Pergamon

Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146

The employee-organization relationship, organizational citizenship

behaviors, and superior service quality
Simon J. Bell*, Bulent Menguc
Department of Management, University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3010, Australia

Abstract
This study proposes a model of customer-contact service employee management that examines organizational citizenship behaviors as
critical links between aspects of the employee-organization relationship (perceived organizational support, organizational identification) and
customers’ perceptions of service quality. In addition, it investigates the role of job autonomy in providing the necessary behavioral
discretion for employees to be able to perform citizenship behaviors. The hypothesized model was partially supported. Theoretical and
managerial implications are explored. © 2002 by New York University. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Perceived organizational support; Organizational identification; Job autonomy; Organizational citizenship behaviors; Service quality

Introduction clear that marketing organizations need to ‘raise the bar’ in

Much has been written in recent years about the inade-
quacy of customer satisfaction as a precursor to brand loy-
alty and repurchase intentions (Jones and Sasser Jr., 1995;
Oliver, Rust and Varki, 1997; Schneider and Bowen, 1999).
Indeed, for some time now, academicians and practitioners
have accepted the low correspondence between satisfaction
data and loyalty figures (cf. Reichheld, 1993). In other
words, it is not enough for businesses to aim for customer
satisfaction as a business objective. Often satisfied custom-
ers are indifferent to a firm’s offering (Mittal and Ka-
makura, 2001) and may, in fact, demonstrate multibrand
loyalty (Dowling and Uncles, 1997). As a consequence,
businesses are beginning to realize that they must do more
to achieve the high levels of customer satisfaction manifest
in single-brand loyalty and unsolicited advocacy of a com-
pany’s brand (Payne, 1994; Schneider and Bowen, 1999).
Cited frequently is the finding that highly satisfied consum-
ers are up to six times more likely to remain loyal to a
business than those who were merely satisfied (Jones and
Sasser Jr., 1995). Also reflecting this is the concept of
customer delight that has gained increasing attention in the
business (Schlossberg, 1990) and academic literature (Ol-
iver, Rust and Varki, 1997; Rust and Oliver, 2000). It is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: ⫹61-3-8344-4352; fax: ⫹61-3-8344-
3721.
E-mail address: s.bell@unimelb.edu.au (S.J. Bell).
the provision of service. Exactly how this can be achieved,
however, it is less clear.
The positive contribution that organizational citizenship
behaviors (OCBs) make toward business performance is
reasonably well accepted in the literature (Podsakoff and
MacKenzie, 1994; 1997) and, more recently, the contribu-
tion of OCBs to service quality has received conceptual
(Morrison, 1996) and limited empirical support (Betten-
court and Brown, 1997; Kelley and Hoffman, 1997). OCBs
can be defined as “discretionary behaviors on the part of an
employee that directly promote the effective functioning of
an organization, independent of an employee’s objective
productivity” (MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Ahearne, 1998, p.
89). To the extent that OCBs are considered extra-role, they
provide a relevant framework for conceptualizing the link
between salesperson behavior and a level of service quality
that exceeds customer expectations (George and Betten-
hausen, 1990). However, understanding the contribution of
OCBs to service quality is only valuable inasmuch as im-
plications for management can be drawn. An appreciation of
antecedent factors and facilitating conditions is essential if
the relationship between OCBs and service quality is to
have managerial relevance. Accordingly, our objectives in
this study are threefold.
First we explore the contribution of OCBs to customer
perceptions of service quality (hereafter referred to as ‘ser-
vice quality’). Next, we seek to locate OCBs within a
relevant framework for management. In particular, we con-

