Professional Documents
Culture Documents
April 1984
- : C
100
. U56
34-3011
1934
v
NATIOWJU. BUKEJU)
OF STAXDAJIDS
NBSIR 84-3011 T.tiJEART
QC/co
THERMAL AND MECHANICAL /j
INSULATING CONCRETES AT
CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES
L.L. Sparks*
J.M. Arvidson**
April 1984
Prepared for
Gas Research Institute
8600 West Bryn Mawr Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60631
FINAL REPORT
Prepared by
For
April 1P84
GRI DISCLAIMER
Neither GRI, members of GRI, nor any person acting on behalf of either
b. Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages
PAGE GRI-R4/00R6
«. TUN and Subtitle 5. Report Oat*
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Addras* 13. Typo of Report & Period Covered
Gas Research Institute Final ,
Jan 1979-Feb 1984
8600 West Bryn Mawr Avenue
Chicago, IL 60631 14.
'
c. COSATI Flald/Group
18. Availability Statement 18. Security Class (This Report) 21. No. o4 Page*
UNCLASSIFIED 160
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Unlimited; NTIS, Springfield, VA 22161
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(See ANSI—Z39.18) See Instructions on Reverse OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
(Formerly NTIS-J5)
Oep»rimen« o* Commerce
.
RESEARCH SUMMARY
Principal L. L. Sparks
Investigator
vi i
essential to the design of facilities and production of foam, are
Results The effort involving plastic foams has resulted in the following
nominally 32, 64, and 96 kg/m^ and the basic temperature range of
and tensile strength and moduli. The empirical nature of these re-
vi i i
studied depend, in varying degrees, on cell gas, morphology, and
ASTM standard methods C78 and C513 were used to determine MOR and
temperatures.
x
A survey of existing data for insulating concretes has been com-
tests, done to supplement data from the literature, have been com-
ix
From a literature survey and from limited experiments, six poten-
binder with perlite or glass nodules as the aggregate are being ex-
Laboratory.
xi
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction , 1
Insulating Foams 2
Conclusions (IF) 89
References (IF) 91
Page
xi i i
List of Tables
Table Page
xiv
List of Tables
Table Page
xv
1
List of Figures
Figure Page
XV
List of Figures ( continued )
Figure Page
xvi i
List of Figures ( continued )
Figure Page
xvii i
List of Figures ( conti nued )
46
Figure Page
50
48 Compressive strength of polyurethane foam as a function of
density with temperature as the parameter. The strength ob-
tained here must be modified by a function of (H/W) for a
51
particular material 87
xix
Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polyurethane Foams and a Survey of
Insulating Concretes at Cryogenic Temperatures
INTRODUCTION
Safe and economical storage and transport of cryogenic fuels such as lique-
fied natural gas (LNG) depend to a large extent on the materials used in the con-
Thermal insulation constitutes a critical link in the materials for use in LNG-
and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) -oriented energy efforts because of the cryo-
genic nature of the liquids. Two types of insulating material are being studied
concrete can satisfy requirements for dike and impounding areas of LNG storage
tanks.
The data bases and knowledge based on experience for both types of material
being considered are inadequate for reliable design. Most data for insulating
Inefficient overdesign and failures may occur because the material actually used
is different than the material used to determine the design properties. Insulat-
ing concretes have not been used extensively in applications where they must be
the project devoted to foams will be discussed first and will be identified by
(IF) for insulating foams. Discussion of insulating concretes will follow and
(1) To improve the existing data base and the test procedures relating to ex-
(2) To develop test methods and characteri zation procedures for general applica-
(4) To serve as a center for insulation information for GRI and associated users
of cryogenic fuels.
The work performed on insulating foams can be correlated with the major
(1) Assessment of Materials - A literature search was made. Companies and tech-
nical societies involved in the production and/or use of insulating foams were
contacted. The results of this phase of the project were reported by Sparks
polyurethane foam were chosen as materials for detailed study. The densities
(2) Assessment of Methods - This effort was performed concurrent with task (1)
since the same literature survey and industrial contacts were involved. With the
-2-
project.
foam
insulating
of
the
Characterization
with
Development
associated
Tasks
1.
