Metre (music) - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Metre_(music)

Metre (music)
In music, metre (Am. meter) refers to the regularly
recurring patterns and accents such as bars and beats.
Unlike rhythm, metric onsets are not necessarily
sounded, but are nevertheless expected by the
listener.

A variety of systems exist throughout the world for

organising and playing metrical music, such as the
Musical and lyric metre
Indian system of tala and similar systems in Arabian
and African music.

Western music inherited the concept of metre from poetry (Scholes 1977; Latham 2002b) where it denotes:
the number of lines in a verse; the number of syllables in each line; and the arrangement of those syllables as
long or short, accented or unaccented (Scholes 1977; Latham 2002b). The first coherent system of rhythmic
notation in modern Western music was based on rhythmic modes derived from the basic types of metrical
unit in the quantitative meter of classical ancient Greek and Latin poetry (Hoppin 1978, 221).

Later music for dances such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed
sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo and time signature. The English word "measure", originally an
exact or just amount of time, came to denote either a poetic rhythm, a bar of music, or else an entire melodic
verse or dance (Merriam-Webster 2015) involving sequences of notes, words, or movements that may last
four, eight or sixteen bars.

Contents
Metric structure
Frequently encountered types of metre
Metres classified by the number of beats per measure
Duple metre
Triple metre
Metres classified by the subdivisions of a beat
Simple metre
Compound metre

Metre in song
Metre in dance music
Metre in classical music
Changing metre
Hypermetre
Polymetre
Examples
See also

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Sources

Metric structure
The term metre is not very precisely defined (Scholes 1977). Stewart MacPherson preferred to speak of "time"
and "rhythmic shape" (MacPherson (1930, 3)), while Imogen Holst preferred "measured rhythm" (Holst
(1963, 17)). However, Justin London has written a book about musical metre, which "involves our initial
perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of
the music as it unfolds in time" (London 2004, 4). This "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic bar is the
foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into
"tick–tock–tick–tock" (Scholes 1977). "Rhythms of recurrence" arise from the interaction of two levels of
motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups (Yeston 1976,
50–52). In his book The Rhythms of Tonal Music, Joel Lester notes that, "[o]nce a metric hierarchy has been
established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present" (Lester
1986, 77).

"Meter may be defined as a regular,

recurring pattern of strong and weak beats.
This recurring pattern of durations is
identified at the beginning of a composition
by a meter signature (time signature). ...
Although meter is generally indicated by
time signatures, it is important to realize
that meter is not simply a matter of

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division notation" (Benward and Saker 2003, 9). A
levels above and multiple levels below. definition of musical metre requires the
possibility of identifying a repeating pattern
of accented pulses — a "pulse-group" —
which corresponds to the foot in poetry. Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented
beat as the first pulse in the group and counting the pulses until the next accent (MacPherson 1930, 5;
Scholes 1977). Frequently metres can be broken down into a pattern of duples and triples (MacPherson 1930,
5; Scholes 1977).

The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical
form (MacPherson 1930, 3).

Metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished
in all aspects of temporality (Cooper 1973, 30):

Metrical rhythm, by far the most common class in Western music, is where each time value is a multiple
or fraction of a fixed unit (beat, see paragraph below), and normal accents reoccur regularly, providing
systematic grouping (bars, divisive rhythm).
Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but there are
not regularly recurring accents (additive rhythm).
Free rhythm is where there is neither.
Some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse (Scholes
1977). Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as
Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric (Karpinski 2000, 19). The music term

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senza misura is Italian for "without metre", meaning to play without a beat, using time to bar how long it will
take to play the bar (Forney and Machlis 2007,).

Metric structure includes metre, tempo, and all rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity or
structure, against which the foreground details or durational patterns of any piece of music are projected
(Wittlich 1975, chapt. 3). Metric levels may be distinguished: the beat level is the metric level at which
pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece. Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are
multiple levels (Wittlich 1975, chapt. 3). A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of
time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level.

Frequently encountered types of metre

Metres classified by the number of beats per measure

Duple metre

In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof
(quadruple metre).
Compound duple drum
2, each bar contains two (2) quarter-note pattern: divides each of
For example, in the time signature 4
two beats into three
6, each bar contains two dotted-quarter-note
(4) beats. In the time signature 8  Play 
beats. Corresponding quadruple metres are 4
4, which has four quarter-note
beats per measure, and 12
8 , which has four dotted-quarter-note beats per bar.

