Lab Session – 1

1.1. Objective

To draw the Valve Timing Diagram of a 4-Stroke Petrol Engine.

1.2. Apparatus:
 Petrol Engine Model
 Measuring tape
 Scale
 Thread

1.3. Formula:
The formula is as follows:

𝐷 ×360°
Required Angle =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
where D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with
respect to their dead center.

1.4. Procedure:
The procedure is as follows:

1. First the TDC and the BDC of the engine are found correctly by rotating the flywheel
and the positions are marked on the flywheel.
2. Now the circumference of the flywheel is found by using the measuring tape.
3. The flywheel is rotated and the point at which the inlet valve starts opening is found
out and the position is marked on the flywheel.
4. Similarly, the position at which it closes is also found out.
5. The distances are measured by using thread with respect to their dead center and
converted into angles.
6. The same procedure is repeated for the exhaust valves also.

1
 1.5. Observations:
The observations are as follows:

Event Distance from their respective Valve opening period in

dead centers in “cm” Degrees

Inlet Valve opens 3.048 13.2º

Inlet Valve closes 9.4 80º

Exhaust Valve opens 4.572 18º

Exhaust Valve Closes 7.62 32.5º

1.6. Diagram

FIG. When inlet and exhaust valve open

its called valve overlap

2
 1.7. Comments

1) In this four stroke petrol engine, there is one thermodynamic cycle and four strokes i.e.,
TDC to BDC is half revolution of the crank shaft is 180 degrees.
2) Suction stroke is where the inlet valve opens, piston goes from TDC to BDC and the fuel
mixture is sucked in. Then the air-fuel mixture is compressed from BDC to TDC. The spark
plug fires (1000s of Volts) which is the power stroke and then there is the expansion stroke.
3) The wheel in the experiment must be rotated in such a manner that the linear motion of the
piston and opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves can be noted with accuracy.
4) The wheel must be rotated in one direction in order to observe the phenomenon and the
backlash may also vary the readings.
5) In order to make the valve timing diagram, the readings are taken with the help of a thread
and then measured by the inches tape and the distances are then converted into degrees.
6) In the real valve timing diagram inlet valve opens before the TDC and exhaust valve opens
after the BDC whereas in the ideal valve timing diagram the inlet valve opens at the TDC
and the exhaust valve closes at the BDC.
7) There are 2 major factors in the real valve timing diagram. Mechanical Factor and Dynamic
Factor. Mechanical Factor is the opening and closing of valves and the Dynamic factor is
the factor due to gasses.
8) Some of the air fuel mixture will goes back after suction as it helps the compressed gases
to give pressure to the exhaust gases to go out when exhaust valve opens.
9) The exhaust valve closes after TDC and inlet valve opens before TDC and similarly
exhaust valve open before BDC and inlet valve close after BDC. This is because of
mechanical factor and dynamic factor of the gases.
10) As the inlet valve takes time before reaching upto TDC it will opens and allow the air fuel
mixture to comes in the cylinder. Similarly the exhaust valve will open before reaching
upto BDC as the gases will go out then the piston will reach upto BDC.Then against the
exhaust valve closes after reaching upto TDC as the piston and the gases takes time for
their proper working.

3
Lab Session - 2
2.1. Objective
To draw the Valve Timing Diagram of a 4-Stroke Diesel Engine.

2.2. Apparatus
 Diesel Engine Model
 Measuring Tape
 Scale
 Thread

2.3. Formula
The formula is as follows:

𝐷 ×360°
Required Angle =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
where D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with
respect to their dead center.

2.4. Procedure
1. First the TDC and the BDC of the engine are found correctly by rotating the flywheel and
the positions are marked on the flywheel.
2. Now the circumference of the flywheel is found by using the measuring tape.
3. The flywheel is rotated and the point at which the inlet valve starts opening is found out
and the position is marked on the flywheel.
4. Similarly, the position at which it closes is also found out.
5. The distances are measured by using thread with respect to their dead center and converted
into angles.
6. The same procedure is repeated for the exhaust valves also.

2.5. Result
Thus, the valve timing diagram for the given for stroke engine is found out and is drawn

4
2.6. Observations
The observations are as follows:

Event Distance from their respective Valve opening period in

dead centers in “cm” Degrees

Inlet Valve opens 2.79 12º

Inlet Valve closes 13.46 59º

Exhaust Valve opens 4.57 20º

Exhaust Valve Closes 4.064 18º

2.7. Diagram

FIG. 2

5
2.8. Comments
1) The wheel in the experiment must be rotated in such a manner that the linear motion of the
piston and opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves can be noted with accuracy.
2) In order to make the valve timing diagram, the readings are taken with the help of a thread
and then measured by the inches tape and the distances are then converted into degrees.
3) Compression ratio of diesel engine is greater than the petrol engine therefore the size of
diesel engine is also greater than the size of petrol engine.
4) There is no carburetor in the diesel engine since it’s found in the petrol engine only. Also,
we can’t use diesel in petrol engine since it will not burn no matter what. In the diesel
engine the auto-ignition temperature of diesel is less than that of petrol.
5) The fuels do not have boiling point rather than they have flash point temperature and the
flash point temperature of diesel is greater than that of petrol.
6) In the diesel engine we use fuel injector instead of spark plug .As the air is compressed so
much in the compression stroke of the diesel engine that its auto ignition temperature is
greater than AIT of the diesel then the fuel injector inject the fuel that will be automatically
compressed.
7) The wheel must be rotated in one direction in order to observe the phenomenon and the
backlash may also vary the readings.

6
Lab Session – 3
3.1. Objective
To draw the Valve Lift Diagram of a 4-Stroke Petrol Engine.

3.2. Apparatus
 Petrol Engine Model
 Dial indicator
 Measuring Tape
 Scale
 Thread

3.3. Procedure
1. The wheel in the experiment must be rotated in such a manner that the linear motion
of the piston and opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves can be noted with
accuracy.
2. The wheel must be rotated in one direction in order to observe the phenomenon and
the backlash may also vary the readings.
3. In order to make the valve timing diagram, the readings are taken with the help of
a thread and then measured by the inches tape and the distances are then converted
into degrees.
4. First the TDC and the BDC of the engine are found correctly by rotating the
flywheel and the positions are marked on the flywheel.
5. Now the circumference of the flywheel is found by using the measuring tape.
6. The flywheel is rotated and the point at which the inlet valve starts opening is found
out and the position is marked on the flywheel.
7. Similarly, the position at which it closes is also found out.
8. The distances are measured by using thread with respect to their dead center and
converted into angles.
9. The same procedure is repeated for the exhaust valves also.
10. After that, the valve lift of the intake and the exhaust valve are found.
11. The lift of the valves is found using the dial gage/ dial indicator.
12. Place the dial gage on the desired valve while the engine is running, the lift will be
calculated by reading the valve shown in the dial gage.

7
3.4. Results
It is obvious that the maximum valve lift will take place exactly between the two events i.e,valve
opening and valve closing.
State down the values in degrees of crank rotation
Inlet valve opens(bTDC)=3/10+30*0.001
Inlet calve closes(aBDC)=3/10+24*0.001
Exhaust valve opens(bBDC)=2/10+83*0.001
Exhaust valve closes(aTDC)=2/10+79*0.001

3.5. Diagram

Valve lift diagram should be drawn with angle of the crank rotation on ‘X-axis’ and valve lift on
‘Y-axix’.

3.6. Comments
The comments are as follows:

1) The indicator must be set at its initial position that is typically the zero position if the
indicator has no error.
2) Fix the dial indicator on the cam carefully

8
 3) On the valve lift diagram the maximum value of the lift is achieved at the center as the cam
is symmetric.
4) If the size of cam is large then the value of lift would also be large. It is not necessarily
same for all engines and can be different.
5) The values of time lift must be read with extreme precaution. The method to read the dial
indicator is that first read the value on major scale then add the value on minor scale and
multiply the value on the minor scale with its least count.
6) For different positions of cam, the inlet and exhaust valves will have different values of
lift.

