Electro Mechanics

Michael David Bryant 1 9/18/07
ME 344 Dynamic Systems & Control University of Texas at Austin
Electromechanics, sensors & actuators
Magnetic Energy Domain

Magnetic Capacitance
Magnetic Resistance
Magnetic Domain Example: Inductor with Flux Return
Magnetic Circuit
Example: Variable Reluctance Actuators / Relay

Example: Loudspeaker
Example: Loudspeaker with Acoustic Tube
Bond Graphs for Magnetostrictive Actuators
Magnetic Energy Domain
Magnetic field intensity: H [Amp m-1 ]

Magnetic induction (or flux density): B = µ H [Webers m-2 = Tesla]
Magnetic flux: φ = ⌠
⌡ B ∑ dS [Webers = Volt sec.]
surface
Permeability: µ [Henry m-1 = Volt sec. Amp.-1 m-1 = Ohm m-1 sec.]
Faraday's law defines magnetic flow:

magnetic flux rate !˙ [Webers sec.-1 = Volt]
⌠ ∂B
V= ⌠ ⌡ E ∑ dL = - 
⌡ ∂t ∑ dS
C urve S urface
dφ dλ
= - n dt = - n !˙ = - dt
The minus sign is grouped into definition of a voltage drop:
dφ dλ
V = n dt = n !˙ = dt = !˙
Ampere's law defines magnetic effort: magnetomotive force M [Amp]
M = ⌠ ⌡ H ∑ dL = ⌠
⌡ J ∑ dS
C urve S urface
⌠ ∂D
+ 
⌡ ∂t ∑ dS
S urface
=Ic + Id =I
Magnetic power: P = M !˙ [ Watts ]

dE
Magnetic power dt = P = M !˙
"Potential" Energy stored in magnetic field
⌠ dφ ⌠ M (φ) dφ
EM = 
⌡ M dt dt =⌡
Energy variable = Magnetic flux (magnetic displacement): φ
Effort (magnetomotive force) dependence: M = M(φ)
dφ
Flow (magnetic flux rate) obeys kinematics: !˙ = dt
M = M(!)
. C
!
l
Define Reluctance ℜ: ℜ = µ A M=φℜ
Analogous to Ohm's law for a resistor V = i R

R resistance of element to current flow
ℜ reluctance of element to flux flow
Differences from Ohm's law
magnetic circuit instead of electrical circuit
potential energy stored in ℜ instead of power dissipation in R
Potential energy storage EM = # M(" )d"

2
"#
= $ "#d" =
2
! magnetic capacitance
Generates linear
C = φ /Μ = 1/ℜ
!
Magnetic Resistance
Power dissipation in magnetic circuit from
eddy currents
time varying magnetic field H(t) in core ⇒
time varying induction B(t) = µ H(t) ⇒
time varying electric field E(t) via
∂B
Faraday's law ∇ x E = - ∂t ⇒ current density J = σE
via Ohm's law ⇒ resistive power dissipation in core
magnetic hysteresis:
B-H follows different paths, increasing & decreasing
shaded area between paths ⇒ energy (power) loss
prevalent in iron
Generates magnetic resistance R

Magnetic Domain Example: Inductor with

Flux Return
.
flux rate !
from flux !
i
+
magnetomotive
V force M = n i
n turn coil
Coil: converts current i ⇔ magnetomotive force M

⇒ GY:r
Reluctance of flux return path: stores magnetic potential energy EM
Bond Graph Model
. .
V= r !=" M = M( !)
-1
GY: r . C
i = r M( ! ) =i( " ) !
Equivalent bond graph
.
VL = !
I
i = i ( !)
Magnetic Circuit
.
!
Iron core
i
+ Ma Mb
air gap
V
Mc
-
Mo " 0
n turn coil
.
!
n turn coil applies magnetomotive force ni = Ma - Mo
Iron core routes magnetic flux
Break in core: air gap
define reference Mo ≡0
Bond Graph of Magnetic Circuit
C top R top
V .
GY 1 ! C air
i
C bottom R
bottom
1 junction for common flux rate "˙ through circuit
Rtop & Rbottom magnetic losses
Ctop & Cbottom potential energy stored in magnetic field in iron

!
Cair potential energy stored in magnetic field in air
Potential energy E = E air + E iron " E air since µiron >> µair
!
!
C top R top
Ma Mb
0 1 0
.
!
V . .
GY 1 ! ! 1 C air
i
.
!
0 1 0
Mo Mc
C bottom R
bottom
0's mark magnetomotive force values Ma , ...., Mo

in bond graph; 1's distribute power to elements (C' 's & R 's from core)
& mark flow !˙
no magnetic losses in air (only Cair)

