Voltage/var Optimization in Active Distribution Networks

Nokhum Markushevich

Currently, the dominant way of controlling voltage in distribution is by changing the

transformation ratio of substation transformers with under-load tap changers (LTC) and/or of the
line voltage regulators. When the high penetration of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) with
reactive power capabilities becomes a reality, a significant additional resource for volt/var
control in distribution will become available. The decisive difference here is that the DERs
control voltage by changing their reactive power injections. In order to reduce voltage at the
customer terminals, DERs reduce their injection of reactive power, sometimes going into
absorption of reactive power. In many cases, the voltage reduction results in reduction of the
customer real and reactive loads. However, the reduction of injection of reactive power by the
DERs means an increase of reactive power flow from the balancing source to the consumers of
kvars. The increase of the reactive power flow may result in an increase in real and reactive
power losses, if the reduction of the natural real and reactive load does not override the effect of
reduced injections of the kvars. If the effect of voltage reduction on load reduction exceeds the
increase in losses, then the voltage reduction results in overall generation reduction, if not, the
generation goes up, and there is no overall reduction of generation and no system-wide energy
conservation.

The controllers of the smart inverters with the reactive power capabilities may operate in
different Volt/var control (VVC) modes and with different settings [1].

If the mode of VVC is set to provide maximum reactive power, the lagging reactive power flow
in distribution and/or in transmission may reduce, or the leading power flow may increase. In
this case, the voltage at the customer terminals may be higher; hence, the load may be greater,
while the losses may be smaller. To compensate fully or partially for the voltage increase at the
customer terminals, the Distribution System Operator (DSO) or the Distribution Management
System (DMS) may reduce the voltage at the supplying bus (if there are no other constraints). In
this case, coordinated actions of the DER operators and the DSO/DMS are needed.

As follows from the above, in the active distribution networks with high penetration of DER with
reactive power capabilities, the change of the net reactive load may be much more significant
than in the passive distribution systems.

As follows from the above suppositions, the different modes of DER VVC result in different
operating condition in different power system domains, such as customer, distribution,
generation and transmission domains. The operational objectives of the different stakeholders
involved in power system operations may be different under different circumstances. For
instance, the customers may be interested in reduction of their bills. Ultimately, the customers
pay for the direct electric service provided and the energy losses incurred due to these services.
However, the loss adjustment rule applied to the customer bills is different in different utilities
and, typically, is adjusted much latter than the actual losses occurred. In any event, the variable
portion of the regular customer bills are based on the energy consumption and, sometimes, on the
peak demand, as well as on the load power factor. Therefore, some customers are interested in
just energy conservation, other in energy conservation and peak demand reduction, and some are
interested in a higher power factors. Some customers may be interested in reduction of the future
bills, i.e., in minimizing the sum of their energy consumption and energy losses attributable to
them.

The distribution utility and aggregators may be also interested in load management, energy
conservation, loss reduction, and power factor improvement at particular physical or virtual
buses, depending on the existing incentives and/or agreement with other stakeholders. The
distribution utility may be especially interested in loading (amperes) reduction in particular
circuit elements.

The operators of the bulk generators may be interested in reduction of the need in peak
generation, in meeting their obligation in providing the operating reserve and other ancillary
services, in reduction of the reactive power demand, which may increase the real power
capability

The operations of the active distribution system will have a more significant effect on the
operations of the transmission systems, affecting power flow in transmission circuits,
transmission losses, power factors and voltages at the transmission busses, bulk generation of the
real and reactive power, and ultimately the Locational Marginal Prices (LMP). Hence, the
Transmission System Operator may be interested in volt/var support provided by the distribution
utility and/or aggregators, in unloading of transmission circuit element, in transmission loss
reduction, etc.

It means that the transmission system operator (TSO) and the corresponding Energy
Management Systems (EMS) need to take into account the aggregated at the transmission buses
effects and the capabilities of the active distribution network. For instance, the TSO/EMS should
know in advance how operational parameters at the transmission buses would change with the
change of the bus voltages under the current modes of the VVC in distribution. If under the
current mode of VVC in distribution, the operational parameters in the transmission system
approach undesirable levels, another possible way of VVC in distribution may be requested by
the TSO.