Lab Session - 4
4.1. Objective
To draw the Port Timing Diagram for the given 2-Stroke Engine.

4.2. Apparatus

 2-Stroke Petrol Engine Model

 Measuring Tape
 Scale
 Thread

4.3. Procedure
The procedure is as follows:
4.3.1. Fixing the dead centers

For fixing the dead center, a chalk mark is made on the piston. The flywheel is rotated. When
the chalk mark coincides with the end of the cylinder a mark is made on the flywheel and it
represents TDC.

Now the flywheel is again rotated and the position at which the piston reaches the lower most
positions is noted on flywheel and it represents the BDC.

4.3.2. Identification of ports

The port which has more area and is nearer to the TDC is the exhaust port and the other is the
inlet port.

9
4.3.3. Direction of rotation

As the port opening and closing are symmetrical about the dead center, any arbitrary direction
of rotation may be selected.

4.4. Formula
The formula is as follows:

𝐷 ×360°
Required Angle =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
where D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with
respect to their dead center.

4.5. Procedure:
1. The flywheel is turned in any arbitrary direction.
2. During the downward transverse position when it just uncovers a port, it is marked as
the opening of the port on the flywheel.
3. The rotation is further continued until the piston covers the port during its upward
travel.
4. A mark is made on the flywheel against the fixed mark. This gives the closing of the
port.
5. The same procedure is repeated for other ports also.

4.6. Results:
Thus, the port timing for the given two stroke engine is fond out and the port diagram is drawn.
4.7. Observation Table

Sr. No. Event Position Distance Angle (degrees)

w.r.t to TDC (cm)
or BDC
1 IPO Before TDC 2.5 25
2 IPC After TDC 5.5 55
3 EPO Before BDC 8.5 85
4 EPC After BDC 10.5 105

10
 5 TPO Before BDC 5.7 57
6 TPC After BDC 9.5 95

4.7. Diagram
The diagram is as follows:

FIG 3

11
4.8. Comments
1) Mark the points of TDC,BDC and the positions where the inlet and exhaust ports opens
and closes.
2) Mark the points of inlet and exhaust ports opens when they just starts to open not when
they fully opens.
3) Similarly mark the points of inlet and exhaust ports closing when they just start to close
not when they fully closed.
4) The inlet port in the 2-stroke diesel engine is made at the angle so that all the gases moves
at the angle and no gase remains in the cylinder because when some of the gases remains
in the cylinder they become cause of knocking.
5) The closing of transport port,closing of exhaust port and opening of inlet port is after BDC.
6) The opening of transport port,opening of exhaust port and closing of inlet port is before
TDC.
7) When inlet and exhaust valve open at the same time it’s called valve overlap.

12
Lab Session - 5
5.1. Objective
Introduction to Alternative Fuels and Preparation of Bio-Diesel.

5.2. Biodiesel – An Introduction

Biodiesel (mono alkyl ester) is a liquid fuel obtained from vegetable oils, animal fats and recycled
cooking oil through a chemical process known as transesterification. It can be used in compression
ignition engines as a fuel either in its pure form or as a mixture blended with diesel oil. The oils
mostly used for biodiesel production around the globe are rapeseed, canola, soybean, palm and
sunflower. Given the cost of production of biodiesel, may non-edible vegetable oils (castor oil and
cotton oil) have been under research and usage for several years.

5.2.1. Biodiesel and Diesel oil

Blends with diesel fuel are indicated as “Bx”, where ‘x’ shows the percentage of biodiesel in the
mixture. For instance, “B20” indicates a blend with 20% biodiesel and 80% other. Similarly, B100
indicates pure biodiesel.

5.2.2. Transesterification Process

Chart. (i) Basics of Transesterification Process

Raw or refined plant oil or recycled greases that have not been processed into biodiesel, are not
biodiesel and should be avoided. Research shows that plant oils or greases used in CI engines at
concentrations as low as 10% - 20% can cause long-term engine deposits, ring sticking, lube oil
gelling and other maintenance problems and can reduce engine life. These problems are caused

13
mostly by the greater viscosity or thickness of the raw oils (around 40 mm2/s) compared with that of
the diesel fuel for which the engines and injectors were designed (1.3 – 4.1 mm2/s). Through the
process of converting plant oils or greases to biodiesel by transesterification, the viscosity of the fuel
is reduced to values similar to conventional diesel fuel (biodiesel values are typically 4-5 mm2/s).

5.2.3. Why Raw Plant Oil can’t be used directly in the compression ignition
engine?

Raw or refined plant oil, or recycled greases that have not been processed into biodiesel, are not
biodiesel and should be avoided. Research shows that plant oil or greases used in compression
ignition engines at concentrations as low as 10% to 20% can cause long-term engine deposits, ring
sticking, lube oil gelling, and other maintenance problems and can reduce engine life. These problems
are caused mostly by the greater viscosity, or thickness, of the raw oils (around 40mm 2/s). Through
the process of converting plant oils or greases to biodiesel by transesterification, the viscosity of the
fuel is reduced to values similar to conventional diesel fuel (biodiesel values are typically 4 to
5mm2/s).

5.2.4. Advantages of Biodiesel

1. It is renewable form of energy.

2. Low toxicity as compared to diesel.
3. Lower emissions of contaminants; carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon, and aldehydes.
4. Less carcinogenic elements are emitted.
5. No sulfur dioxide emissions.
6. It can be used in a diesel engine without any modification if used as a B20 blend. For higher
blend or pure biodiesel.i.e. B100 a slight modification can be required.
7. It is an excellent lubricant.
8. Raw materials like using cooking oil and fat residue can easily be accessed.

5.2.5. Disadvantages of Biodiesel

1. Slightly higher fuel consumption as compared to pure diesel fuel due to less calorific value.
2. When used in pure form.i.e. B100, produces more nitrous oxide (NOx) in comparison to diesel
engine.
3. Less stable than diesel, so storage for longer periods of time can create problems.
4. B100 can degrade plastics and rubber gaskets so slight modification in engine is required to
use it.
5. Cleaning of fuel tanks prior to the filling of biodiesel must be done.

14
 6. One of the disadvantages of pure biodiesel is its higher cloud point temperature than pure
diesel.

5.3. Procedure
The steps to make the biodiesel are below

5.3.1. Step One

First make a fine powder of 3.5 grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as shown in the figure 1
Add this sodium hydroxide in the flask as shown in fig 2

FIG. (i) Sodium Hydroxide FIG. (ii) Putting NaOH in flask

5.3.2. Step Two

Add 200ml of methanol and mix it well with a mixer this solution is called lye. . A proper mixture
of lye and methanol should be formed in about two minutes. The process is shown in fig 3 and
4.fig 4 shows that the mixture is mixed well in the mixer.

15
 FIG. (iii) Add Methanol FIG. (iv) Stirring in Magnetic Stirrer

5.3.3. Step Three

Pour one liter of coconut oil in the measuring flask as shown in fig 5 and 6

FIG. (v) Measuring Coconut Oil FIG (vi) Coconut Oil a Beaker

5.3.4. Step Four

Add this coconut oil in the lye as shown in fig 7

16
 FIG (vii)

5.3.4. Step Four

The mixture should separate in two years_ biodiesel and glycerin. The top layer wil be of biodiesel
(less dense than glycerin).Allow the mixture to set for several hours so that the layers are
completely formed as shown in fig 8

FIG (viii)

17
5.4. Comments
1) The products that we will add must be free of impurities in order to get pure biodiesel.
2) All the measurements should be taken with exact measurement to obtain best results.
3) The mixing of sodium hydroxide with methanol should be proper when they mixed well
then add coconut oil.
4) The magnetic stirrer doesn’t work properly.
5) Mostly B20 biodiesel is used.
6) If we use vegetable oil more than 20% then more the carbon particles will generate and
pressure in the cylinder would increase and we have to change all the parts of the engine
for this new pressure.
7) By using the different oils different biodiesel fuels of different properties can be made.