0022-4359/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 by New York University. All rights reserved.
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132 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
sider the role of the employee-organization relationship as a
determinant of OCBs. Drawing on social exchange theory
(Blau, 1964; Konovsky and Pugh, 1994), and the internal
marketing concept (George, 1990; Grönroos, 1983) we pro-
vide a rationale for examining the relationship between the
organization and its members and the performance of
OCBs. Third, we investigate the importance of an autono-
mous work environment in facilitating OCB performance.
Here we draw on self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986) and
the notion of empowerment to support our rationale for
expecting job autonomy to have important moderating ef-
fects on the link between organization-employee relation-
ship quality and OCB performance.
We propose a set of testable hypotheses describing the
OCB-service quality relationship, the variables driving
OCBs within organizations, and factors that facilitate these
relationships. Our hypothesized model is tested using data
from 228 manager employee dyads within a national retail
insurance firm. Data were collected from customers, em-
ployees, and their managers for the purposes of testing the
model. The implications of the findings for management
and theory development are discussed.
Theoretical background
OCBs and service quality
An important avenue for customer value creation is the
interaction between customer contact employees and cus-
tomers. Retail sales staff and other boundary spanning per-
sonnel will be central in determining service quality (Bitner,
1990; George and Bettenhausen, 1990; Hartline and Ferrell,
1996; Vroman and Luchsinger, 1994; Zeithaml, Parasura-
man and Berry, 1990).
Much research exploring the employee-customer inter-
face has focused on affective and cognitive antecedents of
service quality (cf. Hartline and Ferrell, 1996; Ryan, Schmit
and Johnson, 1996). Most studies investigating behavioral
antecedents of service quality have focused on customer-
oriented behaviors (Deshpandé, Farley and Webster, 1993;
Dunlap, Dotson and Chambers, 1988; Kelley, 1992; Wil-
liams and Attaway, 1996) and variants on the theme
(Michaels and Day, 1985). Customer orientation is a central
tenet of the marketing philosophy and the value of a cus-
tomer-oriented sales force is not in dispute. However, ques-
tions could be raised about whether customer-oriented be-
haviors—as they most often conceptualized (e.g., Saxe and
Weitz, 1982)—are sufficient to generate superior levels of
customer satisfaction or delight that contemporary busi-
nesses seek to achieve. Research should continue to explore
alternative behavioral elements of customer contact em-
ployees’ roles as potential antecedents of service quality. In
other words, investigating how service quality is delivered
(i.e., the behaviors of customer contact personnel that lead
to superior service quality) should be a research priority for
services academicians (Czepiel, Solomon and Suprenant,
1985; Morrison, 1996; Vroman and Luchsinger, 1994).
Although several different types of extrarole behaviors
have been identified, the one that undoubtedly has received
the most attention in marketing literature has been Organ’s
(1988; 1990) OCB. Like Kelley and Hoffman (1997), we
draw on socialization research (Van Maanen and Schein,
1979) in conceptualizing the relationship between OCBs
and service quality. This research suggests that employees
who perform one type of helping behavior (e.g., OCBs) are
more likely to perform other types of helping behaviors
(e.g., customer-oriented behavior) due to the personal val-
ues acquired through the socialization process.
Employee-organization relationship, job autonomy, and
OCBs
A number of studies have emerged exploring the impact
of human resource management (HRM) practices (e.g., job
design, co-worker and manager relationships, and the work
environment) on customer orientation of sales staff (Kelley,
1992; Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall, 1999). Since con-
tact employees manage the delivery of an organization’s
services to customers, the connection between HRM and
customer service quality is conceptually very strong
(Schneider, 1994).
Researchers have approached the management of service
quality from the employee-manager interface and the em-
ployee-role interface (e.g., Bowen and Lawler, 1992; Har-
tline and Ferrell, 1996). Less comprehensively researched,
however, has been the employee-organization relationship,
which establishes the overall tone and climate within which
human resource management practices are conducted. As
with employee-manager and employee-role relations, the
employee-organization relationship is likely to have impli-
cations for employees’ service-oriented attitudes and behav-
iors (Morrison, 1996).
Internal marketing (Bitner, 1995; Grönroos, 1987) and
social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Heath, 1976) pro-
vide a compelling rationale for expecting OCBs to result
from strong employee-organization relationships and an
autonomous work environment. For some time, internal
marketing theorists have argued that it is impossible for
businesses to provide better service to external customers
than they provide to their employees or internal custom-
ers (George, 1990; Grönroos, 1983). Only after effective
internal exchanges have occurred can successful external
exchanges between employees and customers take place.
Of the range of internal exchange relationships, employ-
ee-organization relationship has significant implications
for managing customer contact personnel (Morrison,
1996). Previous research that has demonstrated the dis-
crete and unique nature of employee-organization rela-
tionships highlights the utility of further investigation
into this relationship (Settoon, Bennett and Liden, 1996;
Wayne, Shore and Liden, 1997).
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
Fig. 1. Hypothesized model of organizational citizenship behaviors and service quality.
Central to this literature is the concept of social ex-
change, which is concerned with the processes that govern
the transfer of social or psychological resources between
exchange partners (Blau, 1964; Turner, 1987). Eisenberger
et al. (1986)) suggested that employees form a global belief
concerning the extent to which the organization values their
contributions and cares about their well-being and labeled
this belief as perceived organizational support (POS). High
levels of POS are thought to create obligations within indi-
viduals to repay the organization (Van Dyne, Graham and
Dienesch, 1994). Similarly, Eisenberger et al. (1986) sug-
gest that an employee’s perception of how an organization
values him or her may be vital for determining if any
attitudes or behaviors benefiting the organization emerge
from the social exchange relationship.
Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986) provides some
background to the moderating role of job autonomy in the
organization-employee relationship/OCB performance link.
OCBs exceed formal role prescriptions, often requiring em-
ployees to deviate significantly from workplace practices
and norms. An autonomous work environment may provide
an employee with necessary discretion and latitude to per-
form these extrarole behaviors. Encouraging autonomy
within the workplace heightens employees’ sense of self-
efficacy or their motivation to embark upon, and accomplish
certain tasks (Conger and Kanungo, 1988). In the absence of
such conditions, employees may wish to reciprocate sup-
133
portive organizational relations with OCBs but not have the
discretion or ability to do so (Morrison, 1996).
A model of employee-organization relationships,
OCBs, and service quality
The hypothesized model proposes one direct and two
indirect antecedents of service quality (see Fig. 1). A mul-
tidimensional measure of OCBs is proposed as a direct
predictor of service quality. POS and organizational identi-
fication are posited as indirect predictors of service quality
through their effects on OCBs. POS will also have an
indirect effect on employee’s OCBs through its impact on
organizational identification. Finally, job autonomy is pro-
posed to moderate the effect of POS and organizational
identification on employees’ OCBs. The following text of-
fers our rationale for the proposed relationships between
these constructs.
Organizational citizenship behaviors
Here we investigate the relationship between OCBs and
business performance—measured as service quality. Organ
(1988) identifies five OCB dimensions, including conscien-
tiousness, altruism, civic virtue, sportsmanship, and cour-
tesy. Conscientiousness involves discretionary behavior that
134 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
goes well beyond minimum role requirements. Altruism is
helping other organizational members with organizationally
relevant tasks or problems. Civic virtue is behavior indicat-
ing a willingness to participate responsibly in the life of the
organization while sportsmanship is defined as any behavior
demonstrating tolerance of less than ideal circumstances
without complaining. Finally, courtesy includes efforts to
prevent work-related problems with others (MacKenzie,
Podsakoff and Fetter, 1993).
More often the link between OCBs and business perfor-
mance is made at the conceptual level. Indeed, leading
commentators have noted the lack of empirical research
testing the OCB-performance relationship (Podsakoff and
MacKenzie, 1997). In specifying the OCB/service quality
relationship we draw on this conceptual literature and the
few empirical studies for support (cf. Bettencourt and
Brown, 1997; Kelley and Hoffman, 1997). There are two
principle reasons for expecting a positive relationship be-
tween OCBs and service quality. First, OCBs can have an
immediate effect on customer perceptions as they are evi-
denced within actual employee-customer interactions. Sec-
ond, OCBs can have positive effects on service quality
through their impact on factors internal to the organization,
including employees’ work environment, service climate,
team cohesiveness, and consistency of service processes,
among others. It is here that OCBs differ most from mea-
sures of customer orientation (e.g., Saxe and Weitz, 1982)
as antecedents to service quality. In addition to making a
direct contribution to service quality, OCBs indirectly im-
prove the customer-orientation of customer contact person-
nel through the provision of assistance and support among
co-workers. In other words, OCBs make both direct and
indirect contributions to the quality of service provided
(Morrison, 1996).
Turning to the immediate or direct effect of OCBs on
service quality, Morrison (1996) suggests that the five di-
mensions of OCB capture many of the discretionary behav-
iors alluded to in the services literature that are deemed
