Test Bank Criminological Theory Context and

Consequences, 6th Edition by J. Robert Lilly,

Francis T. Cullen, Richard A. Ball

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Test Bank Criminological Theory Context and Consequences, 6th Edition by J. Robert Lilly, Francis T.
Cullen, Richard A. Ball

1. The _____ school of criminology argued that one aspect of American society, the city, contained
potent criminogenic forces.

*a. Chicago

1. New York
2. Boston
3. Los Angeles

Answer location: page 36-37

2. The _____ movement was troubled by the plight of the urban poor, and argued that the poor were
pushed by the environment into lives of crime.
3. Reformist
4. Retreatist

*c. Progressive

1. Darwinist

Answer location: page 38

3. The Age of _____ assumed that the government could be trusted to create and administer
agencies that would affect needed social reform.
 4. Rehabilitation
5. Retribution
6. Retraining

*d. Reform

Answer location: page 38

4. _____ concluded that Chicago’s development and organization was not random or idiosyncratic,
but rather patterned, and could be understood in terms of basic social processes.
5. Binet
6. Marx

*c. Park

1. Bonger

Answer location: page 38

5. ______ concluded that neighborhood organization was instrumental in preventing or permitting

delinquent careers.

*a. Shaw and McKay

1. Freud
2. Binet
3. Adler

Answer location: page 39

6. _____ contended that cities grow radically in a series of concentric zones or rings.
7. Durkheim
8. Weber

*c. Burgess

1. Sutherland

Answer location: page 39

7. According to Burgess, which zone was a particular cause for concern and study?
8. The Zone of the Workingmen’s Home

*b. The Zone in Transition

1. The Residential Zone

 2. The Commuters Zone

Answer location: page 39

8. According to _____, disorganized neighborhoods helped to produce and sustain criminal

traditions, which could be transmitted through successive generations of boys.
9. Beccaria
10. Freud
11. Marx

*d. Shaw and McKay

Answer location: page 41

9. According to Shaw and McKay, what is needed for the creation of high rates of delinquency?

*a. A breakdown of control

1. A breakdown in religion
2. Rational choice
3. Low IQ

Answer location: page 43

10. _____ substituted for social disorganization the concept of differential social organization.
11. Park

*b. Sutherland

1. Burgess
2. Shaw and McKay

Answer location: page 44

11. Sutherland argued that social groups were arranged _____.

12. similarly

*b. differentially

1. randomly
2. culturally

Answer location: page 44

 12. The term _____ refers to criminal behavior being learned through social interactions.
13. conflict
14. social bond

*c. differential association

1. social disorganization

Answer location: page 44

13. According to Sutherland, crime occurs when _____ favorable to crime outweigh those that are
unfavorable to crime.
14. imitations

*b. ratio of definitions

1. differential associations
2. social disorganization

Answer location: page 44

14. According to Sutherland, ______ are offenses committed by a person of respectability and high
social status in the course of his occupation.
15. professional crimes

*b. white-collar crimes

1. occupational crimes
2. corporate crimes

Answer location: page 46

15. ______ is defined as social cohesion among neighbors combined with their willingness to
intervene on behalf of the common good.
16. Definition
17. Collective association

*c. Collective efficacy

1. Neighborhood watch

Answer location: page 49

 16. _____ social control involves residents’ behaving proactively—not passively—when they see
wayward behavior such as by calling the authorities, intervening when there is trouble, and telling
unruly teenagers to quiet down.
17. Familial

*b. Informal

1. Formal
2. Communal

Answer location: page 49

17. According to Anderson, a _____ shapes how disrespected parties should react.
18. moral obligation
19. subculture
20. collective obligation

*d. code of the street

Answer location: page 55

18. According to Anderson, the code of the street is a(n) _______ to the conditions prevailing in
destitute urban communities.
19. ecological adaptation

*b. cultural adaptation

1. social adaptation
2. environmental adaptation

Answer location: page 55

19. In his social learning theory, _____ attempted to specify the mechanisms and processes through
which criminal learning takes place.
20. Robert Merton
21. Edwin Sutherland

*c. Ronald Akers

1. Shaw and McKay

Answer location: page 56

20. According to Akers, ______, or modeling, determines if people become involved in crime.
 21. social reinforcements
22. punishments
23. definitions

*d. imitation

Answer location: page 60

21. According to Akers, ______, also defined as rewards and punishments, determine whether any
behavior is repeated.

*a. social reinforcements

1. punishments
2. definitions
3. imitation

Answer location: page 60

22. Which of the following is the most effective way to reduce crime according to Shaw and McKay?
23. Harsh penalties

*b. Reorganize communities

1. Reverse offenders’ criminal learning

2. Rehabilitation

Answer location: page 62

23. Which of the following is the most effective way to stop individuals from reoffending or from
recidivating according to the Chicago school?
24. Community efficacy
25. Reorganize communities

*c. Reverse offenders’ criminal learning

1. Rehabilitation

Answer location: page 62

24. Interventions based on differential association and social learning theory often attempt to ______.
25. place offenders in prison
26. change their attitudes, values, and beliefs
27. address past problems
*d. remove offenders from settings that encourage crime and place into settings that provide prosocial
reinforcement

Answer location: page 62

25. The strategy of _____ was the creation of neighborhood committees in Chicago’s disorganized
slum areas.

*a. CAP

b.MFY

1. CIA
2. NHW

Answer location: page 63

26. Because Shaw and McKay attributed crime to the combination of weak controls and learning
criminal cultural values, their theory has been called a:
27. combined model.
28. integrated model.