Simplify Bond Graph: Eliminate 0 Junctions

C top R top
1
.
!
V . .
GY 1 ! ! 1 C air
i
.
!
1
C bottom Rbottom
0 junctions non-essential: conceptual aid for

constructing bond graph
2 bonds on 0 's ⇒ same (e, f) on input and output

bonds to 0 's
simplify bond graph: eliminate 0 's
⇒ equivalent bond graph

Simplify Bond Graph: Merge Neighboring 1

Junctions
C top R top
V .
GY 1 ! C air
i
C bottom Rbottom
All 1 's have same flow !˙ and are neighbors
collapse into single 1
⇒ equivalent bond graph

Leakage Flux from Coil: Bond Graph

.
!
Iron core
i
+
air gap
V
leakage
-
flux in air
n turn coil
.
!
Leakage circuit in parallel with iron

Leakage & !˙ add about coil
0 junction and energy storage in leakage field
Cleak C top R top
V .
GY 0 1 ! C air
i
C R
bottom bottom
Example: Variable Reluctance Actuators / Relay

Magnetic
field
energy
E = E air + E iron " E air
in iron &
air gap
relay arm moves, reduces
! potential energy
"E
F=
"x
" 2#(x)
!flux flow: magnetic energy storage E air =
2
x
in air gap, ℜ(x) ≈ µ
air A
Mechanical force F alters!

x ⇒ changes reluctance ℜ(x) ⇒ Eair
. .
! !
Mb Mc
resistor
Ma
+
relay arm
V
spring
-
Mo .
!
.
!
Md
Relay Arm 2 Port C: Magnetic & Mechanical Ports
Potential energy E = E air + E iron " E air since µiron >> µair
" 2#(x)
Eair = Eair(φ , x) =
2
!
! ∂E
Efforts on kth bond from ek = ∂q :
k
!
"E air # 2 "$(x) #2
F= = =
"x 2 "x 2µair A
∂Eair x
M = ∂φ = φ ℜ(x) = φ µ A
air
!
M F
.
C : 1/ !
air
.
" x
Bond Graphs of Relay

C leak
R: Fµ
R
C top R
top
.
!
M F C: 1/k
S e: V
V(t)
1 GY 0 1 . C : 1/ " . TF 1
! air
x
R bar
C bottom
C bar I: J
R
bottom
C top R
top
R: Fµ
Ma Mb
0 1 0
R
.
! M F C: 1/k
1 . C : 1/ "
air
. TF 1
! x
V(t) . Mc 0
S e: V 1 GY 1 ! 1 C leak
I: J
1
.
!
R bar
0 1 0
Mo Md
C bar
C bottom R
bottom
Siimilar to magnetic circuit
Relay Arm replaces Air Gap: Cair becomes 2 port capacitance
BG elements off 2-port C accounts for relay arm mass,

pin friction & spring
Cleak accounts for leakage flux in air

Loudspeaker Example
speaker cone
I + E(t)
-
permanent magnet
voice coil with flux density B
motion x(t)
D
low reluctance iron

routes flux to coil
voice coil
assembly
(N-turns)
Input voltage E(t) & electric currents I to voice coil
Voice coil: N-turns, diameter D, resistive losses
Permanent magnet flux B, crosses voice coil radially, returns axially
Stiffness and damping in cone & air
Displacements x(t): voice coil/cone assembly

Magnetic Lorentz force on voice coil
F= - ⌠⌡ I B x dL = - IBNπD
Curve
(Curve: N turns, coil circumference)
Voice coil back emf
∂ ⌠ dA dx
Eback = - ∂t ⌡ B ∑ dS =-B = - BNπD dt
dt
S urface
(Surface A: Outer shell, coil)
Generates GY: BNπD

speaker cone
I + E(t)
-
permanent magnet
voice coil with flux density B
motion x(t)
D
low reluctance iron

routes flux to coil
voice coil
assembly
(N-turns)
R: R coil
I : M
•
P P/ M
V kx
Se 1 GY: BN!D 1 C: 1 / k
•
x
R: B
Example: Loudspeaker with