essential for the delivery of superior service quality. Ser-
vices researchers (e.g., Bowen and Lawler, 1992; Davidow
and Uttal, 1989; Kelley, Longfellow and Malehorn, 1996;
Morrison, 1996; Tansik, 1990) indicate that it is critical for
employees to perform both role-specified behaviors and
additional discretionary behaviors at exceptional levels for
high-quality service. An employee who demonstrates high
OCBs is likely to generate high levels of customer satisfac-
tion, through their propensity to help customers make better
decisions.
Socialization theory helps explain the expected relation-
ship between employee OCBs and customer-oriented be-
haviors (Kelley and Hoffman, 1997; Morrison, 1996). So-
cialization research suggests that employees who perform
one type of helping behavior (e.g., OCBs) are more likely to
perform other types of helping behaviors (e.g., customer-
oriented behavior) due to the personal values acquired
through the socialization process (Van Maanen and Schein,
1979). For example, altruism may be manifest in employ-
ees’ going out of their way to provide benefits for custom-
ers. Customers will also value employees’ courteous and
sportsmanlike behavior in the service interaction. Consci-
entious employees are likely to take a more diligent ap-
proach to solving customer problems and will be less in-
clined to shirk responsibilities or accept suboptimal
solutions for customers. OCBs will affect service quality
through the higher levels of co-worker support that will
eventuate, especially in team-based selling environments
that have greater requirements for cooperation (Netemeyer
et al., 1997). Citizenship behaviors such as conscientious-
ness, civic virtue, and altruism will reduce the variability in
service interactions as employees provide information and
support to their co-workers in their direct dealings with
customers (Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1997).
The second reason for expecting a positive relationship
between OCBs and service quality is the impact they have
on internal organization. These indirect contributions to
service quality occur in a number of ways (Podsakoff and
MacKenzie, 1997). First, OCBs enhance co-worker produc-
tivity and the efficient operation of groups. For example,
high levels of altruism or helping-behavior enable new
employees to obtain required product knowledge faster. As
a result, new employees will more quickly understand the
elements of service delivery. Second, OCBs— civic-virtue
in particular—will to lead to greater communication be-
tween employees and management. Potential problems with
service delivery processes can be identified early by bound-
ary spanning employees. High levels of courtesy and sports-
manship build an esprit d’corps among work colleagues.
Instead of managing within-group squabbles, managers’
time may be devoted to more productive ends such as
improving the customer focus of the group or organization.
Furthermore, a work environment characterized by support-
ive and cordial relations is likely to lead to higher levels of
employee retention. Higher and more consistent levels of
customer service can be achieved where sales force com-
position remains relatively stable (George and Betten-
hausen, 1990). Based on these two complementary argu-
ments we state the following hypothesis,
Hypothesis 1: There will be a positive direct relationship
between contact-employees’ OCBs (defined by altruism,
courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, civic virtue)
and customers’ perceptions of service quality.
Perceived organizational support
POS is defined as a general perception concerning the
extent to which the organization values employees’ general
contributions and cares for their well being (Eisenberger,
Fasolo and Davis-LaMastro, 1990). In conceptualizing the
relationship between POS and OCBs, we turn to social
exchange theory and its associated norms of reciprocity.
According to Eisenberger, Fasolo and Davis-LaMastro
(1990), a reason why perceived organizational support is
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
related to employee OCBs is that it may affect employ-
ees’ perceptions that they are valued by their organiza-
tions. A global perception that an organization supports
its employees will lead to reciprocal contributions from
employees in the form of extrarole behaviors. A number
of researchers attest to the positive relationship between
POS and various forms of OCB (e.g., Moorman, Blakely
and Niehoff, 1998; Shore and Wayne, 1993; Wayne,
Shore and Liden, 1997). Some more recent studies, how-
ever, have found no significant relationship between POS
and forms of OCB (i.e., organizational spontaneity, par-
ticipation, and loyalty; Bettencourt, Gwinner and Meuter,
2001; Eisenberger et al., 2001). The evidence is some-
what equivocal.
Other research (e.g., Schneider, White and Paul, 1998)
suggests that organizations must create a climate for service
to promote service quality as the means of retaining cus-
tomers. A service climate generates shared values and per-
ceptions of employees concerning the practices, procedures,
and behaviors that get rewarded, supported, and expected
with regard to customer service and customer service qual-
ity (Schneider, 1990). In turn, if employees believe that their
organization values their contribution to service quality,
they will be more likely to engage in behavior that will
contribute to higher level of service quality. Despite some
evidence to the contrary we hypothesize that,
Hypothesis 2a: There will be a positive direct relation-
ship between POS and OCBs (defined by altruism, cour-
tesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, civic virtue).
Hypothesis 2b: OCBs (defined by altruism, courtesy,
sportsmanship, conscientiousness, civic virtue) will me-
diate the relationship between perceived organizational
support and customers’ perceptions of service quality.
Organizational identification
Organizational identification1 can be defined as “perceived
oneness with an organization and the experience of the orga-
nization’s successes or failures as one’s own” (Mael and Ash-
forth, 1992, p. 103). It is expected that the incidence of OCBs
will be high among employees who identify with the organi-
zation and share its values and goals (cf. Morrison, 1996). Van
Dyne, Graham, and Dienesch (1994) argue that organizational
identification has powerful motivational effects that create and
release energy and effort to serve a collectivity. Within orga-
nizational contexts, this energy and effort might be expressed
as OCBs. In support this view, Ouchi (1981) suggests that
goal/value congruence between employees and the organiza-
tion might motivate employees to behave in ways that are
consistent with the organization’s objectives.
In a broader study of organizational commitment,
O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) found that individuals whose
attachment to their organization was based on identification
with organizational values and goals were more likely to
perform prosocial behaviors than were individuals whose
135
attachment was instrumental in nature. As employees be-
come more psychologically attached to an organization,
their relationship to the organization changes, resulting in
systematically different behavioral displays of psychologi-
cal involvement (O’Reilly and Chatman, 1986). Van Dyne,
Graham and Dienesch (1994) offer a slightly different per-
spective on the role of organizational identification and
OCBs. They employ a covenantal view of employee-orga-
nization relationships, which describes the relationship in
terms of a “mutual promise by individuals to do their best to
serve common values for an indefinite period” (Van Dyne,
Graham and Dienesch, 1994, p. 768). This view holds that
employees make a ‘pledge’ to the organization to contribute
to its ongoing prosperity.
According to Dutton, Dukerich, and Harquail (1994),
organizational identification aligns individuals’ interests
and behaviors with interests and behaviors that benefit the
organization. Employees who strongly identify with the
organization are likely to focus on tasks that benefit the
whole organization rather than purely self-interested objec-
tives. Drawing on dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957),
these authors argue that as organizational identification in-
creases employees demonstrate increased cooperation with
other organizational members in addition to directing addi-
tional effort toward tasks that contribute to co-workers and
to the organization. The alignment of employee and orga-
nizational interests enables an employee to contribute si-
multaneously to both the organization and him or herself
(Dutton, Dukerich and Harquail, 1994). Applying this con-
cept to the issue of OCBs and service quality, employees
who identify with the organization and perceive that qual-
ity-driven values are important to the organization’s culture,
will be more likely to personally subscribe to this objective.
As a consequence, these employees will be more likely to
engage in extrarole behaviors or OCBs that help facilitate
the goal of superior service quality. Such OCBs will result
in customers’ perceptions of superior service quality. Thus,
we hypothesize that,
Hypothesis 3a: There will be a positive direct relation-
ship between organizational identification and OCBs
(defined by altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscien-
tiousness, civic virtue).
Hypothesis 3b: OCBs (defined by altruism, courtesy,
sportsmanship, conscientiousness, civic virtue) will me-
diate the relationship between organizational identifica-
tion and customers’ perceptions of service quality.
Our second hypothesis describes the behavioral implica-
tions of POS—namely that employees will display greater
OCB to reciprocate such support. However, it is also likely that
individuals will evince affective and cognitive responses to
high levels of organizational support. To this end, we investi-
gate a relationship between POS and organizational identifica-
tion. Socialization theory (Van Maanen and Schein, 1979)
would support a relationship between the perceived level of
support provided by an organization and the degree of em-
136 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
ployee identification with the organization. Socialization con-
siders the mechanisms by which organizational members learn
the beliefs, values, orientations, and behaviors necessary to
function effectively within the organization (Ashforth and
Saks, 1996). A supportive organization— one that values em-
ployees’ general contributions and cares for their well-being
(Eisenberger et al., 1986)—is more likely to have employees
who embrace the organization’s values and goals as their own.
In other words, high levels of support will build organizational
identification among employees.
Extant research tends to support this view. Eisenberger,
Fasolo, and Davis-LaMastro (1990) found that perceived