*c. mixed model.

1. collective model.

Answer location: page 43

27. Which is not one of the three levels of community control?

28. private
29. parochial
30. public

*d. educational

Answer location: page 48

28. A “cultural orientation in which the law and its agents are viewed as illegitimate, unresponsive,
and ill equipped to ensure public safety” is the definition for:

*a. legal cynicism

1. cultural disorganization
2. cultural attenuation
 3. law enforcement cynicism

Answer location: page 52

29. are one’s own attitudes or meanings that one attached to given behavior
30. Differential reinforcements.

*b. Definitions

1. Differential associations
2. Imitations

Answer location: page 58

30. As the United States entered the 20th century, a new vision of crime emerged—a vision
suggesting that crime was a social product.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 36

31. Chicago was of interest to researchers because the rapid expansion was so successful.
32. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 37

32. Burgess and other Chicago sociologists believed that disorganization was the source of a range
of social pathologies, including crime.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 39

33. Sutherland emphasized the importance of neighborhood organization in preventing or permitting

juvenile waywardness.
 34. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 39

34. According to Shaw and McKay’s research, juveniles were drawn into crime through their
association with older siblings or gang members.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 41

35. Sutherland accepted individualist explanations of crime.

36. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 44

36. Differential association does not take into account crimes by the affluent.
37. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 46

37. Collective efficacy is evenly distributed across neighborhoods.

38. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 49

38. Overall, research is supportive of the social learning theory.

*a. true

1. false
Answer location: page 61

39. According to the Chicago criminologists, the solution to juvenile waywardness was to eradicate
the pathologies that lie within the individual.
40. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 63

40. Burgess delineated six zones of city development.

41. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 39-40

41. Sutherland argued there was one major culture.

42. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 44

42. Sutherland presented nine principles or influential statements on the causes of crime.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 45

43. According to Sampson, collective was meant to suggest that residents in an area had a shared
expectation for control.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 49

 44. In existing research, the strongest predictor of criminal involvement typically is definitions
favorable to crime.
45. true

*b. false

Answer location: page 61

45. Definitions and imitation are most influential for initial forays into crime.

*a. true

1. false

Answer location: page 60

Type: E

46. Describe the life of the migrants and immigrants settling in Chicago.

*a. little economic relief. They faced a harsh reality—pitiful wages; working 12-hour days, 6 days a week,
in factories that jeopardized their health and safety; living in tenements that “slumlords built jaw-to-jaw . . .
on every available space” (p. 64).

Type: E

47. According to Shaw and McKay, how are criminal values transmitted?

*a. Transmitted down through successive generations of boys, much the same way that language and
other social forms are transmitted

Type: E

48. According to Sutherland, what determines whether a person embraces crime as an acceptable
way of life?

*a. The ratio of these definitions or views of crime—whether criminal or conventional influences are
stronger in a person’s life—determines whether the person embraces crime as an acceptable way of life.
Type: E

49. According to Sampson, what is the importance of collective efficacy?

*a. Social cohesion among neighbors combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the
common good. Thus, collective was meant to suggest that the residents in an area had a shared
expectation for control—that is, they could count on neighbors to agree that certain situations—for
example, teens hassling passersby or pushers selling drugs on a corner—were inappropriate and
deserving of a reaction. In turn, efficacy was meant to suggest that the residents could count on their
neighbors to exert human agency and actually to do something to solve the problem

Type: E

50. What is the “code of the street?”

*a. A set of informal rules governing interpersonal public behavior, particularly violence. The rules
prescribe both proper comportment and the proper way to respond if challenged. They regulate the use of
violence and so supply a rationale allowing those inclined to aggression to precipitate violent encounters
in an approved way.

Type: E

51. According to Akers, what is the importance of social reinforcements?

*a. Social reinforcements—rewards and punishments—determine whether any behavior is repeated. The
continued involvement in crime, therefore, depends on exposure to social reinforcements that reward this
activity. The stronger and more persistent these reinforcements (i.e., the more positive the
consequences), the greater the likelihood that criminal behavior will persist.