18
 EXPERIMENT 6
Objective:
 To investigate the performance characteristics of Four Stroke Diesel Engine using Engine Test Bed.
Apparatus:
 Engine Test Bed
 Four Stroke Diesel Engine
 Diesel Oil
 Stop Watch
Theory
COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the fuel-air mixture ignites
spontaneously due to temperature of the compressed air over auto-ignition temperature. Satisfactory operation
of compression ignition engines depends on proper control of the air motion and fuel injection. The ideal
combustion system should have a high output (bmep), high efficiency, rapid combustion, a clean exhaust and
be silent.
Classes of CI Engine
There are two main classes of combustion chamber: those with direct injection (DI) into the main
chamber, (figure 14) and those with indirect injection (ID) into some form of divided chamber (figure 15). The
fuel injection system cannot be designed in isolation since satisfactory combustion depends on adequate
mixing of the fuel and air. Direct injection engines have inherently less air motion than indirect injection
engines and, to compensate, high injection pressures (up to 1500 bar and higher) are used with multiple-hole
nozzles. Even so, the speed range is more restricted than for indirect injection engines. Injection requirements
for indirect injection engines are less demanding; single-hole injectors with pressures of about 300 bars can be
used.

Figure 1 Direct injection combustion Figure 2 indirect injection combustion

chamber (Hemispherical shape) chamber with premixing chamber

Procedure:
 Fill the calibrated gauge with diesel fuel.
 Check the test bed and the engine to make sure everything is in place.
 Start the engine and set the governor level position (throttle) to 50%.
 Set the rpm at specific level and weight for engine parameters to stabilize.
 Note the values of required parameters.
 Start the stop watch and note the time for 10 mL of fuel consumption.
 Repeat the same procedure by increasing the rpm.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝜋 2
𝐺𝑠 = 𝛼𝜖 × 𝑑 √2𝜌𝑎 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) × 103
4
19
Where
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝛼 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 0.822
𝜖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. 1)
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
273𝜌𝑁 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝜙𝑃𝑠 )
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = + 𝜙𝜌𝑤
101.3(273 + 𝜃)
𝜌𝑁 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦

2. Charging Efficiency
𝐺𝑠 . 𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = × 60 × 100%
𝜌𝑜 𝑁𝑉
Where,
𝜂𝑐 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑎= 2
(2 for 4 cycle and 1 for 2 cycle)
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 25 ° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 99 𝐾𝑝𝑎)
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3)

3. Volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )

Gs ×a
ηv = ρ (%)
a ×N×V
Where,
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 θ°C, absolute pressure of 𝑃𝑎 (Kpa)and relative humidity of ∅ (kg/m^3 )

4. Air Fuel Ratio

𝐺𝑠
𝑅= × 3600 (𝑘𝑔𝑎/𝑘𝑔𝑓)
𝐹. 𝛾
Where
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ)
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙) 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

5. Excess air factor

𝑅
𝜆=
𝑅0
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
6. Fuel consumption & specific Fuel consumption
𝑏 3600
𝐹= × (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝑡 1000

20
 𝐹
𝑔= × 𝛾 × 1000 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙)
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐺 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃 𝑜 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

7. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

F .r
Gg  Gs  (kg/s)
3600
8. Energy in exhaust gas
Qg  GgCpg (tg 2  tg 1)  360 (kJ/hr.)
Where,
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.27 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑔2 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 (℃)
𝑡𝑔1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃)
Qg
g   100 (%)
Qf
𝜂𝑔 = 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 (%)
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟)
9. Loss in cooling water
𝑄𝑤 = 𝐺𝑤𝐶𝑝𝑤(𝑡𝑤2 − 𝑡𝑤1)
𝐺𝑤 = 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟)
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.19(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑤2 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)
𝑡𝑤1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)

𝑄𝑤
η𝑤 = 𝑥 100
𝑄𝑓
η𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻 × 𝐹 × 𝛾 (KJ/hr)

10. Mechanical efficiency

𝐻×𝐹×𝛾
𝐿𝑓 =
3600
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙)
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑖𝑡./ℎ𝑟)
Ɣ = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙)
𝐿𝑓 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐾𝑊)

3600−𝑃
𝜂𝑒 = × 100 (B. T. E) %
𝑄𝑓
𝑃0
𝜂𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝑓

21
𝑃0 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝐾𝑊)
11. Engine Output and Torque (T, P0)

𝑇 = 𝑊 × 𝐿 (Nm)
2×𝜋×𝑊×𝐿×𝑁𝑝
𝑃= (KW)
60×1000

Observations and Calculations:

Parameters Value Unit
Nozzle diameter 51 mm
Density of air 1.2 kg/m^3
Bore 89 mm
Stroke 92 mm
Swept Volume 2289 ml
Calorific Value 44 MJ/kg
C ratio 21.9 1
Torque arm 0.2865 m
Density of diesel 889 kg/m^3
Fuel specific weight 0.85 g/ml
Atm. Pressure 100.92 kPa
Engine model TD23
Max. output Power 44.13 kW
Max speed 3600 RPM
No. of cycles 4
No. of cylinders 4
Dynamo model EWS-150-L
Load cell 98.7 N
Table 1 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

22
 Observations:
Coolin Cooling Cooling
Item Governor Dynamo- Suction Suction Suction Lube. Lube
Engine FC FC Ex. Gas Ex. Gas g Water Water
Mark Level meter Air Air Air Diff. FC Oil oil
Speed Time Rate Pressure Temp Water Temp. Temp.
unit position load Temp. Pressure Pressure Pressure Temp.
Flow Inlet Outlet
THN W N tg1 Pa P1-P2 b t F Pg tg2 Gw tw1 tw2 Pl tl
% N RPM C kPa Pa ml s lt./hr. Pa C Lt./hr. C C MPa C
1 50 424 1010 22.7 101 100 30 23 4.70 500 427 200 29.9 67.8 0.35 24
2 50 429 1153 23.3 101 80 30 21.5 5.02 600 455 200 30 77 0.35 24
3 50 435 1250 23.95 101 80 30 18.25 5.93 600 451.5 200 30.1 76.65 0.35 25
4 50 430 1400 24 101 100 30 16.28 6.63 700 434 200 28.3 35.9 0.6 26
5 50 445 1500 23.9 101 100 30 15 7.20 700 493 200 28.4 66.3 0.5 22
6 50 439 1550 21.3 101 80 30 14.85 7.27 800 494 200 28.9 53.6 0.55 65
7 50 440 1600 23.7 101 100 30 14.5 7.45 800 570 200 28.6 67.9 0.5 24
8 50 438 1700 22.7 101 100 30 14.5 7.45 800 547 200 28.7 69.8 0.5 25
9 50 440 1800 23.6 101 210 30 12.95 8.34 800 536 200 30.5 64.2 0.55 68
10 50 430 1900 24.4 101 290 80 32.48 8.87 900 520 200 30.4 56.7 0.58 64
Table 2 Engine Operating Parameter
Item Suction Flow Shaft Brake
Volumetric Charging Air/Fuel Excess Air
Mark Air Sp. rate of Torque Power SFC thermal
unit efficiency efficiency ratio Factor
Wt. air output efficiency
ρa Gs Ηv ηc T P R ʎ Sfc ηe
Kg-a/kg-
kg/m3 kg/s %age %age Nm KW f g/KWh %age
1 1.17 0.03 1.14 114.87 121.48 12.85 22.34 1.54 321.62 25.44
2 1.16 0.02 0.89 89.89 122.91 14.84 18.65 1.29 297.87 27.47
3 1.16 0.02 0.83 82.79 124.63 16.31 15.78 1.09 319.76 25.59
4 1.16 0.03 0.83 82.63 123.20 18.06 15.76 1.09 323.22 25.31
5 1.16 0.03 0.77 77.14 127.49 20.03 14.53 1.00 316.38 25.86
6 1.17 0.02 0.66 67.17 125.77 20.42 12.94 0.89 313.49 26.10
7 1.16 0.03 0.72 72.35 126.06 21.12 14.05 0.97 310.32 26.37
8 1.17 0.03 0.68 68.25 125.49 22.34 14.08 0.97 293.40 27.89