Triple metre

Triple metre is a metre in which each bar is divided into three beats, or a
3, each bar contains
multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature 4
9, each bar
three (3) quarter-note (4) beats, and with a time signature of 8
Simple triple drum pattern:
contains three dotted-quarter beats. divides each of three beats
into two  Play 

Metres classified by the subdivisions of a beat

Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided.

Simple metre

Simple metre (or simple time) is a metre in which each beat of the
bar divides naturally into two (as opposed to three) equal parts.
Simple quadruple drum pattern:
The top number in the time signature will be 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
divides each of four beats into two
For example, in the time signature 3  Play 
4, each bar contains three
quarter-note beats, and each of those beats divides into two eighth
notes, making it a simple metre. More specifically, it is a simple
triple metre because there are three beats in each measure; simple duple (two beats) or simple quadruple
(four) are also common metres.

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Compound metre

Compound metre (or compound time), is a metre in which each beat of

the bar divides naturally into three equal parts. That is, each beat
contains a triple pulse (Latham 2002a). The top number in the time
Compound triple drum
signature will be 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24, etc..
pattern: divides each of three
Compound metres are written with a time signature that shows the beats into three  Play 
number of divisions of beats in each bar as opposed to the number of
beats. For example, compound duple (two beats, each divided into three)
6. Contrast this with the time signature 3,
is written as a time signature with a numerator of six, for example, 8 4
which also assigns six eighth notes to each measure, but by convention connotes a simple triple time: 3
quarter-note beats.

Examples of compound metre include:

6(compound duple metre) has two beats divided into three equal parts, i.e., a primary accent on the first
8
quarter note, and a subordinate accent on the fourth quarter note.
9(compound triple metre) has three beats divided into three parts, i.e., a primary accent on the first
8
quarter note, and subordinate accents on the fourth and seventh quarter notes.
12 (compound quadruple metre) has four beats divided into three equal parts, i.e., a primary accent on
8
the first quarter note, a secondary accent on the seventh quarter note, and subordinate accents on the
fourth and tenth quarter notes.
3 and 6 are not to be confused, they use bars of the same length, so it is easy to "slip" between them
Although 4 8
just by shifting the location of the accents. This interpretational switch has been exploited, for example, by
Leonard Bernstein, in the song "America":

"I like to be in A-mer-i-ca" from West Side Story  Play .

Compound metre divided into three parts could theoretically be transcribed into musically equivalent simple
metre using triplets. Likewise, simple metre can be shown in compound through duples. In practice, however,
6,
this is rarely done because it disrupts conducting patterns when the tempo changes. When conducting in 8
conductors typically provide two beats per bar; however, all six beats may be performed when the tempo is
very slow.

Compound time is associated with "lilting" and dancelike qualities. Folk dances often use compound time.
Many Baroque dances are often in compound time: some gigues, the courante, and sometimes the passepied
and the siciliana.

Metre in song
The concept of metre in music derives in large part from the poetic metre of song and includes not only the
basic rhythm of the foot, pulse-group or figure used but also the rhythmic or formal arrangement of such
figures into musical phrases (lines, couplets) and of such phrases into melodies, passages or sections (stanzas,
verses) to give what Holst (1963, 18) calls "the time pattern of any song" (See also: Form of a musical
passage).

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Traditional and popular songs may

draw heavily upon a limited range
of metres, leading to
interchangeability of melodies.
Early hymnals commonly did not
include musical notation but
simply texts that could be sung to
any tune known by the singers that
A German children's song shows a common fourfold multiplication
had a matching metre. For
of rhythmic phrases into a complete verse and melody.  Play 
example, The Blind Boys of
Alabama rendered the hymn
"Amazing Grace" to the setting of The Animals' version of the folk song "The House of the Rising Sun". This is
possible because the texts share a popular basic four-line (quatrain) verse-form called ballad metre or, in
hymnals, common metre, the four lines having a syllable-count of 8–6–8–6 (Hymns Ancient and Modern
Revised), the rhyme-scheme usually following suit: ABAB. There is generally a pause in the melody in a
cadence at the end of the shorter lines so that the underlying musical metre is 8–8–8–8 beats, the cadences
dividing this musically into two symmetrical "normal" phrases of four bars each (MacPherson 1930, 14).