support was positively related to affective attachment, per-
formance outcome expectancies, and the constructiveness
of anonymous suggestions for helping the organization.
Others conclude that employees who perceive their em-
ployer to be highly supportive will more often interpret
organizational gains and losses as their own (Settoon, Ben-
nett and Liden, 1996). They will also adopt organizational
values and norms as their own, demonstrating a greater level
of commitment to the firm than employees who do not
perceive the same level of support from the organization.
The internalizing of organizational gains and losses, and
embracement of its values, is characteristic of individuals
who identify with the organization. Accordingly, we would
expect to observe a positive relationship between POS and
organizational identification.
Hypothesis 4: There will be a positive relationship be-
tween POS and organizational identification.
The moderating role of job autonomy
Frequently decisions made at the managerial level are not
enacted at the operational level due to confounding factors,
including organizational systems, structures, and culture. In
many businesses the performance of boundary-spanning em-
ployees consistently fails to match the customer-oriented rhet-
oric of management— due in part to the fact that employees are
not provided with the behavioral latitude or resources with
which to do so. Researchers acknowledge that the pluralistic
nature of workplaces and the employment relationship can
hinder effective implementation of a market-oriented culture
within organizations (Harris and Ogbonna, 1999). Kerr (1975),
for example, argues that employees’ behavior will frequently
deviate from that ‘hoped for’ by management if appropriate
reward mechanisms are not in place. A frustrating scenario is
where employees, motivated to behave in the best interests of
the organization, are prevented from doing so by extant poli-
cies and practices. Service employees should at least be able to
perform in a manner consistent with guidelines set down by
management.
Few studies of OCBs have considered the latitude or
flexibility in job routines that is required for employees to
be able to perform OCBs. In describing OCBs, theorists
often use the terms extrarole or discretionary behaviors.
Indeed, the progenitors of the OCB concept discuss citizen-
ship behaviors in terms of “. . . the ‘extra things’ people do
‘above and beyond the call of duty’ to enhance the effec-
tiveness of their agencies” (MacKenzie, Podsakoff and
Paine, 1999, p. 407). Few theorists, however, have consid-
ered the situational factors that might facilitate or impede
the performance of such behaviors. The ability of employ-
ees to find the time and the opportunity to perform these
behaviors, in addition to their existing responsibilities, is
taken for granted by researchers.
Accordingly, we consider the notion of job autonomy as
a key requirement for employees to be able to behave in a
manner consistent with their attitudes and beliefs. Job au-
tonomy is the extent to which employees have the indepen-
dence and freedom to determine the way they perform their
jobs (Spreitzer, 1996). In this study, we suggest that an
autonomous work environment is essential for the perfor-
mance of OCBs that require employees to deviate from
prescribed roles. In particular, relaxing strict behavioral
controls allows employees to reciprocate particularly sup-
portive organizational relations with behaviors that are of
benefit to the business. Similarly, a degree of job autonomy
permits employees to act upon their level of identification
with the organization by responding with favorable or un-
favorable behaviors.
It can be argued, however, that some citizenship behav-
iors such as sportsmanship (e.g., tolerance of less than ideal
circumstances) lead to economies in time and effort, while
others such as conscientiousness (e.g., working extra hours,
returning calls from home) are not subject to the constraints
of the workplace. For the remaining OCBs, however, devi-
ation from a set work routine is required. For example, acts
of civic virtue (e.g., taking the initiative to recommend how
company operations can be improved) and altruism and
courtesy (e.g., orienting new staff, supporting poor perform-
ers, resolving conflicts) must occur at the workplace and,
hence, require some degree of behavioral discretion. Based
on this rationale, we advance the following hypothesis,
Hypothesis 5a: The positive relationship between POS
and altruism, courtesy, and civic virtue will be stronger
when job autonomy is high than when it is low (no
moderating effect is expected for sportsmanship and
conscientiousness).
Hypothesis 5b: The positive relationship between orga-
nizational identification and altruism, courtesy, and civic
virtue will be stronger when job autonomy is high than
when it is low (no moderating effect is expected for
sportsmanship and conscientiousness).
Methodology
Sample selection and data collection
A large retail insurance organization with eight major
branches in the northwest United States was contacted to
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
initiate a sample. The organization employed 276 insurance
salespeople, each of whom managed a portfolio of clients.
In addition to the initial service interaction, salespeople
were responsible for ongoing customer contact.
Our intention with our sampling frame was to control for
common methods variance as much as possible. Common
methods variance emerges where attitudes are regressed on
attitudes (Pedhazur, 1982) and is particularly problematic in
studies of OCBs where social desirability bias may enter
self-reported evaluations. Previous research proposes sev-
eral ways of controlling for common method bias (e.g.,
Netemeyer et al., 1997). We have attempted to follow these
recommendations. Accordingly, three groups of respon-
dents were surveyed; contact employees (to report on POS,
organizational identification, and job autonomy), managers
(to describe employees’ OCBs), and customers (to report on
contact employees’ service quality). Thus, the organization
first provided a complete list of sales managers’ names and
addresses and a list of 276 contact-employees, who were
supervised by those managers. Then, both manager and
contact-employee questionnaires were mailed to the sales
managers, who were also asked to distribute questionnaires
to the contact employees. Ultimately, 244 contact employ-
ees successfully completed and returned questionnaires.
Sales managers responded separately on their percep-
tions of each contact employee’s OCBs. Overall, 262 man-
ager evaluations were returned. The manager questionnaires
were matched with employee responses, resulting in 228
contact employee-manager dyads. This amounted to a re-
sponse rate of 82.6%.
Finally, service quality was assessed on a separate ques-
tionnaire by a stratified random sample of five customers
who had a service encounter with their contact employee in
the three months prior to receiving a questionnaire. The
sample was drawn from customer records of each of the 228
responding contact employees. This sampling procedure
resulted in a mailing of 1140 questionnaires. Five hundred
and thirteen customers returned completed questionnaires.
After eliminating unusable responses, 435 customer ques-
tionnaires remained for a final response rate of 38.2%.
Matching customer responses (averaged) with employee
data resulted in 212 employee-customer dyads.
Measures
All scales employed in this study were measured on
seven-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree). A review of the literature yielded a
number of measurement instruments that were employed to
test the hypothesized model. Each scale has a history of
reliable measurement.
POS was measured with eight items from the short ver-
sion of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support
(Eisenberger, Fasolo and Davis-LaMastro, 1990). The scale
assesses employee evaluations of organizational actions that
affect employee well-being.
137
Organizational identification was measured by Mael and
Ashforth’s (1992) six-item scale. This scale was intended to
measure the contact-employees’ perceptions of belonging-
ness with the organization and their internalization of its
successes and failures.
Job autonomy was measured by a three-item scale
adapted from Spreitzer’s (1995) measure of self-determina-
tion. However, we have elected to relabel the scale Job
autonomy for a number of reasons. First, it more clearly
communicates to the reader the context in which the scale is
normally applied (i.e., employee self-determination within
the workplace). It is also consistent with Spreitzer’s (1995)
definition of self-determination that “. . . reflects autonomy
in the initiation and continuation of work behaviors and
processes” [emphases added]. Finally, Spreitzer’s (1995)
scale for self-determination was adapted from Hackman and
Oldham’s (1980) autonomy scale.
OCBs were measured with the scales taken from Podsa-
koff et al. (1990). Each of the five constructs included four
items describing specific behaviors relevant to each subcon-
struct. The OCB rating form allowed the manager to com-
pare each contact employee on every item, thereby increas-
ing the amount of variance across contact employees
(Niehoff and Moorman, 1993).
Customers’ perceptions of service quality were measured
with 10 contact employee-related items of the original
SERVQUAL scale (Parasuraman, Berry and Zeithaml,
1990), which was taken from the study of Hartline and
Ferrell (1996). A list of scale items and their measurement
properties is provided in the Appendix.
Analysis and results
Measurement estimation
Measurement models were estimated using confirmatory
factor analysis in LISREL 8.03 (Jöreskog and Sörbom,
1993). Each of the 47 observable indicators loaded signifi-
cantly on their intended factors, indicating convergent va-
lidity among the items of each scale. Each of the item
loadings and measurement errors were within acceptable
ranges (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Coefficient alpha for each
scale is reported in Table 1. Discriminant validity between
the scale measures was assessed using Fornell and Larcker’s
(1981) recommended procedures, which account for the
possibility that measurement error can vary in magnitude
across items. The test involved an examination of the
amount of variance extracted by each construct (taking
measurement error into account) relative to the squared-
correlations of pairs of constructs. Using this criterion, 36
possible pairs of factors were tested. The results of each test
supported the discriminant validity of the measures.
Next, we conducted confirmatory factor analyses. Fit
indices indicated adequate fit across the three models: (1)
OCBs [␹2 ⫽ 310.6, df. ⫽ 160, p ⬍ .001, Tucker-Lewis fit
138 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, correlations (LISREL), reliabilities