Figure
for expanded plastics at low temperatures. This task, therefore, necessarily in
Special apparatuses were ultimately required for adequate testing of thermal ex-
ties requires knowledge of morphology, cell gas, and chemical composition of the
during the course of the project. The criteria used in determining the final
role of the various techniques was quality and usefulness of the output and
whether or not the procedure could be reasonably applied by producers and users
present in the foam cells, (b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) - reflected
cifically to observe grain structure in metals was used to study the cell struc-
hances resolution of cell structure and was used to study the cell structure of
the 64- and 96-kg/m3 foams, (e) Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) - used to de-
termine mass loss as a function of temperature. The results were used to iden-
ture dependent phase changes can be detected using this technique, (g) Gas com-
-4 -
(4) Specimen Acquisition - Bulk supplies of 32- and 64-kg/m 3 specimens were
obtained from the Products Research Committee (1980) through the Office of
Standard Reference Materials of NBS. The 96-kg/m 3 material was purchased from
a commercial producer.
use of insulating foams in the LNG industry. In addition to the characteri zation
tests, the following types of data were obtained for each of the three polyure-
tional limit, yield strength at 0.2% offset, and elastic and plastic elongation.
The temperature range of study always included 100 to 300 K, and in several in-
most thermophysical properties depend on the direction of heat flow or stress ap-
plication relative to the direction of free foam expansion during polymeri zation.
Aging affects the properties both due to gas diffusion and to resin changes. The
net result is that current use of insulating foams in cryogenic applications in-
the existing low temperature data for foams is based on uncharacterized materials
and were determined with experimental methods unsuited for low temperature test-
ing.
The rationale for the study of insulating foams was to alleviate the prob-
thrust to accomplish this was: (1) to generate reliable low temperature data for
-5-
three polyurethane foams whose densities span the range of practical insulating
foams; (2) to utilize these data to develop predictive procedures for low temper-
ature properties; and (3) to establish a direction for further low temperature
ation of test procedures and design of special equipment to study foam-like mate-
needed to be examined.
The benefits of items (1) and (2) above are clear and immediate. The data,
systems. The predictive procedures can be used to further refine expected be-
havior when used in conjunction with specific foam characteri sties. The highest
quality design data for a specific foam must be based on information about the
The work plan for the duration of the foam study followed the general steps
outlined in the Project Description section. The early stage of the work was de-
voted to selecting the most useful type of insulation for LNG applications and to
determine what, if any, standard procedures existed to allow reliable low tem-
perature data to be generated. A significant literature search had been done and
-6 -
of data and procedures indicated that most materials tested previously could not
that the only standard procedure that could be readily applied at cryogenic tem-
peratures was ASTM C177 for thermal conductivity. Two experimental systems
of a foam and the statistical size, shape, and orientation of the cells was of
primary importance. Several papers dealing with measurement techniques and in-
specimens.
ing the cellular structure optically and determining the cellular gas content us-
tion in both testing and characterization was that the procedures be such that
they could be adopted for general use. This is particularly important for char-
After proving the experimental systems and acquiring and characterizing the
strength at 0.2% offset, and elastic and plastic elongation. The results of the
-7-
Work Performed and Experimental Results (IF)
The nominal densities of the polyurethane foam specimens were 32, 64, and
96 kg/m 3 (PU32, PU64, and PU96). PU32 and PU64 were obtained from the NBS
Office of Standard Reference Materials (OSRM), Washington, D.C. The OSRM dis-
tributed these and other expanded plastics for the Products Research Committee
General Materials. The third material, PU96, was purchased from a commercial
manufacturer, since OSRM did not stock a General Material in this density range.
The bulk supplies of these materials were in the forms shown in figure 2. The
coordinate axes assigned to the bulk materials are indicated in this figure. The
measurements were made parallel to the z-axis. The transverse mechanical proper-
Densities - The densities of the bulk supplies were determined for four
humidity, the densities were found to be 33.56 + 0.14, 62.52 + 0.11, and 99.03
The large uncertainty in the PU96 density results from a density variation in the
bulk supply.
photomicrographs of the principal orthogonal planes, XY, XZ, YZ in (fig. 3), and
(3) analysis of cell-wall intercepts at 30° rotations for the planes XY, XZ, and
YZ (fig. 3).
nonvertical flow lines, i.e., foam rise directions not parallel to the z-axis.
-8-
Figure 2. Bulk supplies of polyurethane foam and orientation of axes.
Nuntered
rectangles indicate areas used for characteri zation.
-9-
Figure 3 Configuration of the planes studied by optical methods.
- 10 -
This type of examination of PU32 indicated that the elongated cell axes were not
vertical at any place in the bulk supply, and that the cells near the long edges
(approximately 0.3 m in from each long edge) were inclined about 35° in the XY
plane, 45° in the XZ plane, and 55° in the YZ plane (fig. 4). Cells in the
center portion had 0° inclination in the XY and YZ planes, but retained the 45°
The bulk supply of PU64 consisted of three slabs. Nonvertical flow lines
were observed in each of the pieces but the angle of inclination was smaller than
that found in PU32. The cellular inclinations of two of the three slabs were
consistent and identical within the uncertainty of the measurements (fig. 4).