In some regional music, for example Balkan music (like Bulgarian music, and the Macedonian 3+2+2+3+2
metre), a wealth of irregular or compound metres are used. Other terms for this are "additive metre" (London
2001, §I.8) and "imperfect time" (Read 1964, 147).

Metre in dance music

Metre is often essential to any style
of dance music, such as the waltz or
tango, that has instantly
Typical figures of the waltz rhythm (Scruton 1997)
recognizable patterns of beats built
upon a characteristic tempo and
2
bar. The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (1983) defines the tango, for example, as to be danced in 4
time at approximately 66 beats per minute.

The basic slow step forwards or backwards, lasting

for one beat, is called a "slow", so that a full "right–
2 bar.
left" step is equal to one 4

But step-figures such as turns, the corte and walk-

ins also require "quick" steps of half the duration,
each entire figure requiring 3–6 "slow" beats. Such figures may then be "amalgamated" to create a series of
movements that may synchronise to an entire musical section or piece. This can be thought of as an
equivalent of prosody (see also: prosody (music)).

Metre in classical music

In music of the common practice period (about 1600–1900), there are four different families of time
signature in common use:

2, 2 , 2 …
Simple duple—two or four beats to a bar, each divided by two, the top number being "2" or "4" (4 8 2

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4, 4 , 4
…). When there are four beats to a bar, it is
4 8 2
alternatively referred to as "quadruple" time.
3 )—three beats to a bar, each divided by
Simple triple (  4
two, the top number being "3" (43, 3, 3 …)
8 2
Compound duple—two beats to a bar, each divided by three,
6, 6 , 6 …)
the top number being "6" (8 16 4
Compound triple—three beats to a bar, each divided by three,
9 , 9 , 9)
the top number being "9" (8 16 4

Rhythmic analysis of the metric elaboration of one

phrase of a gavotte by J.S. Bach. Ebene (German:
level). A sequence of steps laid against the
typical rhythm of the gavotte.
Stylised folk-dances from all over
If the beat is divided into two the metre is simple, if divided into
Europe lent their characteristic
three it is compound. If each bar is divided into two it is duple and metres to the Baroque suite.
if into three it is triple. Some people also label quadruple, while
some consider it as two duples. Any other division is considered
additively, as a bar of five beats may be broken into duple+triple (12123) or triple+duple (12312) depending
on accent. However, in some music, especially at faster tempos, it may be treated as one unit of five.

Changing metre
In twentieth-century concert music, it became more common to switch metre—the end of Igor Stravinsky's
The Rite of Spring is an example. A metric modulation is a modulation from one metric unit or metre to
another. The use of asymmetrical rhythms also became more common: such metres include quintuple as well
as more complex additive metres along the lines of 2+2+3 time, where each bar has two 2-beat units and a
3-beat unit with a stress at the beginning of each unit. Similar metres are used in various folk music as well as
some music by Philip Glass. Additive metres may be conceived either as long, irregular metres or as
constantly changing short metres.

Hypermetre
Hypermetre is large-scale metre (as opposed to surface-level metre) created by hypermeasures, which
consist of hyperbeats (Stein 2005, 329). "Hypermeter is meter, with all its inherent characteristics, at the
level where bars act as beats" (Neal 2000, 115). For example, the four-bar hyperbar is the prototypical
structure for country music, in and against which country songs work (Neal 2000, 115). In some styles, two-
and four-bar hypermetres are common.

The term was coined, together with "hypermeasures", by Edward T. Cone (1968), who regarded it as applying
to a relatively small scale, conceiving of a still larger kind of gestural “rhythm” imparting a sense of “an
extended upbeat followed by its downbeat” (Berry and Van Solkema 2013, §5(vi)). London (2012, 25)

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contends that in terms of multiple and

simultaneous levels of metrical
"entrainment" (evenly spaced temporal
events "that we internalize and come to
expect", p.   9), there is no in-principle
distinction between metre and
hypermetre; instead, they are the same
phenomenon occurring at different
levels. Lee (1985) and Middleton have
described musical metre in terms of
deep structure, using generative
concepts to show how different metres ( Hypermetre: 4-beat measure, 4-bar hypermeasure, and
4, 3 , etc.) generate many different
4 4 4-hyperbar verses. Hyperbeats in red.
surface rhythms. For example, the first
phrase of The Beatles' "A Hard Day's
Night", excluding the syncopation on
"night", may be generated from its
metre of 4
4 (Middleton 1990, 211):