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Perceived Org. Support –

2. Org. Identification .41 –
3. Job Autonomy .29 .30 –
4. Altruism .14 .36 .25 –
5. Courtesy .13 .38 .22 .49 –
6. Sportsmanship .11 .30 .16 .53 .57 –
7. Conscientiousness .09 .35 .11 .43 .42 .40 –
8. Civic Virtue .21 .49 .12 .35 .34 .34 .33 –
9. Service Quality .35 .29 .21 .41 .45 .42 .39 .29 –
Mean 5.91 5.44 5.60 5.13 5.31 5.30 5.25 5.33 5.84
Standard Deviation .60 .73 1.03 1.56 1.45 1.46 1.49 1.42 .68
Cronbach’s Alpha .81 .79 .81 .90 .78 .86 .82 .84 .77
Average Variance Extracted .51 .62 .67 .70 .50 .61 .54 .57 .59

Correlations exceeding .09 are significant at the 5% level

index (TLI ⫽ 0.93), the comparative fit index (CFI ⫽ 0.94),
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA ⫽
0.05)], (2) POS-organizational identification-job autonomy
(␹2 ⫽ 246.3, df. ⫽ 116, p ⬍ .001, TLI ⫽ 0.90, CFI ⫽ 0.92,
RMSEA ⫽ 0.06), (3) service quality (␹2 ⫽ 65.8, df. ⫽ 35,
p ⬍ .001, TLI ⫽ 0.94, CFI ⫽ 0.95, RMSEA ⫽ 0.03).
Hypotheses testing
Previous researchers argue that the issue of statistical
power is especially important in structural equation model-
ing (e.g., Iverson and Maguire, 2000). Following the pro-
cedure recommended by Iverson and Maguire (2000), the
null and alternative values of the RMSEA (⑀0 and ⑀a), the ␣
level, the degrees of freedom and the sample size were
incorporated in the SAS program (cf. MacCallum, Browne,
and Sugawara, 1996). The result of the estimation indicated
that the model had sufficient power to observe meaningful
parameters (Cohen, 1988).
Structural model results
The overall fit of the hypothesized structural model was
acceptable2. All paths were statistically significant with the
exception of those from POS to the five dimensions of OCB.
POS, organizational identification, and OCBs explained
36% of the variance in service quality.
To test the appropriateness of our hypothesized model,
we adopt a competing models strategy (Anderson and Gerb-
ing, 1988) that involves the estimation of theoretically plau-
sible alternative models (i.e., slightly more and slightly less
constrained).3 The hypothesized model was found to fit the
data significantly better than the more constrained model
(⌬␹2 ⫽ 12.8, ⌬df. ⫽ 4, ns). The less constrained model,
however, indicated an improved fit relative to the hypothe-
sized model (⌬␹2 ⫽ 9.2, ⌬df. ⫽ 2, p⬍ 0.05). Accordingly,
in a revised model we estimated a direct path between POS
and service quality while dropping the insignificant paths
between POS and the five dimensions of OCB (Fig. 2). This
revised model yielded an improved fit relative to the hy-
pothesized model (⌬␹2 ⫽ 24.2, ⌬df. ⫽ 4, p⬍ 0.05).
Moderating effects of job autonomy
The hypothesized moderating effects of job autonomy
were tested using the procedure recommended by Jaccard
and Wan (1996). First, the structural model for high and the
low autonomy groups were estimated without across-group
constraints (i.e., unconstrained model). Then, across-group
constraints were estimated (i.e., constrained model) where
the parameter estimates for the high and low autonomy
groups were constrained to be equal. Then the ␹2 test (i.e.,
comparison of unconstrained and constrained models) was
used to detect moderating effects. A significant ␹2 change
between the unconstrained and constrained models sug-
gested that some paths were significantly different between
the high and low autonomy groups (see Table 3).
Results reveal that H5(a) receives partial support. Job
autonomy shows a positive moderating effect on the rela-
tionship between POS and civic virtue only. The remaining
moderating effects were insignificant. This may be attrib-
uted to the very weak and insignificant main effects of POS
on OCB. Hypothesis 5(b), however, is fully supported be-
cause of statistically significant ␹2 differences for each of
civic virtue, altruism, and courtesy (see Table 3).
Discussion and implications for management
This study adds to current understanding of service qual-
ity and provides further evidence of the critical role that
boundary-spanning employees play in ensuring high levels
of customer service. Two important findings emerge from
our study. First, OCBs provide a meaningful framework for
businesses attempting to understand how to elevate their
service provision capabilities to achieve the levels of cus-
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146 139