As it was suggested in [2]-[8] such exchange of information between the DSO/DMS and
TSO/EMS can be provided through the Transmission Bus Load Model (TBLM) and through the
information exchange between the advanced microgrids and DSO/DMS. Some of the
complexities of such information support of the power system operations in the smart grid
environment are described in [2]-[17].
 Let us consider some illustrative examples. These examples are based on a modified IEEE 13-
node model. The diagram of this model is depicted in Figure 1.

100 Transmission Equivalent 101

G 150 G

SVC CAP

G 1201
1204 1203 1202
A B C
G

C2
G

G
1210 1208 1206 1207 G
12051
PCC i
G C1
C3 G Microgrid

G
1209 1211

Figure 1. Modified 13-nodes diagram

In these examples, the objectives of the DSO/DMS are load reduction and/or energy
conservation by voltage reduction at the customer terminals within the standard limits. The
following modes of volt/var control by the DERs are considered in these examples:

1. The DERs are keeping the reactive power injection at the maximum limit level according to
their capability curves (Max Q --mode). This is an autonomous control based on local
information. The DSO/DMS lowers the voltage at the bus of the feeding substation.
2. The DERs are set to keep the voltage at their terminals within 96% through 98 % of nominal
voltage (CVR-mode). This is an autonomous control based on local information. The
DSO/DMS adjusts the voltage at the bus of the feeding substation to provide quality voltage
at the customer terminals.
3. The DERs do not have the reactive power capabilities (No var-mode). The DSO/DMS lowers
the voltage at the bus of the feeding substation and controls switching capacitors in the
primary distribution.1

1
Other modes of DER volt/var control are addressed in [18] and [19].
The voltage at the feeding substation bus is changed by changing the boost of the load tap
changer from 0% through 10%. The controllers of the DERs reacted by changing their reactive
power injections according g to the settings of the corresponding mode of VVC.

Two Load-to-Voltage sensitivity factors (LTV-factors or CVR-kW factors) for the natural load
were considered: 1% kW/1%Volt and 0.5%kW/1%Volt. The dependency of the reactive power
on voltage was presented with a second power polynomial with about 3.5%kvar/1%Volt and
2.5%/1%Volt near the nominal voltage.

The first CVR-kW factor is more representative for the conditions of peak load reduction, while
the second CVR-kW factor is more representative for conditions of energy conservation.

Two levels of DER participation are considered in the example: 100% and 10% of the installed
DER kW. The model includes a microgrid with installed DER kW about 100% of the load. The
installed DER kW of the rest of the model is about 40% of the load outside of the microgrid. The
rated power factor of the DERs is 0.9.

Illustrative examples of dependencies of the following operational parameters on the substation

bus voltage for the above modes of DER VVC are presented in the figures below.

1. Secondary voltages
2. Customer side real and reactive loads
3. Customer-side load power factor
4. DER reactive power
5. Distribution substation real and reactive net load
6. Current at the head of the distribution feeder
7. Transmission bus voltage
8. Power factor at the transmission bus

These dependencies are illustrated in Figure 2 through Figure 11.

Figure 2 illustrates the minimum voltage at the customer terminal achievable either by adjusting
the substation bus voltage (in the Max-Q mode) or by the CVR mode of the DER with reactive
power capability, or by the control of switchable capacitors (in the no-var mode), or by
combination of above. It is assumed here that the DSO and/or the DER owners desire to keep the
minimum customer-side voltage within 0.96 through 0.98 of the nominal voltage.

As seen in the figure, in the Max-Q mode and 100% participation of DERs, the desire range of
the minimum customer-side voltage is provided when the substation bus voltage is within 0.95
through 0.97 of the substation base voltage, which is assumed here 1.05 of nominal voltage. If
the DER participation is 10%, the bus voltage should be within 0.95 pu through 0.96 pu.
In the DER CVR mode, the desired range of the minimum voltage can be provided when the
substation bus voltage is within 0.96 pu through 1.01 pu for the 100% of DER participation and
within 0.96 pu through 1.00 pu for the 10% of DER participation.

In the No-var case, the desired range of the minimum voltage can be provided when the
substation bus voltage is within 0.96 pu through about 1.01 pu for the 100% of DER
participation, but for the 10% of DER participation, the substation bus voltage should be no
smaller than 1.00-1.01 pu.