23
9 1.16 0.04 0.93 93.15 126.06 23.76 18.17 1.25 308.86 26.49
10 1.16 0.04 1.04 103.46 123.20 24.51 20.04 1.38 318.33 25.70
Table 3 Engine performance Indicators

24
Specimen Calculations
Performing calculations for N = rpm
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑔1 = 22.7 𝐶
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0ᴼ𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 100 𝑝𝑎
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 =

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 =

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.03 kg/s

2. Charging efficiency
𝑎=2
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝜌𝑜 =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 𝑁 = 1010 RPM
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3) = 𝑉 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠) = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.03 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑐 = 114.87%

3. Volumetric efficiency
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑣 = 1.14%
4. Air/Fuel ratio
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.70 lt./hr
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾 =
𝑎
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅 = 22.34 𝐾𝑔 − −𝑓
𝑘𝑔
5. Excess air factor
𝜆 = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.54

6. Engine Output and Torque (T, Po)

𝑇 = 121.48 Nm

𝑃 = 122.91 𝑁𝑚

7. Fuel consumption and specific Fuel consumption

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙) = 𝑏 = 30 ml
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡 = 23 𝑠
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑜 = 20.41 𝐾𝑊

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.70 𝑙𝑡./ℎ𝑟

25
8. Mechanical efficiency
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻 = 44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.70 𝑙𝑡./ℎ𝑟

B. T. E = 𝜂𝑒 = 25.44%

26
Graphs:
BP vs RPM
25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

Torque vs RPM
129
128.5
128
127.5
127
126.5
126
125.5
125
124.5
124
123.5
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

27
 SFC vs RPM
0.325

0.32

0.315

0.31

0.305

0.3

0.295

0.29

0.285
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

Efficiency vs RPM
28.5

28

27.5

27

26.5

26

25.5

25
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

28
 N vs T
Suction Air temperature Exhaust gas temperature
Cooling water inlet temperature Cooling water outlet temperature
Lube oil temperature
600

500

400
Axis Title

300

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Axis Title

Comments:
1. As noted earlier, diesel engines are designed to operate on either the two- or four-stroke cycle. In the
typical four-stroke-cycle engine, the intake and exhaust valves and the fuel-injection nozzle are
located in the cylinder head Often, dual valve arrangements—two intake and two exhaust valves—are
employed.
2. Use of the two-stroke cycle can eliminate the need for one or both valves in the engine design.
Scavenging and intake air is usually provided through ports in the cylinder liner. Exhaust can be either
through valves located in the cylinder head or through ports in the cylinder liner. Engine construction
is simplified when using a port design instead of one requiring exhaust valves.

29
 EXPERIMENT 7
Objective:
 To draw the heat balance sheet of Four Stroke Diesel Engine using Engine Test Bed.
Apparatus:
 Engine Test Bed
 Four Stroke Diesel Engine
 Diesel Oil
 Stop Watch
Procedure:
 Fill the calibrated gauge with diesel fuel.
 Check the test bed and the engine to make sure everything is in place.
 Start the engine and set the governor level position (throttle) to 50%.
 Set the rpm at specific level and weight for engine parameters to stabilize.
 Note the values of required parameters.
 Start the stop watch and note the time for 10 mL of fuel consumption.
 Repeat the same procedure by increasing the rpm.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝜋 2
𝐺𝑠 = 𝛼𝜖 × 𝑑 √2𝜌𝑎 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) × 103
4
Where
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝛼 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 0.822
𝜖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. 1)
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
273𝜌𝑁 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝜙𝑃𝑠 )
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = + 𝜙𝜌𝑤
101.3(273 + 𝜃)
𝜌𝑁 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦

2. Charging Efficiency
𝐺𝑠 . 𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = × 60 × 100%
𝜌𝑜 𝑁𝑉
Where,
𝜂𝑐 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑎= 2
(2 for 4 cycle and 1 for 2 cycle)
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 25 ° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 99 𝐾𝑝𝑎)
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)

30
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3)

3. Volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )

Gs ×a
ηv = ρ (%)
a ×N×V
Where,
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 θ°C, absolute pressure of 𝑃𝑎 (Kpa)and relative humidity of ∅ (kg/m^3 )

4. Air Fuel Ratio

𝐺𝑠
𝑅= × 3600 (𝑘𝑔𝑎/𝑘𝑔𝑓)
𝐹. 𝛾
Where
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ)
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙) 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

5. Excess air factor

𝑅
𝜆=
𝑅0
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
6. Fuel consumption & specific Fuel consumption
𝑏 3600
𝐹= × (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝑡 1000
𝐹
𝑔 = × 𝛾 × 1000 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙)
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐺 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃 𝑜 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

7. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

F .r
Gg  Gs  (kg/s)
3600
8. Energy in exhaust gas
Qg  GgCpg (tg 2  tg 1)  360 (kJ/hr.)
Where,
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.27 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑔2 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 (℃)
𝑡𝑔1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃)
Qg
g   100 (%)
Qf
𝜂𝑔 = 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 (%)
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟)
9. Loss in cooling water
𝑄𝑤 = 𝐺𝑤𝐶𝑝𝑤(𝑡𝑤2 − 𝑡𝑤1)
𝐺𝑤 = 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟)

31
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.19(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑤2 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)
𝑡𝑤1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)

𝑄𝑤
η𝑤 = 𝑥 100
𝑄𝑓
η𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻 × 𝐹 × 𝛾 (KJ/hr)
10. Mechanical efficiency

𝐻×𝐹×𝛾
𝐿𝑓 =
3600
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙)
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑖𝑡./ℎ𝑟)
Ɣ = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙)
𝐿𝑓 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐾𝑊)

3600−𝑃
𝜂𝑒 = × 100 (B. T. E) %
𝑄𝑓
𝑃0
𝜂𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝑓
𝑃0 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝐾𝑊)
11. Engine Output and Torque (T, P0)

𝑇 = 𝑊 × 𝐿 (Nm)
2×𝜋×𝑊×𝐿×𝑁𝑝
𝑃= (KW)
60×1000

Observations and Calculations:

Parameters Value Unit Parameters Value Unit
Nozzle diameter 51 mm Atm. pressure 100.92 kPa
Density of air 1.2 kg/m^3 Engine model TD23
Bore 89 mm Max. output Power 44.13 kW
Stroke 92 mm Max speed 3600 RPM
Swept Volume 2289 ml No. of cycles 4
Calorific Value 44 MJ/kg No. of cylinders 4
C ratio 21.9 1 Dynamo model EWS-150-L
Torque arm 0.2865 m Load cell 98.7 N
Density of diesel 889 kg/m^3
Table 4 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

32
 Observations:
Coolin Cooling Cooling
Item Governor Dynamo- Suction Suction Suction Lube. Lube
Engine FC FC Ex. Gas Ex. Gas g Water Water
Mark Level meter Air Air Air Diff. FC Oil oil
Speed Time Rate Pressure Temp Water Temp. Temp.
unit position load Temp. Pressure Pressure Pressure Temp.
Flow Inlet Outlet
THN W N tg1 Pa P1-P2 b t F Pg tg2 Gw tw1 tw2 Pl tl
% N RPM C kPa Pa ml s lt./hr. Pa C Lt./hr. C C MPa C
1 50 424 1010 22.7 101 100 30 23 4.70 500 427 200 29.9 67.8 0.35 24
2 50 429 1153 23.3 101 80 30 21.5 5.02 600 455 200 30 77 0.35 24
3 50 435 1250 23.95 101 80 30 18.25 5.93 600 451.5 200 30.1 76.65 0.35 25
4 50 430 1400 24 101 100 30 16.28 6.63 700 434 200 28.3 35.9 0.6 26
5 50 445 1500 23.9 101 100 30 15 7.20 700 493 200 28.4 66.3 0.5 22
6 50 439 1550 21.3 101 80 30 14.85 7.27 800 494 200 28.9 53.6 0.55 65
7 50 440 1600 23.7 101 100 30 14.5 7.45 800 570 200 28.6 67.9 0.5 24
8 50 438 1700 22.7 101 100 30 14.5 7.45 800 547 200 28.7 69.8 0.5 25
9 50 440 1800 23.6 101 210 30 12.95 8.34 800 536 200 30.5 64.2 0.55 68
10 50 430 1900 24.4 101 290 80 32.48 8.87 900 520 200 30.4 56.7 0.58 64
Table 5 Engine Operating Parameter
Item Suction Flow Shaft Brake
Volumetric Charging Air/Fuel Excess Air
Mark Air Sp. rate of Torque Power SFC thermal
unit efficiency efficiency ratio Factor
Wt. air output efficiency
ρa Gs Ηv ηc T P R ʎ Sfc ηe
Kg-a/kg-
kg/m3 kg/s %age %age Nm KW f g/KWh %age
1 1.17 0.03 1.14 114.87 121.48 12.85 22.34 1.54 321.62 25.44
2 1.16 0.02 0.89 89.89 122.91 14.84 18.65 1.29 297.87 27.47
3 1.16 0.02 0.83 82.79 124.63 16.31 15.78 1.09 319.76 25.59
4 1.16 0.03 0.83 82.63 123.20 18.06 15.76 1.09 323.22 25.31
1
0.03 0.77 77.14 127.49 20.03 14.53 1.00 316.38 25.86
5 .16
6 1.17 0.02 0.66 67.17 125.77 20.42 12.94 0.89 313.49 26.10
7 1.16 0.03 0.72 72.35 126.06 21.12 14.05 0.97 310.32 26.37