Table 2
Completely standardized path estimates, t-values, and fit statistics

Paths More Constrained Hypothesized Model Less Constrained Revised Model

Model Model

POS 3 Civic Virtue .09 (.95) .09 (.94) .07 (.77) –

POS 3 Altruism – .02 (.20) .01 (.17) –
POS 3 Courtesy – .02 (.21) .01 (.18) –
POS 3 Sportsmanship – .04 (.45) .03 (.37) –
POS 3 Conscientiousness – .01 (.18) .00 (.03) –
OI 3 Altruism .26 (3.10)** .25 (3.03)** .23 (2.88)** .24 (2.99)**
OI 3 Courtesy .24 (2.96)** .23 (2.86)** .22 (2.63)** .23 (2.81)**
OI 3 Sportsmanship .29 (3.76)** .28 (3.45)** .27 (3.37)** .28 (3.42)**
OI 3 Conscientiousness .25 (3.07)** .23 (2.87)** .22 (2.64)** .23 (2.80)**
OI 3 Civic Virtue .35 (5.53)*** .35 (5.51)*** .33 (5.22)*** .34 (5.41)***
Altruism 3 Service Quality .33 (5.20)*** .32 (4.91)*** .31 (4.89)*** .32 (4.90)**
Courtesy 3 Service Quality .27 (3.31)** .26 (3.11)** .25 (3.08)** .26 (3.15)**
Sportsmanship 3 Service Quality .21 (2.64)* .20 (2.34)* .19 (2.25)* .20 (2.32)*
Conscienctiousness 3 Service Quality .19 (2.18)* .17 (2.08)* .17 (2.09)* .18 (2.11)*
Civic Virtue 3 Service Quality .22 (2.61)** .21 (2.57)** .20 (2.36)** .20 (2.30)*
POS 3 OI .29 (3.74)** .28 (3.45)** .27 (3.30)** .28 (3.48)**
POS 3 Service Quality – – .32 (4.99)*** .31 (4.96)***
OI 3 Service Quality – – .05 (.57) –
␹2 (df) 60.5 (16) 47.7 (12) 38.5 (10) 23.5 (16)
GFI .91 .91 .92 .93
AGFI .90 .90 .91 .92
RMSEA .06 .06 .05 .05
TLI .93 .93 .94 .94
CFI .94 .94 .95 .95
R2-Civic Virtue .16 .16 .17 .16
R2-Altruism .09 .08 .08 .08
R2-Courtesy .12 .11 .11 .11
R2-Sportsmanship .10 .09 .09 .09
R2-Conscientiousness .08 .07 .07 .07
R2-Service Quality .36 .36 .39 .38

POS-Perceived organizational support; OI-Organizational identification

* p ⬍ .05,
** p ⬍ .01;
*** p ⬍ .001

tomer satisfaction that lead to single-brand loyalty. Second,
it identifies internal relationship quality and workplace au-
tonomy as key factors that organizations can employ to
encourage customer-oriented behaviors that fall outside for-
mal role requirements.
As predicted (H1), each dimension of contact-employ-
ees’ OCB is significantly related to service quality. Consis-
tent with our argument supporting this hypothesis it is likely
that this is due to both customer-directed behaviors that are
consistent with OCB performance, and internally directed
OCBs that improve organizational effectiveness. The latter
result is consistent with studies considering organizational
climate, where a positive work environment will ‘spill over’
into interactions with customers (cf. Schneider and Bowen,
1992).
Contrary to our hypothesis (H2), we found that there was
no direct relationship between POS and the five dimensions
of OCB. There are two possible reasons for this. First, the
result may be due to the nature of organizational support,
which some researchers have considered to have two di-
mensions—social/emotional support and career-related sup-
port (e.g., Rousseau and Tijoriwala, 1998). Potentially, the
items in the POS scale more closely resemble social/emo-
tional support than career-related support, although the pro-
genitors of this scale have argued differently (e.g., Eisen-
berger et al., 1986). Possibly the latter is necessary for the
performance of OCBs, which are career-related behaviors.
Second, there may have been insufficient variance in per-
ceptions of organizational support due to uniform policies
and practices across the organization. This is not to say,
however, that organizational support is unimportant. On the
contrary, POS was found to be directly and significantly
related to service quality and indirectly associated with
OCB performance through its positive and significant rela-
tionship with organizational identification (H4). The perfor-
mance of OCBs is clearly not the only means of building
service quality. Indeed, citizenship behaviors explained
only 10% of the variance in service quality. The significant
relationship of POS with service quality is likely a function
of alternative customer-oriented behaviors not measured in
this study. Potentially, the direct association results from
employee performance of in-role customer-oriented behav-
140 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146

Table 3
Moderating effects of job autonomy

Paths Standardized Structural Coefficients ⌬␹2 Hypothesis

Low Job High Job
Autonomy Autonomy

POS 3 Civic Virtue ⫺.06 .24* 4.01* Supported

POS 3 Altruism .02 .07 n.s. Not Supported
POS 3 Courtesy .03 .08 n.s. Not Supported
POS 3 Sportsmanship .02 .09 n.s. Supported
POS 3 Conscientiousness .07 .11 n.s. Supported
OI 3 Civic Virtue .15* .42*** 5.89* Supported
OI 3 Altruism .16* .34** 5.31* Supported
OI 3 Courtesy .14* .31** 5.44* Supported
OI 3 Sportsmanship .03 .10 n.s. Supported
OI 3 Conscientiousness .05 .08 n.s. Supported

POS-Perceived organizational support; OI- Organizational identification

* p ⬍ .05;
** p ⬍ .01;
*** p ⬍ .001.