The inclinations found in the third slab were not uniform, i.e., the inclination
was significantly different for parallel planes. No additional tests were per-
formed on this slab. The slab designated PU64-1 was used for mechanical property
Non-vertical alignment of the long cellular axes of PU96 was found only in
an 0.08 m thickness around the perimeter. A 0.2 m thickness around the perimeter
was marked as scrap, and no test specimens were taken from this material. The
slides were made by passing a blade through the foam at a given orientation.
This procedure was done with the cutting planes parallel to the principal planes:
XY, XZ, YZ. Photomicrographs were prepared with a minimum of two different sec-
tions per plane for each foam. It was found that a magnification of 50 was suit-
able and that the contrast achieved using incident, polarized light produced
- 11 -
of
examinations
optical
from
are
results
These
axes.
materials.
cell
elongated these
of
the
of supplies
bulk
Orientation
the
4,
Figure
12
principal axes were determined from the length calibrated photographs. Results
of these measurements are given in table 1. The lengths measured and presented
smaller than the actual maximum cell dimension. Several authors (Hensler, 1968;
Exner, 1969; and Thompson, 1972) have proposed multiplicative factors needed to
dimensions.' These factors range from 1.5 to 1.68 with the differences being due
to assumptions about cell shape and packing factors. The ratios given in table 2
Intercept analysis - The procedure used to arrive at these data also uti-
lizes photographs of foam cells and follows the acquisition scheme suggested by
Smith and Guttman, 1953. This approach assumes randomly oriented sections.
- 13 -
Table 2. Ratios of averaged maximum intercepted cell dimensions parallel to the
orthogonal principal axes of the XY, XZ, and YZ planes for four speci-
mens of PU32 and two specimens each of PU64 and PU96. Locations of the
specimens are indicated in figure 2 .
Randomness was approximated by seven planes, XY, XZ, YZ and planes P^ through
for each of the three polyurethane foams. Each photograph was evaluated by
lines and cell walls. Data were taken for grid rotations of 0, 30, 60, and 90
sults in the cross-sectional areas listed in table 3. The quality of these data
depend strongly on how nearly the sampling procedure produces a random cross sec-
tion of the foam. If randomness is assumed, these data are independent of cell
shape.
(GCP), as discussed by Harding (1960), Rice and Nunez (1962), and Schael (1967),
can theoretically be used to obtain similar data more rapidly. This technique
The principle of GCP operation is Boyle's law: the product of pressure and
foam as determined by GCP would be smaller than the physical dimensions of the
- 14 -
) ) )
Table 3. Intercepted cell section area computed from cell wall intercept data
for two specimens each of PU32, PU64, and PU96. The method of computa-
tion follows that described by Schael (1967). Locations of the speci-
mens are indicated in figure 2.
3 3 3
PU32-2 1.27 X 10- 1.21 X 10- 1.25 X 10"
3 3 3
PU32-3 1.02 X IQ' 1.32 X IQ' 1.11 X 10~
3 3 3
PU32-average 1.15 X l(f 1.27 X 10" 1.18 X 10"
4 4 4
PU64-1 2.90 X 10- 4.23 X 10' 4.59 X 10“
4 4 4
PU64-2 2.59 X IQ' 4.19 X 10" 4.83 X 10"
4 4 4
PU64-average 2.75 X 10" 4.21 X 10' 4.71 X 10"
4 4 1
PU96-1 5.51 X 10" 5.53 X 10‘ 4.69 X rH
O
4 4 4
PU96-2 4.74 X 10' 4.69 X 10‘ 5.88 X 10"
4 4 4
PU96-average 5.13 X 10- 5.11 X 10‘ 5.29 X 10‘
specimen GCP volumes, information on open cell content, cell size, and axial di-
The procedure selected for use involved subjecting the test specimens to a pres-
sure variation from 0.4 to 200 kPa of nitrogen gas. An individual GCP test re-
quired only minutes to complete so that diffusion of gas and concomitant changes
The optical data are internally consistent, i.e., if elliptical cross sec-
tions are assumed, the axial dimensions can be used to compute the cellular cross
sectional area to within the uncertainty of the data. This is not true for the
GCP data for either the cellular volume of cross section. However, as will be
- 15 -
Table 4. Results of gas comparison pycnometer (GCP) characterization of PU32,
PU64, and PU96. Comparable results from optical evaluations of the
same materials are also given.