1.08

1.06

1.04
Voltage in pu of Vnom

1.02

1.00

0.98

0.96

0.94
0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
Substation voltage in pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var-100% CVR
LTV=1; No var-100% CVR LTV=0.5; No var-10% CVR LTV=1; No var-10% CVR

Figure 2. Minimum secondary voltage vs bus voltage

Note that the ranges of the substation voltage presented in the illustrations for the DER-CVR
modes and No-var modes are smaller than for the Max-Q modes. This is due to a greater demand
of the reactive power from the transmission system. This means grater voltage drop in the
transmission lines and in the substation transformer, which cannot be offset by the limited boost
of the transformer’s LTC.

The voltages depicted in Figure 2 represent the voltages in a few voltage critical points. In other
customer nodes, the voltages are higher. Figure 3 presents the circuit’s average voltage weighted
by the corresponding natural load. As seen in the figure, the lowest average voltage is in the
cases of DER CVR modes. In other modes, the average voltage is significantly higher, which
means that the total real and reactive loads are also higher. This can be seen in Figure 4 and
Figure 5. In these figures, the loads are expressed in pu of the base, which is the load under the
substation voltage equal 1.0 pu, and the Max-Q mode of operations, when the LTV=1.0, and the
DER participation is 100%.
 1.12

1.10

1.08

1.06

Voltage, pu of Vnom
1.04

1.02

1.00

0.98

0.96

0.94
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
Bus voltage in pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR
LTV=1; No var CVR

Figure 3. Weighted average secondary voltage vs bus voltage

1.05
1.04
1.03
Real Load, pu of load under Qmax

1.02
1.01
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
Substation volage, pu of 1.05Vnom
LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; No var CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ
LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=1; No var CVR
LTV=1; DER=100% CVR

Figure 4. Real customer-side load dependencies on bus voltage

 1.30

1.20

Reactive Load, pu of load under Qmax

1.10

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70
0.920 0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.060
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR
LTV=1; No var CVR

Figure 5. Reactive customer-side load dependencies on bus voltage

The change of the customer-side voltages affects the load power factors due to the different
sensitivities of the natural real and reactive load to the customer-side voltage (see Figure 6). As
seen in the figure, different modes of VVC in distribution result in different power factors of the
natural load. It may be a significant issue for the customers charged for low power factors. For
instance, if the DSO or TSO requires the Max-Q mode of distribution operations, and this results
is higher voltages at the customer terminals, the power factor of the natural load may drop below
the low limit and cause penalties for some customers. Hence, the benefits to the transmission or
distribution systems may come with a price to some customers.
0.92

0.91

0.90
Load Power Factor

0.89

0.88

0.87

0.86

0.85
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR
LTV=1; No var CVR

Figure 6. Load power factor vs bus voltage

In order to keep the voltages lower for load reduction or for energy conservation, the DERs in
CVR mode adjust their reactive power. The higher the substation bus voltage, the smaller is the
injection of the reactive power by the DERs down to the absorption of the vars (see Figure 7).
For instance, assume that another group of feeders is fed from the same substation bus, and this
group of feeders requires a higher substation bus voltage (e.g., due to a lower DER penetration,
or a smaller reactive power capability of the DERs). Say, the required bus voltage is about 1.0
pu. The DERs in CVR mode in the first group of feeders (Figure 1) are still capable of providing
the desired low voltages at the customer terminals of this group. However, to do so the DERs in
this group need to go into absorption of the reactive power. This increases the net reactive power
demand by the distribution system (see Figure 8), increases the current in the heads of the
distribution feeders (see Figure 9), may reduce the transmission bus voltage (see Figure 10), and
significantly reduces the power factor at the transmission bus (see Figure 11).
2.50

2.00
DER Ractive power, pu of base case

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06

-0.50

-1.00
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR

Figure 7. DER reactive power dependencies on bus voltage

 1.60

1.40

Net Reactive Load, pu of load under Qmax

1.20

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.920 0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.060
-0.20

-0.40
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR
LTV=1; No var CVR

Figure 8. Distribution net reactive load dependencies on bus voltage

2.75

2.50
Current in distribution, pu of current under Qmax

2.25

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50
0.92 0.94
LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ
LTV=1; DER=10% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ
LTV=1; No var CVR
0.96 0.98 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom
LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ
LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR

Figure 9. Current at the head of distribution feeder

 1.012

1.010

Transmission bus voltage, pu

1.008

1.006

1.004

1.002

1.000

0.998
0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.060
Substation bus voltage, pu of 1.05Vnom

LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ

LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR

Figure 10, Transmission bus voltage vs distribution bus voltage

1.20

1.00
Power Factor at transmission bus

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.920 0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.060
Substation bus voltage, pu of Vnom
LTV=1; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=1; DER=100% CVR LTV=1; DER=10% MaxQ
LTV=1; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; DER=100% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=100% CVR
LTV=0.5; DER=10% MaxQ LTV=0.5; DER=10% CVR LTV=0.5; No var CVR
LTV=1; No var CVR

Figure 11. Power factor at the transmission bus vs distribution bus voltage
Conclusions.

