Set theory is a field in mathematics which involves study of different sets of

objects. The key concepts in set theory which are important to understand in
order to solve problems are - descriptive set theory, relevance to elementary
operations, combinatorial set theory, inner model theory, prime numbers
sets, partially ordered sets, union of sets, intersection of sets and complement
of sets.

Some of the mathematical concepts can be defined only using set theory. We
require profound knowledge of set theory of they want to solve some of the
tough set theory assignments and projects. Set Theory is one of the important
topics in Math curriculum and many students face challenges finding Set
Theory problem solutions.

Set theory begins with a fundamental binary relation between an object o and a
set A. If o is a member (or element) of A, the notation o ∈ A is used. Since sets
are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.

A derived binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called set
inclusion. If all the members of set A are also members of set B, then A is a
subset of B, denoted A ⊆ B. For example, {1, 2} is a subset of {1, 2, 3} , and so
is {2} but {1, 4} is not. As insinuated from this definition, a set is a subset of
itself. For cases where this possibility is unsuitable or would make sense to be
rejected, the term proper subset is defined. A is called a proper subset of B if and
only if A is a subset of B, but A is not equal to B. Note also that 1, 2, and 3 are
members (elements) of the set {1, 2, 3} but are not subsets of it; and in turn, the
subsets, such as {1}, are not members of the set {1, 2, 3}.
Just as arithmetic features binary operations on numbers, set theory features
binary operations on sets. The:

 Union of the sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all objects that are
a member of A, or B, or both. The union of {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is the
set {1, 2, 3, 4} .
 Intersection of the sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all objects
that are members of both A and B. The intersection of {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3,
4} is the set {2, 3} .
 Set difference of U and A, denoted U \ A, is the set of all members of U
that are not members of A. The set difference {1, 2, 3} \ {2, 3, 4} is {1} ,
while, conversely, the set difference {2, 3, 4} \ {1, 2, 3} is {4} . When A
is a subset of U, the set difference U \ A is also called the complement of
A in U. In this case, if the choice of U is clear from the context, the
notation Ac is sometimes used instead of U \ A, particularly if U is a
universal set as in the study of Venn diagrams.
 Symmetric difference of sets A and B, denoted A △ B or A ⊖ B, is the set
of all objects that are a member of exactly one of A and B (elements
which are in one of the sets, but not in both). For instance, for the sets {1,
2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} , the symmetric difference set is {1, 4} . It is the set
difference of the union and the intersection, (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) or (A \ B) ∪
(B \ A).
 Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A × B, is the set whose members
are all possible ordered pairs (a, b) where a is a member of A and b is a
member of B. The cartesian product of {1, 2} and {red, white} is {(1,
red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}.
 Power set of a set A is the set whose members are all of the possible
subsets of A. For example, the power set of {1, 2} is { {}, {1}, {2}, {1,
2} } .

Some basic sets of central importance are the empty set (the unique set
containing no elements; occasionally called the null set though this name is
ambiguous), the set of natural numbers, and the set of real numbers.

What are the different types of sets?

The different types of sets are explained below with examples.

Empty Set or Null Set:

A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, or the null set
or the void set and it is denoted by ∅ and is read as phi. In roster form, ∅ is
denoted by {}. An empty set is a finite set, since the number of elements in an
empty set is finite, i.e., 0.

For example: (a) The set of whole numbers less than 0.

(b) Clearly there is no whole number less than 0.

Therefore, it is an empty set.

(c) N = {x : x ∈ N, 3 < x < 4}

• Let A = {x : 2 < x < 3, x is a natural number}

Here A is an empty set because there is no natural number between

2 and 3.

• Let B = {x : x is a composite number less than 4}.

Here B is an empty set because there is no composite number less than 4.

Note:

∅ ≠ {0} ∴ has no element.

{0} is a set which has one element 0.

The cardinal number of an empty set, i.e., n(∅) = 0

Singleton Set:
A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.

For example:
• A = {x : x is neither prime nor composite}

It is a singleton set containing one element, i.e., 1.

• B = {x : x is a whole number, x < 1}

This set contains only one element 0 and is a singleton set.

• Let A = {x : x ∈ N and x² = 4}

Here A is a singleton set because there is only one element 2 whose square is 4.

• Let B = {x : x is a even prime number}

Here B is a singleton set because there is only one prime number which is even,
i.e., 2.

Finite Set:
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. Empty
set is also called a finite set.

For example:

• The set of all colors in the rainbow.

• N = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7}

• P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...... 97}

Infinite Set:
The set whose elements cannot be listed, i.e., set containing never-ending
elements is called an infinite set.

For example:
• Set of all points in a plane

• A = {x : x ∈ N, x > 1}

• Set of all prime numbers

• B = {x : x ∈ W, x = 2n}

Note:

All infinite sets cannot be expressed in roster form.

For example:

The set of real numbers since the elements of this set do not follow any
particular pattern.

Cardinal Number of a Set:

The number of distinct elements in a given set A is called the cardinal number
of A. It is denoted by n(A).

For example:

• A {x : x ∈ N, x < 5}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Therefore, n(A) = 4

• B = set of letters in the word ALGEBRA

B = {A, L, G, E, B, R}

Therefore, n(B) = 6

Equivalent Sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if their cardinal number is same, i.e.,
n(A) = n(B). The symbol for denoting an equivalent set is ‘↔’.

For example:

A = {1, 2, 3} Here n(A) = 3

B = {p, q, r} Here n(B) = 3

Therefore, A ↔ B

Equal sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every
element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A.

For example:

A = {p, q, r, s}

B = {p, s, r, q}

Therefore, A = B

Many mathematical concepts can be defined precisely using only set theoretic
concepts. For example, mathematical structures as diverse as graphs, manifolds,
rings, and vector spaces can all be defined as sets satisfying various (axiomatic)
properties. Equivalence and order relations are ubiquitous in mathematics, and
the theory of mathematical relations can be described in set theory.

Set theory is also a promising foundational system for much of mathematics.

Since the publication of the first volume of Principia Mathematica, it has been
claimed that most or even all mathematical theorems can be derived using an
aptly designed set of axioms for set theory, augmented with many definitions,
using first or second order logic. For example, properties of the natural and real
numbers can be derived within set theory, as each number system can be
identified with a set of equivalence classes under a suitable equivalence relation
whose field is some infinite set.

Set theory as a foundation for mathematical analysis, topology, abstract algebra,

and discrete mathematics is likewise uncontroversial; mathematicians accept
that (in principle) theorems in these areas can be derived from the relevant
definitions and the axioms of set theory. Few full derivations of complex
mathematical theorems from set theory have been formally verified, however,
because such formal derivations are often much longer than the natural language
proofs mathematicians commonly present. One verification project, Metamath,
includes human-written, computer‐verified derivations of more than 12,000
theorems starting from ZFC set theory, first order logic and propositional logic.