-3
0 2
Cellular Cross-Section , 10 crn
Axial Dimensions, ym
X Axis 247 490 123 210 153 249
Y Axi s 224 376 142 220 120 245
Z Axis 338 478 227 340 207 278
Axial Ratios
Z/X 1.37 0.98 1.85 1.62 1.35 1.12
Z/Y 1.51 1.27 1.60 1.55 1.72 1.13
X/Y 1.10 1.30 0.87 0.95 1.28 1.02
seen later, the essential quantities in the predictive procedures are the axial
ratios. These ratios. computed using GCP and optical data, are in reasonable
agreement.
closed-cell foams is gas conduction. The composition of the gas in the cells was
assessed. Gas samples were obtained using the system shown in figure 5. The
procedure was as follows: (1) A 3.5 cm^ specimen was placed in the crushing
device (fig. 5b) and sealed using an indium ring. (2) The crusher was attached
to the purge system (fig. 5a). (3) System pressure was reduced to 50 kPa ab-
solute followed by a helium-gas backfill to 115 kPa. This step was repeated 20
- 16 -
Specimen
Crusher
To Purge and
Sampling Port
Figure 5. Schematic of the system used to obtain samples of cell gas from
fluorocarbon blown polyurethane foams.
- 17 -
times and resulted in an air content, external to the foam, of 1 ppm.
(4) Crusher and foam were cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature and the plunger
depressed. The brittle foam specimens were reduced to a compacted powder assur-
ing that essentially all cells had been fractured. (5) A gas specimen was drawn
into a gas-tight syringe and inserted into the analysis system. Steps (1)
through (5) were repeated on four specimens from each of the three polyurethane
foams.
spectrometer detector (Barkley, 1983). The averaged results of the analysis are
shown in table 5.
Table 5. Cell-gas composition of PU32, PU64, and PU96 (Barkley, 1983). One
standard deviation for the CCJI 3 F contents is + 10 %.
Mole %
Specimen CCfcgF
0^ It,
- 18 -
Shroud
Shroud Cooling
Temperature Tubes
Controlled Shield
Top Cold Plate
Vacuum Insulated
Transfer Tube
Throttle Valves
FLUID FLUID
’out**
IN
Vacuum Insulated
Transfer Tube
OUTER GUARD
OFFSET INSULATION
SPECIMEN
z z z
O o INNER INNER O o
I- I- GUARD MAIN HEATER PLATE GUARD
< < HEATER (METERED SECTION) HEATER
_i —I
D D
CO
PLATE PLATE D D
CO C/5 co
z Z
SPECIMEN
OFFSET INSULATION
\\\Y\T\~\\ \ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ XXX
A
BASE
- 20 -
cooling fluid is shown in figure 6 and the details of the specimen configuration
plate and is described in the American Society for Testing and Materials Standard
C177 (ASTM, C177). This method allows an absolute determination of k and is con-
sidered to be the most accurate method available for insulations. The particular
Hust, and Van Poolen (1981); a very brief description is included below.
amount of power, Q, from the main heater plate to the two specimens (fig. 7) and
K =
k M
2A
. _£
AT
( 1 )
where AX is the sample thickness, A is the area of the metered section of the
main heater plate, and aT is the steady-state mean temperature difference across
in this case) heat flow in the metered area of the specimens. The inner-guard
minimize radial heat flow in the metered area. Somers and Cyphers (1951) and
greater than four, the errors in k due to edge losses should be less than 1%.
The metered diameter of the foam specimens was 10.2 cm and the thickness was
2.54 cm.
ference (aT); aT averaged 10 K for PU32 and 25 K for PU64 and PU96. The
- 21 -
correctness of aT measurements depends on pi ate-to-specimen thermal contact, on
of error. The diverse materials which can be tested in this type of system cause
found that embedding the thermocouple wires in the specimen, as opposed to the
AT and larger k (eq (1)). They also found that the effect of thermocouple place-
the specimen increases, the relative effect of an air gap in the specimen-to-
of cementing the wires into machined grooves in the measuring plates (plates ad-
jacent to the specimens shown in figure 7) so that the thermocouples were flush
The accuracy of measurements made with this system on fiberglass and fiber-
board reference materials is discussed by Smith, Hust, and Van Poolen (1981). In
density foams and the fiberous materials tested by Smith, et al . Based on the
percentage errors given by Smith, et al . for each parameter in eq (1) and the
PU foam data (k) are estimated to be 0.2 mW/m.K random and 0.4 mW/m*K systematic
near room temperature; near 80 K the random and systematic components are
0.1 mK/m*K.
The specimen environment throughout the testing period was dry-nitrogen gas.
The gas surrounding the specimen was maintained at a slight positive pressure of
- 22 -
Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature is shown in tables 6 and 7
imum of 15 minutes.