33
 8 1.17 0.03 0.68 68.25 125.49 22.34 14.08 0.97 293.40 27.89
9 1.16 0.04 0.93 93.15 126.06 23.76 18.17 1.25 308.86 26.49
10 1.16 0.04 1.04 103.46 123.20 24.51 20.04 1.38 318.33 25.70
Table 6 Engine performance Indicators

Item FC horse Weight Energy Heat Loss Brake Heat Loss Heat Loss
Mark FC Heat power rate of in in cooling thermal in in cooling Frictional
unit SFC equivalent equivalent exhaust Exhaust water efficiency Exhaust water losses
g Qf Lf Gg Qg Qw ηe ηg ηw ηf
g/KWh kj/hr KW kg/s kj/hr Kj/hr
1 321.62 181815.7 50.50 0.027 2.924 31760.20 25.440 0.002 17.468 57.090
2 297.87 194500.5 54.03 0.024 2.813 39386.00 27.468 0.001 20.250 52.281
3 319.76 229525.2 63.76 0.024 2.807 39008.90 25.587 0.001 16.995 57.416
4 323.22 256864.9 71.35 0.027 3.009 6368.80 25.313 0.001 2.479 72.206
5 316.38 278784.0 77.44 0.027 3.461 31760.20 25.861 0.001 11.392 62.746
6 313.49 281600.0 78.22 0.025 3.163 20698.60 26.099 0.001 7.350 66.550
7 310.32 288397.2 80.11 0.027 4.041 32933.40 26.366 0.001 11.419 62.214
8 293.40 288397.2 80.11 0.027 3.887 34441.80 27.886 0.001 11.942 60.170
9 308.86 322915.8 89.70 0.039 5.408 28240.60 26.491 0.002 8.745 64.762
10 318.33 343330.0 95.37 0.046 6.102 22039.40 25.702 0.002 6.419 67.877
Table 7 Engine Energy balance

34
Specimen Calculations
Performing calculations for N = 1010 rpm
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑔1 = 22.7 𝐶
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0ᴼ𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 100 𝑝𝑎
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 =

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 = 1.17 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.03 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

2. Charging efficiency
𝑎=2
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝜌𝑜 =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 𝑁 = 1010 𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3) = 𝑉 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠) = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.03 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑐 = 114.87%

3. Volumetric efficiency
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑣 = 25.44%
4. Air/Fuel ratio
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾 =

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅 = 22.34

5. Excess air factor
𝜆 = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.54

6. Engine Output and Torque (T, Po)

𝑇 = 121.48 𝑁𝑚

𝑃 = 12.85𝐾𝑊

7. Fuel consumption and specific Fuel consumption

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙) = 𝑏 = 30 𝑚𝑙
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡 = 23 𝑠
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑜 = 20.41 𝐾𝑊

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.70 𝑙𝑡./ℎ𝑟

𝑔 = 𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 321.62 KW/h
8. Mechanical efficiency

35
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻 = 44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.70 lt./hr
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = Ɣ =

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑓 = 181815.7

ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿𝑓 = 50.50

B. T. E = 𝜂𝑒 = 25.44%

9. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

𝐺𝑔 = 𝐸𝑥. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.020 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

10. Heat equivalent of fuel consumption and Energy in exhaust gas

𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑡𝑔2 = 427 𝐶
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃) = 𝑡𝑔1 = 22.7 𝐶

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔 = 2.924 kj/hr

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = η𝑔 = 0.002

11. Loss in cooling water

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺𝑤 = 200

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑤2 = 67.8
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑤1 = 29.9

𝜂𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 17.468

36
Heat Balance Charts

Heat Balance Sheet at RPM=1153 Heat Balance Sheet at RPM=1010

Heat Converted to Work Heat Converted to Work

Heat Energy lost in Water Heat Energy lost in Water
Heat energy out by Exhaust Heat energy out by Exhaust
Heat energy lost in friction and Lubricatio Heat energy lost in friction and Lubricatio

Heat Balance Sheet at RPM=1254 RPM Heat Balance Sheet at RPM=1244 RPM

Heat Converted to Work Heat Converted to Work

Heat Energy lost in Water Heat Energy lost in Water
Heat energy out by Exhaust Heat energy out by Exhaust
Heat energy lost in friction and Lubricatio Heat energy lost in friction and Lubricatio

37
 Comments:

1. As noted earlier, diesel engines are designed to operate on either the two- or four-stroke cycle. In the typical four-stroke-
cycle engine, the intake and exhaust valves and the fuel-injection nozzle are located in the cylinder head Often, dual valve
arrangements—two intake and two exhaust valves—are employed.
2. Use of the two-stroke cycle can eliminate the need for one or both valves in the engine design. Scavenging and intake air is
usually provided through ports in the cylinder liner. Exhaust can be either through valves located in the cylinder head or
through ports in the cylinder liner. Engine construction is simplified when using a port design instead of one requiring
exhaust valves.

38
 EXPERIMENT 8
Objective:
 To investigate the performance characteristics of Four Stroke Petrol Engine using Engine Test Bed.
Apparatus:
 Engine Test Bed
 Four Stroke Petrol Engine
 Gasoline Fuel
 Stop Watch
Theory
SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
In SI engine, either carburetor is used for fuel-air mixture preparation or fuel is directly injected into the air
stream either in the inlet manifold or combustion chamber. The combustion is initiated by the spark plugs
mounted to the combustion chamber and their number can vary from one to many depending upon engine
design. The air/fuel mixture has to be close to stoichiometric for satisfactory spark ignition and flame
propagation. The equivalence ratio or mixture strength of the air/fuel mixture also affects pollutant emissions
and influences the susceptibility to spontaneous self-ignition.

