reduce the exercised to balance the immunity characteristics of the
harmonics; sudden changes in current can cause the equipment with the power quality environment. This is
voltage spikes of very high amplitude. effectively achieved with sophisticated software Tool.
Filters introduced for harmonics can resonate with the
line inductances to cause frequency disturbances. Thus
in many cases solving a problem requires multiple
solutions and it can be said that the power quality and
equipment immunity contours are really not two
dimensional but may be more accurately represented in
three dimensions.

D. Responsibility of the designer, the suppliers and the Power

Quality Standards onboard Ships /Submarines.
The electrical power system onboard ship though is
very much similar to an isolated island power system it
is distinctly different in many functional aspects. The
ship supply standard is governed by MIL-STD-1399-
300B.
The designer and supplier must thoroughly
understand the implications of the various power quality
issues. The ungrounded system design awareness should
All equipments are susceptible to power quality. We
be there with the suppliers too. Suppliers of the
can assign power quality indices to various locations in
equipment must understand the Line to ground
capacitance, a network formed by such connections in
Ind Equipment immunity idices the user equipment and its effect on the human safety.
ex Description Example Most of the ships and submarines thus have committed
I High Motors, to adhere to long term supply voltage variations at
Immunity Transformers, consumer end as +/- 5% on long term deviations. The
heater loads, LED
frequency deviations are relatively large and are to the
lamps,
Electromechanical extent of 4%. Since most of the critical equipments
relays and nowadays derive their internal power through robust
contactors, SMPS, they are immune to such variations.
Breakers. We are in electronics age and most of the ships power
II Moderate Power Conversion systems injects harmonics in to the system. These are to
Immunity Equipments, be restricted.
Power supplies, The user equipment has to withstand without damage
starters frequent power interruptions, rapid reapplication of
III Low Signal, power and the emergency conditions mentioned in the
Immunity communication,
control and data
standards or for Mission Critical Equipments (MCE).
acquisition
equipments.
Power Quality Indices
Description Example
I Low Power Main
Quality Switchboard and
Problems distribution
boards. Hand
changeover
switches.
II Moderate Auto Change
Power Over Switches,
Quality AC Starters
Problems
III High Power Panels supplying
Quality power to large
Problems motors, Start up
systems, Static
convertors.
E. Measuring and Solving Power Quality Problems
Once the problems of power quality are known a
meaningful data is required to be collected at desired
locations in time. This can be done by the Power
Electronic engineers who are well versed with the power
system, equipment, loads and the instruments/analysis
tools. A complete trouble shooting tool measures
virtually every system parameter like unbalance, flicker,
harmonics, and inter-harmonics. It can capture events
like dips and swells, transients and interruptions as
shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Criteria for Equipment Susceptibility
The measurement and the test locations are to be
selected by knowledgeable and experienced personnel.
The measurement leads should be kept away from
coupling interferences from nearby switching loads. The
locations for measurement like source side or load side is
to be decided based on the Power Quality issue and
analysis.
III. CURES AND EMERGING TRENDS IN POWER
SYSTEMS ONBOARD SHIPS.
Once the challenges in power quality are known and a data
is made available the solutions are implemented. The modern
warships have implemented various technologies which
includes Power System Analysis Software as well as modern
power conversion equipment incorporating Improved Power
Quality Control (IPQC) Techniques.
A. Analytical tools:
A good software must provide fast and accurate analysis
of electrical system. It should enable all enable all power
system studies. It should be able to support user quality
assurance and scenario modelling.
1) Load Flow and Fault Level: The basis of all power
system analysis is load flow and fault level
calculations. A sample load flow is indicated in Fig. 7.
It is possible to model synchronous machines, motors,
generators, transformers, harmonic filters, switching
capacitors, indentify and implement relay operations.