T k T k
(K) (mW/m-K) (K) (mW/m-K)
- 23 -
of
foams
polyurethane
blown
UJ fluorocarbon
DC
< of
kg/m3.
DC
UJ 96
CL conductivity
and
LU 64,
32,
thermal
densities
apparent
nominal
Total
8.
Figure
- 24 -
Table 7. Average thermal conductivity as a function of average temperature for
64- and 96-kg/m 3 polyurethane foams.
3
64-kg/m specimen 96-kg/m'* specimen
surements presented below was developed to allow large specimens, which may be
system involves reflecting a laser-light beam onto a mirror inside the environ-
mental chamber. The mirror is balanced on tripod fulcrum points with two points
resting on a reference material and one point on the specimen. As the relative
lengths of the reference and specimen materials change with temperature, inclina-
tion of the mirror changes and the reflected beam is deflected. The beam deflec-
tion is sensed with a photocell. This deflection can be related to the relative
change length as the system temperature profile changes. Small corrections based
on temperature measurements along their length are made in the analysis of the
- 25 -
materials.
anisotropic
inhomogeneous,
for
developed
Displacement Transducer.
dilatometer
of
Schematic
9.
Figure
CO
>
c
- 26 -
data. A small correction due to the temperature dependent change in length of
tion obtained from either liquid nitrogen or liquid helium in the cryogen dewar
(fig. 9). The electrical heater, not shown in this figure, is wrapped on a
right-elliptical cylinder made of 1/8 inch copper and situated around, but not
The results of a calibration test using two reference materials, OFHC copper
(Kirby and Hahn, 1975) and fused-silica (Kirby and Hahn, 1971), indicate that the
total error in measuring the thermal expansion of OFHC copper relative to that of
fused silica was +5 pm for a 10 cm OFHC specimen. The 2a random error for this
shown in figures 10, 11, and 12. Discrete points represent the experimental data
and the solid curves result from three-term, second-order polynomial fits to
these points. The reference material was OFHC copper in the tests on PU32 and
( 2 )
i=l
- 27 -
o.ooi
L/L
DELTA
- 28 -
*10
L/L
DELTA
TEMPERATURE, K
- 29 -
L/L
DELTR
TEMPERATURE, K
- 30 -
Table 8. Polynomial coefficients representing the measured thermal expansion of
32-, 64-, and 96-kg/m^ polyurethane foams. Reference temperature is
293 K.
-2 2 2
A -1.1825396 x 10 -1.1348273 x 10‘ -1.1727014 x 10"
x
5 5 5
A 1.0877846 x 10' 2.3112134 x 10' 1.4204079 x 10"
2
7 8 8
A 1.0062071 x 10‘ 5.3307753 x 10‘ 8.8122390 x 10‘
3
The constant terms, A^ , have been algebraically shifted to reference the fitted
specti vely.
3
(i ' 2)
CTE = (i-D Ai T (3)
i=l
Tabulated values of Delta L/L and CTE, obtained using eqs (2) and (3) and the
appropriate coefficients from table 8, are given in tables 9, 10, and 11.
Composite curves of Delta L/L and CTE for the three foams are given in fig-
the polyurethane foams were determined using the test fixtures shown in
figure 15. These fixtures consist of concentric overlapping cylinders and op-
erate on the principle that capacitance between the cylinders changes as a func-
tion of overlapping areas (Reed, Arvidson, and Durcholz, 1973). The systems were
specifically developed for use with soft viscoelastic materials such as expanded
plastic foams.
- 31 -
L/L
DELTA
TEMPERATURE, K
- 32 -
V
- 33 -
Tensile Compressive
Load
This type of extensometer does not attach directly to the specimen so that
tensometer works well in cryogenic environments and is linear for large strains
(Roberts, Herring, and Hartman, 1968 and NASA, 1975). The capacitance extensom-
eter system had a linearity range in excess of 2.5 cm when used with the tensile
epoxied to polycarbonate grip ends, 9.9 cm in length and 2.9 cm in diameter were
used to determine Young's modulus, proportional limit, yield strength, and elong-
ation. Reduced-section specimens with gage lengths of approximately 5.1 cm, and
1.9 cm in diameter, were used to determine ultimate tensile strength. This geom-
etry forced failure to occur within the gage length, thus avoiding a premature
- 36 -
The compression specimens were rods 2.54 cm long and 2.54 cm in diameter.