Procedure:
 Fill the calibrated gauge with Gasoline fuel.
 Check the test bed and the engine to make sure everything is in place.
 Start the engine and set the governor level position (throttle) to 25%.
 Set the rpm at specific level and weight for engine parameters to stabilize.
 Note the values of required parameters.
 Start the stop watch and note the time for 10 mL of fuel consumption.
 Repeat the same procedure by increasing the rpm.
Calculation Procedure:
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝜋 2
𝐺𝑠 = 𝛼𝜖 × 𝑑 √2𝜌𝑎 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) × 103
4
Where
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝛼 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 0.822
𝜖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. 1)
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
273𝜌𝑁 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝜙𝑃𝑠 )
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = + 𝜙𝜌𝑤
101.3(273 + 𝜃)
𝜌𝑁 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦

39
 2. Charging Efficiency
𝐺𝑠 . 𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = × 60 × 100%
𝜌𝑜 𝑁𝑉
Where,
𝜂𝑐 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑎= (2 for 4 cycle and 1 for 2 cycle)
2
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 25 ° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 99 𝐾𝑝𝑎)
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3)

3. Volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )

Gs ×a
ηv = ρ (%)
a ×N×V
Where,
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 θ°C, absolute pressure of 𝑃𝑎 (Kpa)and relative humidity of ∅ (kg/m^3 )

4. Air Fuel Ratio

𝐺𝑠
𝑅= × 3600 (𝑘𝑔𝑎/𝑘𝑔𝑓)
𝐹. 𝛾
Where
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ)
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙) 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

5. Excess air factor

𝑅
𝜆=
𝑅0
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
6. Fuel consumption & specific Fuel consumption
𝑏 3600
𝐹= × (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝑡 1000
𝐹
𝑔 = × 𝛾 × 1000 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙)
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐺 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃 𝑜 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

7. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

F .r
Gg  Gs  (kg/s)
3600
8. Energy in exhaust gas
Qg  GgCpg (tg 2  tg 1)  360 (kJ/hr.)
Where,
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.27 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑔2 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 (℃)

40
𝑡𝑔1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃)
Qg
g   100 (%)
Qf
𝜂𝑔 = 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 (%)
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟)
9. Loss in cooling water
𝑄𝑤 = 𝐺𝑤𝐶𝑝𝑤(𝑡𝑤2 − 𝑡𝑤1)
𝐺𝑤 = 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟)
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.19(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑤2 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)
𝑡𝑤1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)

𝑄𝑤
η𝑤 = 𝑥 100
𝑄𝑓
η𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻 × 𝐹 × 𝛾 (KJ/hr)
10. Mechanical efficiency

𝐻×𝐹×𝛾
𝐿𝑓 =
3600
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙)
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑖𝑡./ℎ𝑟)
Ɣ = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙)
𝐿𝑓 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐾𝑊)
3600∗𝑃
𝜂𝑒 = × 100 (B. T. E) %
𝑄𝑓
𝑃0
𝜂𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝑓
𝑃0 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝐾𝑊)
11. Engine Output and Torque (T, P0)

𝑇 = 𝑊 × 𝐿 (Nm)
2×𝜋×𝑊×𝐿×𝑁𝑝
𝑃= (KW)
60×1000

Observations and Calculations:

Parameters Value Unit Parameters Value Unit
Nozzle diameter 48 mm Atm. pressure 100.92 kPa
Density of air 1.2 kg/m^3 Engine model A15
Bore 76 mm Max. output Power 54.43 kW

41
Stroke 82 mm Max speed 5600 RPM
Swept Volume 1487 ml No. of cycles 4
Calorific Value 46.05 MJ/kg No. of cylinders 4
Compression ratio 9 Dynamo model EWS-150-L
Torque arm 0.2865 m Load cell 980.7 N
Density of Petrol 750 kg/m^3
Table 8 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

42
Observations:
Suction Coolin Coolin
Item Suction Ex. Coolin Lube. Lube
Governo Dynamo Engin Suctio Air Ex. Gas g g
Mar Air FC FC Gas g Oil oil
r Level -meter e n Air Diff. FC Pressur Water Water
k Pressur Time Rate Tem Water Pressur Temp
position load Speed Temp. Pressur e Temp. Temp.
unit e p Flow e .
e Inlet Outlet
THN W N tg1 Pa P1-P2 b t F Pg tg2 Gw tw1 tw2 Pl tl
lt./hr
% N RPM C kPa Pa Lt. Hr. . Pa C Lt./hr. C C MPa C
0.0 0.00626
25 111 1452 21.1 101.325 38 4.79 44 200 30.12 45.2 0.38 41
1 3 8 500
0.0 0.00604
25 107 1504 21.4 101.325 40 4.97 46 200 30.04 44.4 0.37 41
2 3 2 500
0.0 0.00564
25 101 1611 21.6 101.325 40 5.31 51 200 30.1 47.4 0.375 41.7
3 3 4 500
0.0 0.00543
25 93 1695 20.1 101.325 40 5.52 51 200 29.6 42.2 0.376 28
4 3 3 500
0.0 0.00523
25 94 1744 21.3 101.325 40 5.73 63 200 29.9 66.5 0.38 44
5 3 3 500
0.0
26 85 1797 21.2 101.325 41 0.00523 5.74 57 200 29.8 48.3 0.38 41
6 3 500
0.0
26 75 1846 20.6 101.325 40 0.0051 5.88 60 200 29.6 53.5 0.39 33
7 3 500
Table 9 Engine Operating Parameter

Item Suction Flow Volumetric Charging Torque Shaft Air/Fuel Excess Air SFC Brake
Mark Air Sp. rate of efficiency efficiency Power ratio Factor thermal
unit Wt. air output efficiency
ρa Gs Ηv ηc T P R ʎ Sfc ηe
kg/m3 kg/s %age %age Nm KW Kg-a/kg- g/KWh %age
f
1 1.20 0.02 0.74 76.76 31.80 4.84 16.05 1.09 742.35 10.53
2 1.19 0.02 0.74 75.99 30.66 4.83 15.86 1.08 771.27 10.14
3 1.19 0.02 0.69 70.92 28.94 4.88 14.81 1.01 816.57 9.57
4 1.20 0.02 0.65 67.59 26.64 4.73 14.29 0.97 875.66 8.93
5 1.19 0.02 0.64 65.54 26.93 4.92 13.74 0.93 874.19 8.94
6 1.19 0.02 0.62 64.41 24.35 4.58 13.90 0.95 938.77 8.33
43
7 1.20 0.02 0.60 62.00 21.49 4.15 13.41 0.91 1062.10 7.36
Table 10 Engine performance Indicators

44
Specimen Calculations
Performing calculations for N = 1452 rpm
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑔1 = 21.1 𝐶
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0ᴼ𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 38 𝑝𝑎
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 =

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 = 1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

2. Charging efficiency
𝑎=2
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝜌𝑜 =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 𝑁 = 1452 𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3) = 𝑉 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠) = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑐 = 76.76%

3. Volumetric efficiency
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑣 = 0.74
4. Air/Fuel ratio

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅 = 16.05

5. Excess air factor
𝜆 = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.09

6. Engine Output and Torque (T, Po)

𝑇 = 31.80

𝑃 = 4.84

7. Fuel consumption and specific Fuel consumption

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙) = 𝑏 = 0.03
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡 = 0.006268
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑜 = 20.41 𝐾𝑊

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.79

𝑔 = 𝑠𝑓𝑐 =
8. Mechanical efficiency
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻 = 44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.79

45
B. T. E = 𝜂𝑒 = 10.53

46
Graphs:
RPM vs Torque RPM vs Brake power
128 30
127
25
126
125
20
124
123 15
122
10
121
120 5
119
118 0
1010 1153 1244 1250 1400 1500 1550 1600 1700 1800 1900 1010 1153 1244 1250 1400

RPM vs Torque RPM vs Brake power

RPM vs BSFC RPM vs Brake Thermal Efficiency

450 45
400 40
350 35
300 30
250 25
200 20
150 15
100 10
50 5
0 0
1010 1153 1244 1250 1400 1500 1550 1600 1700 1800 1900 1010 1153 1244 1250 1400 1500 1550 1600 1700 1800 1900

RPM vs BSFC RPM vs Brake Thermal Efficiency

47
90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1010 1153 1244 1250 1400 1500 1550 1600 1700 1800 1900

RPM vs Suction air temperature

RPM vs Inlet water temperature
RPM vs Lube oil temperature
RPM vs Cooling water temperature out

48
 RPM vs Exhaust gas temperture
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1010 1153 1244 1250 1400 1500 1550 1600 1700 1800 1900

Comments:

1. The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum amount of air ingested.
The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size (cylinder volume), whether it is a two-
stroke or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency, losses, air-to-fuel ratio, the calorific value of the fuel, oxygen
content of the air and speed (RPM). The speed is ultimately limited by material strength and lubrication. Valves,
pistons and connecting rodssuffer severe acceleration forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston
ring flutter can occur, resulting in power loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs when the rings
oscillate vertically within the piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter compromises the seal between the ring
and the cylinder wall, which causes a loss of cylinder pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve
springs cannot act quickly enough to close the valves. This is commonly referred to as 'valve float', and it can
result in piston to valve contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder
wall interface tends to break down. This limits the piston speed for industrial engines to about 10 m/s.
2. The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and exhaust matter to
move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head. To increase an engine's output power,
irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as casting flaws, can be removed, and, with the aid of an air
flow bench, the radii of valve port turns and valve seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This
process is called porting, and it can be done by hand or with a CNC machine.
3. One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be produced from
each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known as a supercharger, which
can be powered by the engine crankshaft.