Acoustic Tube
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE speaker cone
(area A)
I + E(t)
MATCHING TUBE -
permanent
magnet
plunger/cone
motions x(t)
SOUND WAVES
v(t) = A dx/dt
voice coil
(N-turns &
diameter D)
Conversion: mechanical power into acoustic power
Tube for impedance matching
R: R coil I : M I : M air
• P/M
• P air
P P/ M
k x
V air air
Se 1 GY: BN!D 1 TF: A 1 C: 1 / k
• air
x
• air
kx x
R: B R: B
C: 1 / k air
Bass Reflex Speaker System
• Woofer
• Tweeter
• Enclosure with tuned port
• Crossover network (capacitor)
21
Bond Graph of Bass Reflex Speaker System

t t
R:Rc R:bc C:k t I:Ia
C:C .
. q/C
kt xt . p a p a / Ia
q xt ka va
1 GY: rt 1 TF: At 0 1 . C:ka
. . va
pt pt / mt
!t !t / Lt
E(t) I:mt
I:Lt f R:ba
Se:E(t) 0 I:mw TF: Aw
.
pw pw / mw .
pp
r
1 GY: rw 1 TF: Aw 0 1 I:Ip
. . . p p / Ip
w
!w !w / Lw xw ke ve ve
R:Rc kw xw
w
I:Lw R:bc C:k w C:ke R:bp
22
Bond Graphs for Magnetostrictive Actuators
Magnetostriction
strain smn = smn(Hi, Tjk)

induced by stress Tjk
induced by magnetic field Hi
present in most ferromagnetic materials

iron, nickel, cobalt, rare earths
magnetostrictive strains ≈ 10-5
transformer hum: Fe core magnetostrictively extends/contracts under AC
special rare earth alloy, terfenol D: strains ≈ 10-3 to 10-2

23
Magnetostrictive variables: (uniaxial) fields & stresses aligned with z direction
magnetic induction B = B(H, T)

∂u
axial displacement u and strain s = ∂z
applied (axial) magnetic field H & magnetic induction B
Constitutive Equations / Linear Magnetostriction
B = B(H, T) = do T + µT H (1a)
s = s(H, T) = SH T + do H (1b)
elastic compliance SH , measured with magnetic intensity H = 0

magnetic permeability µT , measured with stress T = 0
magnetostrictive coefficient do
2
do
energy coupling coefficient k =
µT SH
24
Invert
B
H=ds+ s (2a)
µ
T = YB s+dB (2b)
- k2
d= ,
(1 - k2) do
1
elastic modulus YB = , measured with inductance B = 0
SH(1 - k2)
permeability µs = µT(1 - k2) measured with strain s = 0
"stiffness" term (YB s)
magnetically induced stress (d B)
strain induces magnetic field component (d s)
Multiport capacitance with displacements (s, B) & efforts (T, H)

25
Magnetostrictive Actuator
25.4mm
Aluminum Attachment
Plunger Rod Nylon Bearing
Top Cover
Body
Terfenol Rod Belleville Washers
Coil 1 Coil 2
Aluminum Spool Permanent Magnet
Bottom Cover Steel Spacer

26
Bond Graph Structure / Actuator
I:m 1
R:b 1
•
p p /m
1 1 1
R:R mag C:1/k p I:M

R:R elec
• F(!,x)
1
1 •
. •
R mag !
x p 1 /m 1 TF:n1 kpxp xp P P/M
• 1
V N ! Ni
M(!,x) . F(!,x) . eOUT
Se 1 GY:N 1 C . r
. 1 TF:nr
. 0 1 OUT
• • .
i ! ! . xr .
. fOUT
•
# #/L "ret ! F(!,x) TF:nn
air n
.
C:1/ " xn p n /m n
I:L air ret 1 R:B b
•
p pn /m n
n
R:b n
I:m n
Excitation circuit: coil

input V
coil resistance Relec
leakage inductance Lair
electric power ⇒ magnetic power (Ni !˙ ) by coil GY:N
Magnetic Circuit
magnetic effort: magnetic potential H = Ni
magnetic flow: magnetic flux rate !˙
magnetic capacitance C:1/ℜret , reluctance ℜret

resistance R:Rmag incorporates eddy current & hysteresis losses
27
Multi-port C
I:m 1
R:b 1
•
p p /m
1 1 1
R:R mag C:1/k p I:M

R:R elec
• F(!,x)
1
1 •
. •
R mag !
x p 1 /m 1 TF:n1 kpxp xp P P/M
• 1
V N ! Ni
M(!,x) . F(!,x) . eOUT
Se 1 GY:N 1 C . r
. 1 TF:nr
. 0 1 OUT
• • .
i ! ! . xr .
. fOUT
•
# #/L "ret ! F(!,x) TF:nn
air n
.
C:1/ " xn p n /m n
I:L air ret 1 R:B b
•
p pn /m n
n
R:b n
I:m n
single magnetic port from magnetic circuit
multiple mechanical ports

continuous rod
incorporates vibration modes
28
Efforts on Multi-port C
Ampere's law over magnetic circuit (using eqn (2a))