1. The active distribution networks with high penetration of DER with reactive power
capabilities provide significant opportunities for optimization of voltage and var support
for distribution and transmission systems.
2. The volt/var control in active distribution networks with high penetration of DERs with
the reactive power capabilities may significantly affect the operations of the adjacent
transmission system.
 3. Three modes of volt/var control in active distribution networks are considered in the
paper:
i. The DERs are keeping the reactive power injection at the maximum limit
level according to their capability curves (Max Q --mode).
ii. The DERs are set to keep the voltage at their terminals within close to the
lower voltage limit (CVR-mode).
iii. The DERs do not have the reactive power capabilities (No var-mode). The
DSO/DMS lowers the voltage at the bus of the feeding substation and
controls switching capacitors in the primary distribution.
4. In many cases, the same mode of the volt/var control in the active distribution systems
benefits all stakeholders: the customers, the distribution utility, and the transmission
system. However, in other cases, different stakeholders would benefit from different
modes of the volt/var control in distribution.
5. The capabilities, the performance, and the effects of the volt/var control in distribution
may significantly change due to the high degree of variability of DER operations. Hence,
a near-real time situational awareness of the performance and capabilities of the volt/var
control should be provided for all relevant power system domains.
6. A near-real time information exchange between the distribution and transmission systems
including the current state, the capabilities, the effect, and the requirements for the
volt/var control should be provided.

References.

[1] Common Functions for Smart Inverters, Version 3. Available:

file:///C:/Data/SGOC/Education/Book/New%20papers/CVR/000000003002002233%20(1).pdf
[2] [2] Nokhum Markushevich,”New Aspects of IVVO in Active Distribution Networks,” Presented at IEEE PES 2012 T and D conference
[3] [3] Nokhum Markushevich, Cross-cutting Aspects of Smart Distribution Grid Applications, Presented at IEEE PES GM 2011, Detroit
[4] [4] Transmission Bus Load Model – the Bridge for Cross-Cutting Information Exchange between Distribution and Transmission Domains,
Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/SGOC_presentation_to_SGIP_03-30_-2011a.pdf
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Version 14, 2013. Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/TBLMUseCase_V14-03-13-13-posted.pdf
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Version 5g, 2016. Available: https://members.sgip.org/kws/groups/sgip-drgs-
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https://www.scribd.com/document/376567099/Information-Exchange-between-Advanced-Microgrids-and-Electric-Power-Systems
[8] [8] Use Cases on Information Support of Interactions between Advanced Microgrids and Electric Distribution Systems. Available:
https://members.sgip.org/kws/groups/sgip-drgs-c/documents
[9] [9] Information Support for Coordination of EPS and Microgrid Load Shedding Schemes. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
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http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[11] [11] Update aggregated at PCC real and reactive load-to-voltage dependencies under normal operating conditions. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[12] [12] Updates of capability curves of the microgrid’s reactive power sources. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[13] [13] Updating information on microgrid dispatchable load. Available: http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[14] [14] Updates of the information on overlaps of different load management means within microgrids. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[15] [15] Updating dependencies of the microgrid operational model on external conditions. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
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http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
[17] [17] Nokhum Markushevich, “Applications of Advanced Distribution Automation in the Smart Grid Environment,” T&D Online Magazine,
January-February 2010 issue. Available: http://www.electricenergyonline.com/?page=mag_archives
[18] [18] Nokhum Markushevich, On the Subject of Mitigating Voltage Fluctuations due to the Variability of DER. Available:
https://www.scribd.com/document/376625816/Mitigation-of-Voltage-Fluctuations-by-Controlling-Reactive-Power-of-DER
[19] [19] Nokhum Markushevich, Vars versus Watts from Distributed Energy Resources. Available:
https://www.scribd.com/document/376740872/Vars-versus-Watts-from-Distributed-Energy-Resources