No grips were required for these specimens and therefore all compressive material
The shear specimens, 1.9 x 2.54 x 0.4 cm, were epoxied to flat plates and
each plate was attached to the tensile pull -rod system. An aluminum cyclinder
with a built-in resistive heater and thermocouple was slipped over the specimen
plates and used for temperature control and alignment during the tests.
each temperature, and in some cases several more were tested to determine mate-
by using very slow transfer rates of liquid helium or nitrogen. A given test
that there was no measurable effect on the mechanical properties due to varying
40. The error bars on the figures show the data spread from repeated tests.
Scatter is typically higher for compression and shear tests than for tensile
tests, since the former tests are more sensitive to misalignment. Two orienta-
tions, longitudinal and transverse, are designated in the data. These orienta-
tions are relative to the axes of the bulk supplies, with longitudinal being
parallel to the z-axis and transverse being parallel to the y-axis (fig. 2).
- 37 -
MPa
psi
(Ey),
(Ej),
MODULUS
MODULUS
YOUNG'S
YOUNG'S
TENSILE
TENSILE
_ 60
MPa
co
a
Tensile
40 X
ffl
^ma*'
-20
Ultimate
Jo
MATERIAL:
Polyurethane Foam
0.4 - 60
MPa (32 kg/m 3 )
Strength
SPECIMEN ORIENTATION 40
a
<>0.2%'
0 2 -
.
Longitudinal
*
CM
Yield
o Transverse 20 d
' b
Limit
«
0.4- 60
MP
psi
>
Proportional
°PL
40
0.2-
a
20 b
100
Temperature
Figure 17. Tensile test results: proportional limit, yield strength, and
ultimate strength versus temperature for a 32-kg/m 2 polyuretnane
foam.
- 39 -
30
25
20
15
10
0
ela stic ) | L 1 .. . . l
20
SPECIMEN ORIENTATION
15 Longitudinal
10
).
),
c
(E c
(E
MODULUS, MODULUS
YOUNG'S YOUNG'S
COMPRESSIVE COMPRESSIVE
MPa H60 «
Compressive
a
-40 max
w
20
Maximum
MPa
Strength
2% 0.2%’
_
Yield
0
cr
,
Limit
MPa
,
pL
a
Proportion®!
er
Temperature
Figure 20. Compression test results: proportional limit, yield strength, and
maximum compressive strength versus temperature for a 32-kg/m^
polyurethane foam.
- 42 -
30
25
20
15
10
ELASTIC |
25
20
15
10
TEMPERATURE. K
Fiqui 21. Compressive strain versus temperature for a 32-kg/m3 polyurethane
foam.
- 43 -
t
foam.
32-kg/m3
a
© *
© for
CM UJ
cc
temperature
<
OC
UJ
CL
O 1 versurs
UJ
©
strength
Shear
o 22.
oeo • •
o o
Figure
'H19N3H1S «V3HS
- 44 -
I
•b
y—t
X
MPR PS
MODULUS,
MODULUS,
YOUNG'S
YOUNG'S
- 45 -
I
PS
MPR
STRENGTH,
STRENGTH,
TENSILE TENSILE
- 46 -
STRAIN,/'
TENSILE
- 47 -
0
- 20.0
h 15.
MPR KSI
MODULUS,
MODULUS,
- 10.0
YOUNG’S YOUNG’S
5.0
0.0
- 48 -
I
MPfl PS
STRENGTH,
STRENGTH,
VE
I
COMPRESSIVE
CONPRESS
- 49 -
%
STRAIN,
COMPRESSIVE
- 50 -
I
MPA PS
STRENGTH, STRENGTH,
SHEAR SHEAR
- 51 -
MPR
MODULUS,
YOUNG’S
- 52 -
MPR
STRENGTH,
TENSILE
- 53 -
STRAIN//.
TENSILE
- 54 -
MPA
TRESS
- 55 -
MPR
MODULUS,
YOUNG'S
- 56 -
MPA
STRENGTH,
COMPRESSIVE
- 57 -
MPA
LIMIT,
PROPORTIONAL
- 58 -
MPR
STRENGTH,
YIELD
- 59 -
STRAIN,/'
COMPRESSIVE
TEMPERRTURE,K
Figure 38. Compressive strain versus temperature for a 96-kg/m^ polyurethane
foam.
- 60 -
Figure 39. Compressive stress versus strain for a 96-kg/m^ polyurethane foam.
- 61 -
MPA
STRENGTH,
SHEAR
Figure 40. Shear strength versus temperature for a 96-kg/m^ polyurethane foam.
- 62 -
— 1 1
I — Hl"
I V
" — — I V —— — -
1 . —
o
—
i
cr>
CO
in
I
ir>
cn
•
10
values).
CM
(average
Oo
(XI
oo oo
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CO o
I
n
i/c
10
1^.