49
4. Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement.
Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or
run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that
some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust,
as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only
expanded in one stage.
5. A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. It consists
of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses the intake air, and the other side that
is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
6. When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small exhaust volume,
the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally aspirated manner. When much
more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are
sufficient to 'spin up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the intake
manifold.
7. Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that would
otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag. The increased engine power is
not immediately available due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up
the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes increased
exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty
is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the mechanical parts of
the engine.
8. Rod and piston-to-stroke ratio
9. The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the piston stroke. A longer
rod reduces sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the stress forces, increasing engine life. It
also increases the cost and engine height and weight.
10. A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where the bore diameter
is larger than its stroke length is an over-square engine, conversely, an engine with a bore diameter that is smaller
than its stroke length is an under-square engine.
11. The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft. It has a series
of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part of an intake or exhaust stroke.
A tappet between valve and cam is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines
use one or more camshafts “above” a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in which each cam
directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which
case each cam contacts a push rod, which contacts a rocker arm that opens a valve. The overhead cam design
typically allows higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam and valve.
12. Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that the valve
completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment, excessive clearance causes noise from the
valve train. A too small valve clearance can result in the valves not closing properly, this results in a loss of
performance and possibly overheating of exhaust valves. Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000
miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.
13. Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve train component
wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.
14. Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30% of the energy generated by combustion is converted
into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine, while the remainder being losses due to waste heat,
friction and engine accessories. There are a number of ways to recover some of the energy lost to waste heat.
The use of a Turbocharger in Diesel engines is very effective by boosting incoming air pressure and in effect
provides the same increase in performance as having more displacement. The Mack Truck company, decades
ago, developed a turbine system that converted waste heat into kinetic energy that it fed back into the engine's
transmission. In 2005, BMW announced the development of the turbo-steamer, a two stage heat recovery system
similar to the Mack system that recovers 80% of the energy in the exhaust gas and raises the efficiency of an
Otto engine by 15%. By contrast, a six-stroke engine may reduce fuel consumption by as much as 40%

50
 EXPERIMENT 9
Objective:
 To draw the heat balance sheet of Four Stroke Petrol Engine using Engine Test Bed.
Apparatus:
 Engine Test Bed
 Four Stroke Petrol Engine
 Gasoline Fuel
 Stop Watch
Procedure:
 Fill the calibrated gauge with Gasoline fuel.
 Check the test bed and the engine to make sure everything is in place.
 Start the engine and set the governor level position (throttle) to 25%.
 Set the rpm at specific level and weight for engine parameters to stabilize.
 Note the values of required parameters.
 Start the stop watch and note the time for 10 mL of fuel consumption.
 Repeat the same procedure by increasing the rpm.
Calculation Procedure:
12. Weight Flow rate of air
𝜋 2
𝐺𝑠 = 𝛼𝜖 × 𝑑 √2𝜌𝑎 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) × 103
4
Where
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝛼 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 0.822
𝜖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒. 1)
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
273𝜌𝑁 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝜙𝑃𝑠 )
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = + 𝜙𝜌𝑤
101.3(273 + 𝜃)
𝜌𝑁 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 °𝐶
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦

13. Charging Efficiency

𝐺𝑠 . 𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = × 60 × 100%
𝜌𝑜 𝑁𝑉
Where,
𝜂𝑐 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑎= 2
(2 for 4 cycle and 1 for 2 cycle)
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝐾𝑔/𝑠)
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 25 ° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 99 𝐾𝑝𝑎)
𝑁 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)

51
𝑉 = 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3)

14. Volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗 )

Gs ×a
ηv = ρ (%)
a ×N×V
Where,
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 θ°C, absolute pressure of 𝑃𝑎 (Kpa)and relative humidity of ∅ (kg/m^3 )

15. Air Fuel Ratio

𝐺𝑠
𝑅= × 3600 (𝑘𝑔𝑎/𝑘𝑔𝑓)
𝐹. 𝛾
Where
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ)
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙) 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

16. Excess air factor

𝑅
𝜆=
𝑅0
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
17. Fuel consumption & specific Fuel consumption
𝑏 3600
𝐹= × (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝑡 1000
𝐹
𝑔 = × 𝛾 × 1000 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙/ℎ𝑟)
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙)
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝐺 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝑃 𝑜 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

18. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

F .r
Gg  Gs  (kg/s)
3600
19. Energy in exhaust gas
Qg  GgCpg (tg 2  tg 1)  360 (kJ/hr.)
Where,
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.27 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑔2 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 (℃)
𝑡𝑔1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃)
Qg
g   100 (%)
Qf
𝜂𝑔 = 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 (%)
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟)
20. Loss in cooling water
𝑄𝑤 = 𝐺𝑤𝐶𝑝𝑤(𝑡𝑤2 − 𝑡𝑤1)
𝐺𝑤 = 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟)

52
𝐶𝑝𝑤 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.19(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
𝑡𝑤2 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)
𝑡𝑤1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (℃)

𝑄𝑤
η𝑤 = 𝑥 100
𝑄𝑓
η𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐻 × 𝐹 × 𝛾 (KJ/hr)
21. Mechanical efficiency

𝐻×𝐹×𝛾
𝐿𝑓 =
3600
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙)
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑖𝑡./ℎ𝑟)
Ɣ = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑔/𝑚𝑙)
𝐿𝑓 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐾𝑊)

3600∗𝑃
𝜂𝑒 = × 100 (B. T. E) %
𝑄𝑓
𝑃0
𝜂𝑒 = × 100
𝐿𝑓
𝑃0 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝐾𝑊)
22. Engine Output and Torque (T, P0)

𝑇 = 𝑊 × 𝐿 (Nm)
2×𝜋×𝑊×𝐿×𝑁𝑝
𝑃= (KW)
60×1000

Observations and Calculations:

Parameters Value Unit Parameters Value Unit
Nozzle diameter 48 mm Atm. pressure 100.92 kPa
Density of air 1.2 kg/m^3 Engine model A15
Bore 76 mm Max. output Power 54.43 kW
Stroke 82 mm Max speed 5600 RPM
Swept Volume 1487 ml No. of cycles 4
Calorific Value 46.05 MJ/kg No. of cylinders 4
Compression ratio 9 Dynamo model EWS-150-L
Torque arm 0.2865 m Load cell 980.7 N
Density of Petrol 750 kg/m^3
Table 11 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

53
Observations:
Cooling Cooling
Item Governor Dynamo- Suction Suction Suction Ex. Cooling Lube. Lube
Engine FC Ex. Gas Water Water
Mark Level meter Air Air Air Diff. FC FC Time Gas Water Oil oil
Speed Rate Pressure Temp. Temp.
unit position load Temp. Pressure Pressure Temp Flow Pressure Temp.
Inlet Outlet
THN W N tg1 Pa P1-P2 b t F Pg tg2 Gw tw1 tw2 Pl tl
% N RPM C kPa Pa Lt. Hr. lt./hr. Pa C Lt./hr. C C MPa C
1 25 111 1452 21.1 101.325 38 0.03 0.006268 4.79 500 44 200 30.12 45.2 0.38 41

2 25 107 1504 21.4 101.325 40 0.03 0.006042 4.97 500 46 200 30.04 44.4 0.37 41
3 25 101 1611 21.6 101.325 40 0.03 0.005644 5.31 500 51 200 30.1 47.4 0.375 41.7
4 25 93 1695 20.1 101.325 40 0.03 0.005433 5.52 500 51 200 29.6 42.2 0.376 28