Opening of the third movement of Beethoven's Waldstein

sonata. The melodic lines in bars 1–4 and 5–8 are (almost)
identical, and both form hypermetric spans. The two
hyperbeats are the low Cs, in the first and fifth bars of the
example.  Play 

4 4
4 4

2
4

2 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8

It's been a hard day's night…

The syncopation may then be added, moving "night" forward one eighth note, and the first phrase is
generated (  Play ).

Polymetre
With polymetre, the bar sizes differ, but the beat remains constant. Since the beat is the same, the various
metres eventually agree. (Four bars of 47 = seven bars of 4
4). An example is the second moment, titled "Scherzo
polimetrico", of Edmund Rubbra's Second String Quartet (1951), in which a constant triplet texture holds
9,
together overlapping bars of 8 12, and 21, and barlines rarely coincide in all four instruments (Rubbra 1953,
8 8
41).

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With Polyrhythm, the number of beats varies within a fixed bar length. For example, in a 4:3 polyrhythm, one
part plays 4 3, but the
while the other plays 4 3 beats are stretched so that three beats of 3 are played in the
4 4 4
same time as four beats of 4.
4

More generally, sometimes rhythms are combined in a way that is neither tactus nor bar preserving—the beat
differs and the bar size also differs. See Polytempi.

Research into the perception of polymetre shows that listeners often either extract a composite pattern that is
fitted to a metric framework, or focus on one rhythmic stream while treating others as "noise". This is
consistent with the Gestalt psychology tenet that "the figure–ground dichotomy is fundamental to all
perception" (Boring 1942, 253; London 2004, 49–50). In the music, the two metres will meet each other after
3 metre and 4 metre will meet after 12 beats.
a specific number of beats. For example, a 4 4

In "Toads of the Short Forest" (from the album Weasels Ripped My Flesh), composer Frank Zappa explains:
"At this very moment on stage we have drummer A playing in 87 , drummer B playing in 4
3, the bass playing in 3
4
5 , the tambourine playing in 3, and the alto sax blowing his nose" (Mothers of Invention
, the organ playing in 8 4
1970). "Touch And Go", a hit single by The Cars, has polymetric verses, with the drums and bass playing in 45,
while the guitar, synthesizer, and vocals are in 4 4
4 (the choruses are entirely in 4) (Cars 1981, 15).

Polymetres are a defining characteristic of the djent subgenre of metal, first pioneered by The Swedish metal
band Meshuggah frequent use of polymetres, with unconventionally timed rhythm figures cycling over a 4
4
base (Pieslak 2007).

Examples
Polymetres—video

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Beat-preserving Beat-preserving Measure-preserving

polymetre 5 with 4 polymetre 5 with 3 3 with 4
polyrhythm 4
4 4 4 4 4

Beat-preserving Beat-preserving Beat-preserving

polymetre 2 with 3 polymetre 4 with 5 polymetre 4 7
4 8 4 8 4 with 8

Measure-preserving Measure-preserving Measure-preserving

polyrhythm 2:3 polyrhythm 4:3 polyrhythm 5:4

Various metres—sound

1. sample of how  41 metre  sounds at a tempo of 90 bpm.

2. sample of how 2 metre  sounds at a tempo of 90 bpm.
 4
3. sample of how 3 metre  sounds at a tempo of 90 bpm.
 4
4. sample of how  4
4 metre  sounds at a tempo of 90 bpm.
5. sample of how 5 metre  sounds at a tempo of 120 bpm.
 8
Various metres—video

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12at tempo of
6 at tempo of 90 bpm 9 at tempo of 90 bpm 8
8 8 90 bpm

2at a tempo of 3at a tempo of 4at a tempo of

4 4 4
60 bpm 60 bpm 60 bpm

See also
Metre (hymn)
Metre (poetry)
Triple metre
Duple and quadruple metre
Sextuple metre
Composite rhythm
Counting (music)
Hymns and hymn tunes
Hymn tune
List of musical works in unusual time signatures
Tala
Tuplet
Wazn

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