Fig. 7 Load Flow (courtesy IPSA, UK)
once modelled it is possible to simulate the fault levels
and the results are tabulated. Limit checking can be
applied.
2) Harmonics: The tool has harmonic analysis module
which provides harmonic penetration calculations,
impedance scan and waveform plots at various bus
locations. The module allows the modelling of
harmonic sources such as converters and background
distortion as well as harmonic filters. A range of
harmonic models are provided for standard
components
3) Transient Stability: The integrated transient stability
module enables the user to analyse the dynamic
response of an electrical power system to faults and
switching operations. This enables the determination of
critical clearing times, fault ride through compliance,
motor starting and re-acceleration as well as governor
and AVR response and tuning.
4) Protections: The basis of all power system analysis
is load flow and fault level calculations. A multilevel
fault coordination with ground fault model is possible.
B. Equipments
Once the evaluation is done by measurement and or
using the software tool the solutions can be applied to the
power system as enumerated below. It will also help the
designer as well as the supplier of the equipments to
incorporate the various guidelines, significance of
characteristics mentioned.
1) Isolation Transformers: The transformer is used to
reduce the noise coupling and thus reduce the
susceptibility of the user equipment. It also protects the
power system from the conducted emissions from the
equipment. It becomes essential to use isolation
transformer where line to ground filters are necessary
or when the equipment needs solid earth connection.
2) Automatic Voltage Regulators: The drop in voltages
due to load changes or cable drops can be corrected
using Automatic Voltage regulation for compensation.
3) Static Conversions Techniques: Static Frequency
Conversions, rectifiers with higher pulse conversions,
replacement of conventional battery charges and
Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) with Automatic
Power Factor (APF) controlled zero switching
rectifiers, HSR with modern technology IPQC, Soft
ACOS with zero current switching will improve the
system response time, mechanical wear and tear, better
efficiency.
4) Line filters: Line filters are used to protect the
system from conducted noise. It also protects the
power system from the harmonics generated by the
user equipment. However in ungrounded system line
filters may avoid use of filter capacitors with respect to
the ground. If line to ground configuration is used then
the capacitance value for 50/60Hz shall not exceed 0.1
Microfarad and that of 400Hz, 0.02 Microfarad.
5) Auto Change Over Systems: Power interruption
onboard may range from 1 m Sec. to several Minutes.
In order to maintain continuity and reliability during
diverse operating conditions such as anchor, cruising,
functional and emergency conditions some loads are
provided with limited break power source wherever
possible. However when this is not possible, the user
equipment has to be provided with two sources of
power selectable either automatically or manually. the
time delay results in transfer from one power source to
another of 0.008 Sec (Solid State Switch) or 0.040 Sec
(For Electromechanical switch) to several seconds.
6) Harmonic Filters: The current modern Power
Electronics has evolved state of the art IPQC
techniques to eliminate use of Harmonic Filters for a
user equipment. The hybrid and zero cross switching
techniques improve efficiency and eliminate harmonics
of lower order to significant extent. Harmonic filters
are provided as traps for dominant harmonic frequency
with caution as explained earlier. The supplier must
design their equipment to inject minimum harmonics
or design the equipment suitable for the Shipboard
power supply specifications in Table II.
7) Grounding of equipment: For Electrical equipments
of ship the Hull of a ship and the water surrounding the
ship serves as a common reference point. All the
equipments enclosure must have two diagonally
opposite common point outlets. These grounds are to
be connected by earth wire to the Ship Hull. The
diagonally opposite connections would ensure the
shortest path to the nearest ground in case of thorough
faults. The measurement of voltage between the
equipment earth and the ships Hull will indicate the
amount of ground loop current that can exists in such
system. Normally all ship power systems are left
ungrounded. The current due to the line filters with
respect to ground must not exceed 30mA. If there is a
requirement to solidly ground the equipment or a
capacitance to ground above the specified limit then
the equipment needs to be electrically isolated from the
power system.
8) Power Factor compensation: Use of Synchronous
motors, static VAR compensators and using IPQC
techniques in power systems can improve the
utilization of the Power System.
 IV. CONCLUSIONS power conversion techniques and devices are to be used
The concept of power quality is qualitative. Though to increase the efficiency, improve the power factor and
mathematical expressions are not necessary to reduce the harmonics into the power system.
understand it, software tools and mathematics are
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
necessary to solve the problems. The expressions define
the power quality boundaries. The transients are more The authors wish to acknowledge sessions with Late
damaging than the power frequency disturbances. Both Prof G. N. Revankar of IIT, Mumbai and other
are generated by the source or due to switching at the contributers from the staff of Precision Power Products
load side. It is difficult to deal wit hthe source generated for preparing the paper.
disturbances as normally onboard it means dealing with
high energy and power. it would need considerable
REFERENCES
efforts and expenses. It is advisable to isolate the
offending loads from the sensitive equipments. Power [1] C. Sankaran, Power Quality, UK: CRC Press LLC, 2002.
[2] “Fluke 430 Series Three Phase Power Quality Analysers data sheet,”
conditioners stages will be effective at the concumer end Fluke, USA.
and can be inbuilt.very few devices are built keeping [3] V. V. Bhamburdekar, “A novel technique to reduce harmonics in Static
transient in mind and the effects of transient on devices Frequency Conversion” IEEE PE Paper 101, vol. 20, pp. 569–571,
Nov. 1999.
is cumulative. It is important for a designer to know
[4] “IPSA, Power System Analysis Software” TNEI, UK.
possibility of severe transient activity and sensitivity of MIL-STD-1399-300B, 24 April 2008.
installed equipments to such transients. Suitable surge
arresters of sufficient energy are to be incorporated at the
load end. The harmonics are becoming very common in
electrical systems. The harmonics can be easily
measured and identified. Harmonics affect the source
generator onboard ship drastically. Harmonics cause
heating of motors and transformers onboard ships.
Harmonics of higher order cause interference and couple
to the other loads causing disturbance. Harmonics are
eliminated using Harmonic Filters, reducing the non
linear loading pattern and Intelligent Power Quality
Control (IPQC) Techniques in power switching
convertors. Proper grounding or having a reference
onboard is essential for stability. the ship Hull and the
water surrounding it serves as this reference. It is a
safety related parameter and enclosure of every
equipment onboard must be connected to ground. Higher
Power factor is desired for overall health of a system. It
means that the available electrical power generation is
put to optimum use. indirectly it enhances life of the
electrical system. The source Electromagnetic and radio
Frequency interferences, tolaance of an equipment and
the coupling are the factors which must be known to
handle the EMI issue during design or mitigation stage.
variety of filter designs and laboratories are available for
testing of Naval Equipments in India.however it is
important to simulate the power and load conditions
during the testing.
Measurement and Analysis of Power quality requires
knowledge of proper tools to suit the applications. The
engineer should be well trained on the tools and must
have knowledge of power quality.
The responsibility onus is on the suppliers of the
equipments where the supplier must be aware of the
Standards relevant to ship power. the supplier must
immunize the equipment for the characteristics of
ship/submarine supply as the same is well defined. The
subcomponents of the system are to be qualified alone
for power quality to eliminate any weak link. Better
 TABLE II
POWER SUPPLY CHARACTERISTICS ONBOARD SHIP (MIL-STD-1399-300B)