⇒ magnetomotive force on 2 port C
M(φ, x) = H l = d x + ℜterf φ
x : total end displacement φ : flux in rod

ℜterf reluctance of magnetostrictive rod
(n + 1) ports /axial vibration displacement modes uj = Uj(z) xj(t)
modal forces Fj(φ, x) = nj d φ + Kj xj

shape function Uj(z)
modal mass I:mj , stiffness C:1/Kj , damping R:bj
modal 1 junctions & transformers TF:nj

couple forces to modes
construct modal displacements
pj
0 junction sums modal flows nj m
j
29
final 1 junction
applies load to the end mass M
R: Bb bushing friction
external element(s) "OUT"
plunger rod stiffness generates capacitance C:1/kp

30
Multi-port Capacitance
power flows over multiport C = time derivative of the potential energy
dE ∞ . d 1 ∞ 1
dt
˙
= M(φ, x) ! + ∑ Fj(φ, x) xj = dt { 2 ℜterf φ2 +d φx+ ∑ 2 Kj xj2 }
j=1 j=1
(5)
∂E
M(φ, x) = ∂φ = d x + ℜterf φ
∂E
Fj(φ, x) = ∂x = nj d φ + Kj xj
j
∞
x = ∑ nj xj(t)
j=1
31
State Equations from Bond Graph
Relec
!˙ = - L λ - N !˙ + V(t) (6a)
air
. λ
Rmag φ =NL - ℜret φ - M(φ, x) (6b)
air
. pj
pj = - Fj(φ, x) - bj m - nj kp xp , ( j = 1, 2,..., n) (6c)
j
. pj
xj =m , ( j = 1, 2,..., n) (6d)
j
∞
. n pj . 1
xp = ∑ nj m
j=1
j
+ ∑ nj xj -M P (6e)
j = n+1
. Bb
P =- M P - eOUT + kp xp (6f)
32
Substitute equations (3) and (4) into (6) & rearrange into state equation form
R N2 ←ret + ←terf - d2/Kr n

˙! = - [ elec + L R ]λ+N φ+R
Nd
∑ nj xj
Lair air mag Rmag mag j=1
d kp
-NR xp + V(t) (7a)
mag Kr
N ←ret + ←terf - d2/Kr d n d kp

!˙ = L R λ- Rmag φ-R ∑ n j xj + R x
air mag mag j = 1 mag Kr
(7b)
. bj
pj = - nj d φ - Kj xj - m pj - nj kp xp,( j = 1, 2,..., n) (7c)
j
. 1
xj =m pj , ( j = 1, 2,..., n) (7d)
j
. Kr n pj d N ←ret + ←terf - d2/Kr

xp = k + K ∑ nj m -k +K -{ L R λ- Rmag φ
p r j p r air mag
j=1
d n d kp 1 Kr
-R ∑ nj xj + R xp} - M k + K P (7e)
mag j = 1 mag Kr p r
. Bb
P =- M P - eOUT + kp xp . (7f)
33
Frequency Response
measured / actuator: solid line

predicted / BG model: dashed line
t
⌠ P ∞ d
two modes X ≡ 
⌡ M dt = ∑ nj xj - xp ≈ x1 - x2 - (1 + kp/Kr) xp - K φ
r
0 j=1
geometry: design
material properties: handbook
- 1
X/V (m V
- 1
) X/i (m A )
-100 500 -110 500
-120 300 Magnitude (m A-1) -130 300

Magnitude (m V-1)
Phase (degrees)
Phase (degrees)
-140 100 -150 100
-160 -100 -170 -100
-180 -300 -190 -300
-200 -500 -210 -500
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
20
Table 1: Parameter values for the bond graph model of the magnetostrictive actuator.
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SOURCE VALUE UNITS