5 25 94 1744 21.3 101.325 40 0.03 0.005233 5.73 500 63 200 29.9 66.5 0.38 44

6 26 85 1797 21.2 101.325 41 0.03 0.00523 5.74 500 57 200 29.8 48.3 0.38 41

7 26 75 1846 20.6 101.325 40 0.03 0.0051 5.88 500 60 200 29.6 53.5 0.39 33
Table 12 Engine Operating Parameter

Item Suction Air Flow rate Volumetric Charging Torque Shaft Power Air/Fuel Excess Air SFC Brake
Mark Sp. Wt. of air efficiency efficiency output ratio Factor thermal
unit efficiency
ρa Gs Ηv Ηc T P R ʎ Sfc ηe
kg/m3 kg/s %age %age Nm KW Kg-a/kg-f g/KWh %age
1 1.20 0.02 0.74 76.76 31.80 4.84 16.05 1.09 742.35 10.53
2 1.19 0.02 0.74 75.99 30.66 4.83 15.86 1.08 771.27 10.14
3 1.19 0.02 0.69 70.92 28.94 4.88 14.81 1.01 816.57 9.57
4 1.20 0.02 0.65 67.59 26.64 4.73 14.29 0.97 875.66 8.93
5 1.19 0.02 0.64 65.54 26.93 4.92 13.74 0.93 874.19 8.94
6 1.19 0.02 0.62 64.41 24.35 4.58 13.90 0.95 938.77 8.33
7 1.20 0.02 0.60 62.00 21.49 4.15 13.41 0.91 1062.10 7.36
Table 13 Engine performance Indicators

54
Item FC horse Weight Heat Loss in Brake Heat Loss
FC Heat Energy in Heat Loss Frictional
Mark SFC power rate of cooling thermal in cooling
equivalent Exhaust in Exhaust losses
unit equivalent exhaust water efficiency water

g Qf Lf Gg Qg Qw ηe ηg ηw ηf
g/KWh kj/hr KW kg/s kj/hr Kj/hr
1 742.35 165303.9 45.92 0.017 0.105 12637.04 10.531 6.357E-05 7.645 81.823
2 771.27 171482.3 47.63 0.017 0.116 12033.68 10.136 6.755E-05 7.017 82.845
3 816.57 183565.5 50.99 0.018 0.139 14497.40 9.574 7.571E-05 7.898 82.527
4 875.66 190709.6 52.97 0.018 0.147 10558.80 8.928 7.697E-05 5.537 85.535
5 874.19 197998.3 55.00 0.018 0.198 30670.80 8.943 1.001E-04 15.490 75.566
6 938.77 198111.9 55.03 0.018 0.172 15503.00 8.327 8.690E-05 7.825 83.846
7 1062.10 203161.8 56.43 0.018 0.188 20028.20 7.360 9.245E-05 9.858 82.780
Table 14 Engine Energy balance

55
Specimen Calculations
Performing calculations for N = 1452 rpm
1. Weight Flow rate of air
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑔1 = 21.1 𝐶
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0ᴼ𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 38 𝑝𝑎
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 =

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 = 1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

2. Charging efficiency
𝑎=2
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝜌𝑜 =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 𝑁 = 1452 𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3) = 𝑉 =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠) = 𝐺𝑠 = 0.02𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑐 = 76.76 %

3. Volumetric efficiency
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑣 = 0.74 %
4. Air/Fuel ratio
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.79
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾 =

𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅 = 16.05

5. Excess air factor
𝜆 = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1.09

6. Engine Output and Torque (T, Po)

𝑇 = 31.80 𝑁𝑚

𝑃 = 4.84 𝐾𝑊

7. Fuel consumption and specific Fuel consumption

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑚𝑙) = 𝑏 = 0.03
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡 = 0.006268
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃 𝑜 = 20.41 𝐾𝑊

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.79

𝑔 = 𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 742.35
8. Mechanical efficiency

56
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻 = 44𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 = 4.79

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑓 = 165303.9 𝑘𝑗/ℎ𝑟

ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿𝑓 = 45.92 𝐾𝑊
B. T. E = 𝜂𝑒 = 10.531

9. Weight rate of exhaust gases (Gg)

𝐺𝑔 = 𝐸𝑥. 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.017 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

10. Heat equivalent of fuel consumption and Energy in exhaust gas

𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑡𝑔2 = 44 𝐶
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (℃) = 𝑡𝑔1 = 21.1 𝐶

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔 = 0.105 𝑘𝑗/ℎ𝑟

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = η𝑔 = 6.357

11. Loss in cooling water

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑤2 = 45.2 C
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑤1 = 30.12 𝐶

𝑄𝑤 = 1267.04

𝜂𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 7.645

57
Heat Balance Charts
Heat balance at 1010 rpm Heat balance at 1153 rpm

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Heat balance at 1244 rpm Heat balance at 1250 rpm

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

58
Heat balance at 1400 rpm Heat balance at 1500 rpm

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Heat balance at 1550 rpm Heat balance at 1600 rpm

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

59
 Heat balance at 1700 rpm Heat balance at 1800 rpm

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Heat balance at 1900 rpm

1 2 3 4

Comments:
1. The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum amount of air
ingested. The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size (cylinder volume),
whether it is a two-stroke or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency, losses, air-to-fuel ratio, the
calorific value of the fuel, oxygen content of the air and speed (RPM). The speed is ultimately limited
by material strength and lubrication. Valves, pistons and connecting rodssuffer severe acceleration
forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston ring flutter can occur, resulting in power
loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs when the rings oscillate vertically within the
piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter compromises the seal between the ring and the cylinder wall,
which causes a loss of cylinder pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve springs cannot
act quickly enough to close the valves. This is commonly referred to as 'valve float', and it can result in

60
 piston to valve contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder
wall interface tends to break down. This limits the piston speed for industrial engines to about 10 m/s.
2. The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and exhaust
matter to move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head. To increase an
engine's output power, irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as casting flaws, can be
removed, and, with the aid of an air flow bench, the radii of valve port turns and valve
seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This process is called porting, and it can be
done by hand or with a CNC machine.
3. One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be
produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known
as a supercharger, which can be powered by the engine crankshaft.
4. Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its
displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that
allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven
supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger,
while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains
more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.
5. Turbocharging
6. A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. It
consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses the intake air, and
the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
7. When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small exhaust
volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally aspirated manner.
When much more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle opening are increased until
the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spin up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more
air than normal into the intake manifold.
8. Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that
would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag. The increased
engine power is not immediately available due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up
pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased
intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power
operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to
transfer more of its heat to the mechanical parts of the engine.
9. The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the piston stroke.
A longer rod reduces sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the stress forces,
increasing engine life. It also increases the cost and engine height and weight.
10. A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where the
bore diameter is larger than its stroke length is an over-square engine, conversely, an engine with a bore
diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an under-square engine.
11. The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft. It has a
series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part of an intake
or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and cam is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open
the valve. Many engines use one or more camshafts “above” a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the
illustration, in which each cam directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs
the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which case each cam contacts a push rod, which contacts a rocker
arm that opens a valve. The overhead cam design typically allows higher engine speeds because it
provides the most direct path between cam and valve.
12. Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that
the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment, excessive clearance
causes noise from the valve train. A too small valve clearance can result in the valves not closing

61
 properly, this results in a loss of performance and possibly overheating of exhaust valves.
Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.
13. Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve train
component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.
14. Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30% of the energy generated by combustion
is converted into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine, while the remainder
being losses due to waste heat, friction and engine accessories. There are a number of ways to
recover some of the energy lost to waste heat. The use of a Turbocharger in Diesel engines is very
effective by boosting incoming air pressure and in effect provides the same increase in
performance as having more displacement. The Mack Truck company, decades ago, developed a
turbine system that converted waste heat into kinetic energy that it fed back into the engine's
transmission. In 2005, BMW announced the development of the turbo-steamer, a two stage heat
recovery system similar to the Mack system that recovers 80% of the energy in the exhaust gas
and raises the efficiency of an Otto engine by 15%. By contrast, a six-stroke engine may reduce
fuel consumption by as much as 40%

62