CO
#\
r-- r-
CVI
*\
t"-
o to
t
in
....
ooo
CM
o
CM
r-~.
CM
i"-
CM
foam
CO CM cn oo
oo
lO . .
CM
«d-
.—I oo
polyurethane
oo
LO
CO CO
CM <3-
LO 00 . .
. A CO
pH
CO f—
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r-.
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1
lo ooo
• •
OO
•
O OO .
3 r—
pH r — r—
1 1 i i
«— 00
CM CM CM CM
co OO LO
32-kg/m
. . co
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CM i— oo
a
. ^-x - —— ..
for o o
CO LO
r-H r^
r-H
LO CO
oo
CO LO
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o CO
•
r-H
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CO 00
. .
LO CM
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LO
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pH pH
V ' w CM
w"— r-H
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CO <—
'
LO LO
H LO
• •
LO
•
o •
LO LO
• •
results
CM r-HLO
LO CM
lo
lo
LO
LO CO
O CO LO
LO LO
CO CM LO LO o LO
pH pH
oo
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CM rH
. .
53- CO
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pH oo oo oo
test
*
C
o
c •!“
CD CD
tensile E 4-> in
•r- (O S_
U 4-> CD
CD C >
CL CD oo
of 00 -r- c
i. (O
o 4->
s_
Summary
l/l • a
^— CD Cl i
1/5 •|— r— ~ #*
CO
12.
3 CO -C • 1
c c
r— Q. -M * N 07 Tj •r- •r—
3 r— V cn +-> C Cl T3 T3
“O fO c CD CD 2 : S- 3
o c <o <D L0 1— +-> 4->
s: ^ X o Cl. s_ 4— —
^ OO •r—
Table >> •1— •r— +-> 4— •1— CD -c o CJ r— CJ u r— CD
i
•r—
(O +->
i. —
to CO
CL
4->
S- #»
oo O to
CL
+->
(D CO r—
CD f— *n
4-> +->
(TJ
+->
•r— •p (C3
+-> 4-> 4->
C
o
<D cn N — -
o •i—
+-> T3 V E 3 • r— to to o to CO O r—
CD CL c Q. i CM •r— CD </5 fO CO 1— <T3 fl3 1—
+-> o 3 ro O E CD • 03 +-> S- C r— r— r—
(O
s: Q_
S- o
>-
Cl. s_ •r—
Cl
•r—
>-
o Q_ r— +J
3> oo 1—
CD UJ D. LU Cl • •
- 63 -
,
Table 13. Summary of compressive test results for a 32-kg/m 3 polyurethane foam
(average values).
Material Specimen
Property Orientation* 295 K 111 K 76 K
Compressive Strain, %
El astic L 3.3 1.9 2.5
Plastic 4.4 12.4 9.4
Total 7.7 14.3 11.9
Table 14. Summary of shear strength test results for a 32-kg/m 3 polyurethane
foam (average values).
76 L 0.242 35.14
T 0.225 32.65
- 64 -
— — 1 —
— 1 —' -
' ^
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oo
CO CM
LO CO
CM CTi
OA A e-~
CM CO
. .
^
i-H oi
LD o LO ooo
I
. o
CM CM
iX) 00 00
O •
in
.
CO co
1—1 CO
values).
CO CM
co *—i o
r^. e-^
(average
o o
c- in
co o
--Io e-- co
CO
cr>
co «=r
e-.
co
o
I
CD
—
i
....
O
I
O CD
i —I
CO
CM
CO
CM
foam
CM CD cm co
cm e-.
co
CO CM T— I O
polyurethane
CO CO
oo
cti e'-
D~- o
en e-' r— 00
....
I
ft ft
CO 00
00 CO 00 O O 00 CO CO
3 in cm in
,— I 1-H CM CM
|
64-kg/m
CM O <—
1—1
i o
e--.
CO
CD CO . .
in cm 1
i—i o
a
for o o CO CM O CO
CO
cm
^
e-"
t— CO CM 00 in co • •
LO o . . . . =3- co
ft ft CO CM d- e'- <Ti
<3- CM CM en co r—l
in
CD
- ^ ^ - ^ ' — * '
— —
<
•
CM CO
• •
CO
•
o CO • •
CO o
Oo
results
CM CD CM D" CO in co CO CO CO
O CM
. .
CTi
i-H
CO .—
in co
CO CM
CTi
CTi CO
t—
i-H . . . . • •
CO 1—1 oo oo oo
test
I
<l>
tensile e -t-> co
•r- 03 S-
U 4-> O)
(U c >
Cl CL) CO
of 0O -r- c
s_ 03
o I
+3
5-
I
Summary
co • A
A
10 i r—
<L>
i—Q. A 03
15.