iors. In other words, employees may believe that the best
way to reciprocate organizational support is through the
performance of behaviors that the organization attempts to
specify and manage. In addition, employees reciprocate
high levels of support through aligning their values and
beliefs more closely with those of the organization (i.e.,
identify with the organization).
The relationships between organizational identification
and the five dimensions of OCB were positive and signifi-
cant, which supported our third hypothesis. Since a signif-
icant direct relationship between organizational identifica-
tion and service quality was not observed, OCBs completely
mediated the relationship between two constructs. Goal/
value congruence between employees and the organization
might explain why employees demonstrate higher levels of
OCBs. In other words, employees believe that the best way
to demonstrate their identification with the organizational is
through the performance of behaviors that the organization
cannot specify and manage.
The hypothesized moderating effects of job autonomy
(H5) were mostly supported by this study with job auton-
omy having a significant and positive moderating effect on
the relationship between organizational identification and
OCBs. In other words, the relationship between organiza-
tional identification and the performance of OCBs that re-
quire behavioral discretion (i.e., altruism, courtesy, and
civic virtue) is significantly stronger when the work envi-
ronment is highly autonomous. Turning to the POS/OCB
relationship, job autonomy was found to have a positive
moderating effect on the relationship between POS and
civic virtue but not altruism and courtesy. This is consistent
with the notion that employees will reciprocate organiza-
tional support with behaviors directed at the organization
itself (i.e., civic virtue) (Masterson et al., 2000).
There are three important findings from this study that
have particular implications for management. First, the pos-
itive relationship between OCBs and service quality is es-
pecially noteworthy. Businesses in the past have, a priori,
sought to specify customer-oriented behavior in order to
account for service variability and, ultimately, service qual-
ity. It now seems that encouraging extrarole behaviors
among customer contact personnel is a viable approach to
building service quality. There is some irony in this finding
as, by their very nature, OCBs are difficult to elicit and
manage. Nonetheless, managers should begin to signal to
employees that such behaviors are particularly desirable as
they contribute significantly to overall business perfor-
mance. Reward structures that incorporate both behavioral
criteria (e.g., employee participation and helping) and out-
come criteria (e.g., sales volume and growth) might help to
encourage employee performance of OCBs (Netemeyer et
al., 1997). In addition, rewards could be based on overall
firm performance (e.g., profit sharing, gain sharing). This
might encourage employees to consider a wider range of
extrarole behaviors and their potential contribution to orga-
nizational performance. Recruitment procedures may also
provide an opportunity to select employees with the greatest
propensity to display citizenship behaviors (Morrison,
1996).
A second main finding from this research is the signifi-
cant impact of aspects of the organization-employee rela-
tionship (i.e., organizational support and organizational
identification) on both OCBs and service quality. A sup-
portive work environment is important for encouraging em-
ployee reciprocity of in-role customer-oriented behavior, as
well as for socializing employees in the company’s values
and objectives. High-involvement work systems (e.g., ex-
tensive training, supervisory support, participative climate,
employee empowerment) may help strengthen employee-
organization relationships (e.g., Spreitzer, 1996). In addi-
tion, the manner in which an organization communicates its
overall philosophy may affect the type of relationship that is
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
Fig. 2. Revised model of organizational citizenship behaviors and service quality.
established between an organization and its employees and
the level of organizational identification that is engendered
as a consequence. This may include conveying to employ-
ees that they are valued by the organization as long-term
assets of the business. In addition to designing jobs that are
meaningful to contact employees, this may also involve
communicating the central role that boundary-spanning em-
ployees play in creating customer and organizational value
(Bowen and Schneider, 1985; Carlzon, 1987). Selection and
recruitment practices may, again, play a valuable role in
ensuring greater organizational identification among em-
ployees.
A third finding of this study was the importance of an
autonomous work environment in providing employees
with the behavioral latitude to engage in OCBs. There are a
number of managerial implications that derive from this.
First, it is clear that the extra responsibilities associated with
high job autonomy can prove onerous. Well-designed train-
ing programs are important to ensure that employees have
the ability to accommodate such responsibilities. Second,
managing employees’ job autonomy goes hand in hand with
reward system structure. It is important that employees are
paid according to the level of delegated responsibility.
Third, comprehensive dissemination of information is im-
portant within highly autonomous workplaces. Information
reinforces employees’ ability to perform within an autono-
141
mous work environment and helps clarify their contribution
to service operations.
Limitations and directions for future research
The most notable of the limitations to this study is the
drawing of our sample from one organization within a
single service industry. As noted earlier, this may have had
some effect on the observed variance within some attitudi-
nal measures (e.g., POS). While, a single company sample
helps control for the effects of industry differences, there is
only so much weight that can be given to our conclusions
and managerial implications for other industries and orga-
nizations. We have investigated service employees in a
market for relatively high involvement products (retail in-
surance). For such products, consumers will perceive a
degree of risk in purchase and will seek interactions with
service employees to reduce some of this risk (Laaksonen,
1994). Consequently, there is scope for high levels of cus-
tomization in service delivery and in-depth interactions. In
such instances OCBs are likely to have a great effect, but
what about for low involvement services (e.g., everyday
banking) or limited service businesses where the customer
performs much of the work (e.g., supermarkets)? In such
cases, service delivery is often scripted (Solomon et al.,
1985) and routinized. Where there is little need for deviant
142 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
discretion (Kelley, Longfellow and Malehorn, 1996), OCBs
may have a more limited effect on service quality, although
we would note that OCBs may yet have an impact via their
contribution to internal organization.
This latter point raises another avenue for future re-
search. There is potential for examining exactly how OCBs
lead to service quality. We argued earlier that OCBs will
have both a direct and indirect impact on customer service
outcomes. It would be useful to understand in more detail,
exactly how OCBs translate to superior service perfor-
mance. Is it through superior internal organization and re-
sponsiveness, or is it through exceptional management of
customer service encounters? An answer to this question
might depend on the nature of the selling environment. For
instance, in team-based selling environments it is likely that
OCBs will have a greater influence on service quality than
in individual selling environments due to increased require-
ments for cooperation (Netemeyer et al., 1997).
Another issue that begs the attention of researchers is the
strength of the effect of individual OCB dimensions on
perceived service quality. It is plausible that some OCB
dimensions will have a stronger impact on service quality
than others. Scholars are beginning to order OCB dimen-
sions according to different foci (e.g., organization-directed
and supervisor-directed; Masterson et al., 2000). Perhaps
there is also scope for ordering OCB dimensions according
to their relative impact on organizational performance out-
comes such as service quality. Given, however, that there is
still little consensus as to what behaviors are actually con-
sidered extrarole this raises the question of the domain of
OCB. Researchers still seem to be grappling with the dis-
tinction between extrarole behaviors and those that can be
expected as part of prescribed role requirements. Further-
more, a more detailed understanding of OCB dimensions
and their contribution to business performance might offer
some insight into employee citizenship behaviors as genu-
ine, organization-oriented performance versus elaborate im-
pression management (Bolino, 1999).
Doubts are always raised when models such as ours are
proposed which purport to test causality. Clearly our as-
sumption of causality is weakened by our cross-sectional
sample. Perhaps a quasi-experimental design might help
researchers to understand the causal nature of the variables
in our model. Even a longitudinal research design would be
of limited use given the potential for reciprocal relationships
among the variables in our model. For instance, our model
assumes that OCBs lead to higher service quality percep-
tions. However, there is a case for reciprocal effects be-
tween these two variables. Ryan, Schmit, and Johnson
(1996) argue that job attitudes result from high customer
satisfaction and business performance rather than causing it.
Potentially, the same hypothesis could be made with regard
to OCBs and service quality. Ongoing feedback from sat-
isfied customers might lead to greater job satisfaction
among employees, and a subsequent inclination to perform
OCBs (cf. Bettencourt and Brown, 1997).
We have considered the impact of the organization-
employee relationship on performance of OCBs but ne-
glected to consider other important relationships within the
organization. Wayne, Shore, and Liden (1997), for example,
demonstrate that leader-member relations and organization-
employee relationships are empirically distinct. Perhaps the
greater frequency of leader-member interactions would re-
sult in a more significant impact on OCBs. Examining
leader-member relations may also provide a better under-
standing of the role of job autonomy as a moderator or as an
antecedent to perceptions of support. There is evidence to
suggest that job autonomy is more strongly associated with
perceptions of supervisory support than with organizational
support (Keller and Dansereau, 1995).
Notes
1. Social identity theory suggests that a customer ser-
vice employee’s social identification with the orga-
nization can be defined by three, conceptually related
but empirically distinct components: cognitive (i.e.,
identification), evaluative (i.e., organization-based
self-esteem), and emotional (i.e., affective commit-
ment) (Ellemers et al., 1999, p. 372). Conceptual
overlap between the concepts of identification and
commitment has led most researchers to use these
two concepts interchangeably. However, while orga-
nizational identification is necessarily organization
specific, commitment is not (Ashforth and Mael,
1989, p. 23; Bhattacharya, Rao and Glynn, 1995, p.
47). Despite its conceptual similarity, an accumu-
lated and still growing body of literature shows that
the construct of organizational identification is in-
deed empirically different from the related constructs
of affective commitment and organization-based
self-esteem (e.g., Bergami and Bagozzi, 2000). Fur-
ther, Bergami and Bagozzi (2000) revealed that
while the three components of social identification
represent the elements of one’s social identity in the
organization, organizational identification is an ante-
cedent to affective organizational commitment and
organization-based self-esteem.
2. We used path analysis in order to increase sample
size relative to the parameter estimates. Therefore,
the measurement path estimates were set equal to 1
and the error variance was set equal to the scale
variance times 1 minus the reliability (Hayduk,
1987).
3 The slightly more constrained model involved fixing
the paths from POS to individual-directed OCB di-
mensions while freeing the path between POS and
civic virtue—an organization-directed OCB (Wil-
liams and Anderson, 1991). Previous researchers
have suggested that employees will reciprocate orga-
nizational support with behaviors directed at the or-
 S.J. Bell, B. Menguc / Journal of Retailing 78 (2002) 131–146
ganization itself (Masterson et al., 2000). The slightly
less constrained model involved freeing the paths
from POS and organizational identification to cus-
tomer perceptions of service quality. Direct effects of
these variables on service quality might be expected
due to their contribution to role-prescribed behaviors
rather than OCBs (Settoon, Bennett and Liden, 1996).
Acknowledgment
The authors thank Shahid N. Bhuian of Louisiana Tech
University, who assisted immensely with data collection.
The authors also thank Louis P. Bucklin and the three
anonymous JR reviewers for their insightful and helpful
comments on previous versions of this article.
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Appendix
Confirmatory factor analysis results