Type: E

52. How was differential association theory both a social-psychological theory and a structural
theory?

*a. As a social-psychological theory, differential association explained why any given individual was
drawn into crime. As a structural theory, differential social organization explained why rates of crime were
higher in certain sectors of American society: Where groups are organized for crime (e.g., in slums),
definitions favoring legal violations flourish; therefore, more individuals are likely to learn—to differentially
associate with—criminal values.

Type: E

53. Why is collective efficacy not evenly distributed across communities?

*a. in communities marked by a concentration of new immigrants, residential instability, and the grinding
economic deprivation of “concentrated disadvantage,” collective efficacy is weak (see also Sampson,
Morenoff, & Earls, 1999). Sampson et al. (1997) predicted that these communities would not have the
social capital to assert informal social controls and to keep the streets safe. By contrast, collective efficacy
is high in more affluent communities marked by long-term residential stability. Again, Sampson and his
colleagues argued that people in these areas do not have to be best friends—only that they believe that
their neighbors share their view of when control should be exercised. For social control to be exercised,
observes Sampson (2012, pp. 152–153), the context does not necessarily have to be “characterized by
dense, intimate, and strong neighborhood ties (e.g., through friends or kin)…. Put differently, a person
can perceive trust and infer shared expectations about public behavior without having to know their
neighbors in the ‘urban villagers’ sense of cohesion.”

Type: E

54. What role does imitation and social reinforcements play in Akers’s social learning theory?

*a. People can become involved in crime through imitation—that is, by modeling criminal conduct.
Second, and most significant, Akers contended that definitions and imitation are most instrumental in
determining initial forays into crime.

Type: E

55. What methodological advances did the Chicago school make?

*a. Quantitatively, they showed the value of mapping crime by geographic area. Anticipating by decades
what would later be called “hot spots” of crime, they showed that criminal acts were not randomly
distributed but highly concentrated. For them, place mattered. What was it about places with a lot of crime
that differentiated them from places without much crime? However, they also valued qualitative methods.
The members of the Chicago school were not armchair criminologists but rather walked inner-city streets
and interviewed offenders about their personal histories. These revelations allowed their statistics to
come to life. Each spot on their maps was not simply a data point but a delinquent with his or her own
story. They did not lose touch with the humanity of those they studied, which is perhaps one reason why
they sought solutions to crime in social reform rather than in prison construction.

Type: E

56. Explain systemic theory.

*a. The perspective argues that neighborhoods are characterized by a system of social networks and ties.
Dense social networks and strong social ties create the capacity of residents to come together to exert
informal social control. Thus, if neighbors know, interact with, and care about one another, they are likely
to watch one another’s houses and tell rowdy teens in the neighborhood to “quiet down or I’ll tell your
parents.” But if they lack close relationships, they are likely to “mind their own business” and not expect
that others will rescue them when they are in danger (see also Warner & Clubb, 2013).
Type: E

57. Explain Kornhauser’s idea of cultural disorganization.

*a. neighborhood conditions affect allegiance to conventional values. It is difficult to create “common
ground” and “shared understandings,” observed Kornhauser (1978, p. 77), when there is transiency
(people moving in and out of an area), when there is heterogeneity (people from different racial and
ethnic groups), when new problems exist that traditional values do not address effectively (people find
values imported from the “old country” are obsolescent in modern society), and when following
conventional mandates seem irrelevant to the achievement of goals (people who obey the rules do not
seem to get ahead). In inner-city neighborhoods conventional values are not rejected but rather fall into
“disuse.”

Type: E

58. List Akers’s four central concepts.

*a. Akers’s social learning incorporates four central concepts: (1) differential association, (2) imitation, (3)
definitions, and, (4) most importantly, differential social reinforcement

Type: E

59. Discuss Sutherland’s theory of differential association. Make sure to discuss the role of learning
within the theory of differential association. How is this theory different from the theories from
Chapter 2?

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 43-46

Type: E

60. Provide a description and summary of Shaw and McKay’s social disorganization theory. Draw the
concentric zones and explain the differential rates of crime across the zones.

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 39-43

Type: E

61. Describe and explain Robert Sampson’s collective efficacy theory. How is this theory similar to
Shaw and McKay’s theory? How is it different? What is the key component of this theory?
*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 47-50

Type: E

62. How does Akers’s social learning theory extend Sutherland’s differential association theory?

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 57-61

Type: E

63. Explain the differences between street families and decent families. How does each type arise in
the inner city? What are the different values and codes of behavior expressed by each type of
family? Finally, how does the code of the street not only impact street families but also decent
families?

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 54-56

Type: E

64. Discuss why neighborhoods with high levels of legal cynicism have high rates of crime.

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 52-53

65. What is the difference between interactional and normative differential association. Give an
example of each.

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 58

Type: E

66. Describe and give an example of general and specific definitions.

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 58

Type: E

67. Explain, according to Akers, how do people initially begin engaging in crime and why they
continue in criminal behavior?

*a. answers vary

Answer location: page 60

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