Relec solenoid resistance measured 0.36 Ω
Lair solenoid leakage inductance 0.2335 x 10-3 H
N turns in excitation coil measured 200
ℜret reluctance of flux return circuit Appendix 2 1.16 x 108 H-1
Rmag resistance of flux return circuit Appendix 2 1.2 x 105 Ω-1
ℜterf reluctance of magnetostrictive rod l 1.19 x 108 H-1
= s
µ Aterf
l length of magnetostrictive rod measured 0.038 m
D diameter of magnetostrictive rod measured 0.00699 m
Aterf cross sectional area of rod = π (D/2)2 3.83 x 10-5 m2
k energy coupling coefficient Butler (1988) 0.72
do magnetostrictive coefficient Butler (1988) 15 x 10-9 m A-1
YB elastic modulus-coil open circuited Butler (1988) 5.5 x 1010 N m-2
µs permeability - rod clamped Butler (1988) 56.5 x 10-7 V s m -1
A-1
ρ terfenol D mass density Butler (1988) 9.25 x 103 kg m-3
ω1 /2π 1st mode natural frequency of eq. (3c) & (3e) 16,000 Hz
clamped-free rod
ω2 /2π 2nd mode natural frequency of eq. (3c) & (3e) 48,000 Hz
clamped-free rod
bj modal damping coefficient = 2 ζj ωj mj 68 kg s-1
ζ1 , ζ2 modal damping ratios lightly damped 0.05, 0.0167
estimate
mj modal mass eq. (3d) 6.75 x 10-3 kg
K1 1st mode stiffness eq. (3f) 6.83 x 107 N m-1
K2 2nd mode stiffness eq. (3f) 6.14 x 108 N m-1
Kr residual stiffness eq. (4b) 5.57 x 108 N m-1
Kp plunger rod stiffness geometry and 8.60 x 107 N m-1
materials
M attached end mass measured 0.036 kg
Bb damping of guide bearing Appendix 2 650 kg s-1

Electro Mechanics

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Electro Mechanics

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Michael David Bryant 1 9/18/07

ME 344 Dynamic Systems & Control University of Texas at Austin

Electromechanics, sensors & actuators

Magnetic Energy Domain

Example: Variable Reluctance Actuators / Relay

Magnetic Energy Domain

Magnetic field intensity: H [Amp m-1 ]

Faraday's law defines magnetic flow:

The minus sign is grouped into definition of a voltage drop:

Ampere's law defines magnetic effort: magnetomotive force M [Amp]

Magnetic power: P = M !˙ [ Watts ]

"Potential" Energy stored in magnetic field

Energy variable = Magnetic flux (magnetic displacement): φ

Effort (magnetomotive force) dependence: M = M(φ)

Analogous to Ohm's law for a resistor V = i R

Potential energy storage EM = # M(" )d"

Generates magnetic resistance R

Magnetic Domain Example: Inductor with

Coil: converts current i ⇔ magnetomotive force M

Reluctance of flux return path: stores magnetic potential energy EM

Bond Graph Model

n turn coil applies magnetomotive force ni = Ma - Mo

Iron core routes magnetic flux

Break in core: air gap

Bond Graph of Magnetic Circuit

1 junction for common flux rate "˙ through circuit

Rtop & Rbottom magnetic losses

Ctop & Cbottom potential energy stored in magnetic field in iron

0's mark magnetomotive force values Ma , ...., Mo

no magnetic losses in air (only Cair)

Simplify Bond Graph: Eliminate 0 Junctions

0 junctions non-essential: conceptual aid for

2 bonds on 0 's ⇒ same (e, f) on input and output

simplify bond graph: eliminate 0 's

⇒ equivalent bond graph

Simplify Bond Graph: Merge Neighboring 1

All 1 's have same flow !˙ and are neighbors

collapse into single 1

⇒ equivalent bond graph

Leakage Flux from Coil: Bond Graph

Leakage circuit in parallel with iron

Cleak C top R top

Example: Variable Reluctance Actuators / Relay

Mechanical force F alters!

Relay Arm 2 Port C: Magnetic & Mechanical Ports

Bond Graphs of Relay

Siimilar to magnetic circuit

Relay Arm replaces Air Gap: Cair becomes 2 port capacitance

BG elements off 2-port C accounts for relay arm mass,

Cleak accounts for leakage flux in air

low reluctance iron

Input voltage E(t) & electric currents I to voice coil

Voice coil: N-turns, diameter D, resistive losses

Permanent magnet flux B, crosses voice coil radially, returns axially

Stiffness and damping in cone & air

Displacements x(t): voice coil/cone assembly

Magnetic Lorentz force on voice coil

(Curve: N turns, coil circumference)

Voice coil back emf

(Surface A: Outer shell, coil)

Generates GY: BNπD

low reluctance iron

Example: Loudspeaker with

Conversion: mechanical power into acoustic power