Scales Factor t-value

Loading

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (Source: Podsakoff et al., 1990)

Altruism
1. Helps others who have heavy workloads .70a –
2. Helps others who have been absent .87 16.26
3. Willingly gives of his/her time to help others who have work related problems .89 16.75
4. Helps orient new salespeople even though it is not required .88 16.74
Courtesy
5. Consults with me or other individuals who might be affected by his/her actions or decisions .70a –
6. Does not abuse rights of others .67 12.43
7. Takes steps to prevent problems with other salespeople .60 11.48
8. Informs me before taking any important actions .78 14.61
Sportsmanship
9. Consumes a lot of time complaining about trivial matters (r)a .73a –
10. Tends to make problems bigger than they are (r) .80 14.46
11. Constantly talks about wanting to quit his/her job (r) .80 14.24
12. Always focuses on what’s wrong with his/her situation, rather than the positive side (r) .78 13.22
Conscientiousness
13. Is always punctual .75a –
14. Never takes long lunch or break .70 11.91
15. Does not take extra breaks .81 14.07
16. Obeys company rules, regulations, and procedures even when no one is watching .66 11.07
Civic Virtue
17. Keeps abreast of changes in the organization .79a –
18. Attends functions that are not required, but that help the company image .85 13.82
19. Attends and participates in meetings regarding the organization .76 12.21
20. Keeps up with developments in the company .60 11.19
Perceived Org. Support (Source: Eisenberger, Fasolo & Davis-LaMastro, 1990)
1. My organization cares about my opinions .72a –
2. My organization really cares about my well-being .74 13.48
3. My organization strongly considers my goals and values .79 13.68
4. Help is available from my organization when I have a problem .69 12.56
5. My organization would forgive an honest mistake on my part .73 13.48
6. If I given the opportunity, my organization would take advantage of me (r) .69 12.34
7. My organization shows very little concern for me (r) .75 13.07
8. My organization is willing to help me if I need a special favor .60 11.59
Job Autonomy (Source: Spreitzer, 1995)
1. I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job .98a –
2. I can decide on my own how to go about doing my work .70 10.36
3. I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job .78 11.66
Organizational Identification (Source: Mael & Ashforth, 1992)
1. When someone praises this organization, I feel like a personal accomplishment .87a –
2. When I talk about my organization, I usually say “we” rather than “they‘ .86 15.30
3. I am very interested in what others think about my organization .77 13.43
4. This organization’s successes are my successes .82 14.64
5. When someone criticizes my organization, I feel like a personal insult .73 12.55
6. If the media criticizes my organization, I feel embarrassed .63 11.16
Customers’ Perceptions of Service Quality (Source: Hartline & Ferrell, 1996)
1. Receiving prompt service from the contact-employee .78a –
2. Never being too busy to respond to my requests .67 11.10
3. Contact-employee behaviors that instil confidence in me .74 13.90
4. The safety I feel in transactions with the contact-employee .85 17.13
5. The courteousness of the contact-employee .84 17.06
6. The ability of the contact-employee to answer my questions .79 15.23
7. The individual attention I receive from the contact-employee .81 17.03
8. The personal attention I received from the contact-employee .62 11.97
9. Having my best interests at heart .78 14.01
10. The ability of the contact-employee to understand my specific needs .78 14.56
a
Fixed parameter