3 oo -C *1
— •r— c C
CL 43 CO 03 •p—
O3
•i
1
O3o c
r— ' CD +3 CL 03
03 C 0) OJ S
s^ C 03 CD CO 1— +3 +3
O Q- 4— ,— A OO • r—
>) ~ * r •r- 2: +3 4_ T- SZ u o t— U o r— CD
Table
O
1
CL)
03 +3 oo co +-> 00 lO 4-> +3 CL) -r- •1
03 -r— •1
03 C
• r— S- - Ol S- *>
CL
— 03 CD r- +3 +3 +3 +3 4-> +3 o
1_ <u CT) O -(-> -O &S- E c •r— CO CO O co (/) O i—
0) Cl SZ Cl *i r- CM •i— <1) CO 03 03 1— 03 ro 1—
+3 o 3 03 O E (U • 03 +-> S_ C i— r— r— r—
03 i-
o_
O
>-
Q-
^ S_ -r-
O 1
•r- o o_ r— +3
CD OO
CD LlI Cl
1—
LU Cl.
_i
.
65
1 —'" t1 — — 11 1. ! -' — — 1 11 h • .1 —
00
CM
r-H
00
cr> r^-
CM LO
O
CM
r-H CM
CO
LO • e 9 9 9 9
9\ 00 LO 03 O CM O
00 CO r— LO cm r-- p*- cm
— — O^
1
v >
1
— 1
>—
1
* © © • e •
r-H — 03 CM — CO
values).
CO 00
03
O
CM 00
'd-
O'-
<— t CO
CO
03 CM
00 co
r*
—
v
\ r-H
• * CO CO 00 '3- — CO
1 s
CM >vf * • • e 9 9
(33 9d" 00 00 r-H 0
(average
__ __
OO — t *dp co 0 LO CO
CM 00 LO LO p-. r-. co
OO © * e • • •
©\ #v 03 1 — CO 00
CM CM — LO CO P" LO rH
^
i 1
. CO CO 03 LO 1
— 1 r^s.
•M- . • 9 9 • •
00 *-h OO OO H O
polyurethane
0 0 CO LO r- lo
__
0 co
CM OO Op LO co O- CO
CO LO . • . . . .
a a CO CM O'- lo
O
! 1
CO rj- 03 LO r-H CO LO
1
r
v
1
-
!— H
> — <-H
s
—
1 CM
•
O CM • •
co LO co
• • •
O
1 1
<
(J) OJ t-H
O
T 1 1
64-kg/m^
t—H r-H 03 CM I— CO cn *“H r-H
cn cm p-- co — 1
CM 00 CM
O
\
1
e • CO CO co C-
CO 9 9 . . 9 9
CT> CO
I
00 00 r-H O
a
for
0
cn
0 i->.
<
CM CO
1 5^- "Jd"
P-.
—
1
co
- CO CM
93-LO
f— T 9 . . . 9 «
1
O
1
A A LO r-H *3- P^ CO
CO — LO CM p- co 03 LO
results
un v —
1
r v —--r. -- >— — -* O LO LO LO CO OO
1
03 • • • • • •
CM 03 — CO lo Co- CM 03 CO CO co CM
co
.
0 .
1
00 *3-
CO l-H
1
en co
9d- CM
C^ CO
CO CO
<—1 00 9 9 . . 9 9
test
CM 00 00 OO
*
C
c: O
—
OJ *1
a;
compressive
£ 4-> LO
• r— fO s~
O 4-3 _J f— _l 1— _j l— _! C- _J 1— as
CD c >
CL <D 03
1
CO •r— c
CO
of O +J
a>
>
—
-r- c
#>
h-”
Summary
• — LO f— • A
a r — 1
LO CL.
•
SO r—
co •r— S- CO
0 LO 0: •>
O) +-> c
r— Cl +-> S— rts LO • 1
—
aO0
p— * --
03 4-3 CL CL ~o
16. ra
C 03
SO
CU
CD
LO
E
O
S a>
> 4-3
rs
>>
s --->
— •r-
0 O-
s: 4->
i- M—
4-
„
-r-
C_)
JZ
« •(-—
LO O O — O U r—
•r—
03
1
O
1
,
ro
21 Q.
s- O
>-
Cl.
r 0
s_ -i-
1
•1-
>—
0 a~
21
••0 +->
00
O
O LU Q.
1 1 t
LU Cl
_J
• 9
•*c
66
Table 17. Sunmary of shear strength test results for a 64-kg/m^ polyurethane
foam (average values).
76 L 0.724 104.91
T 0.709 102.75
4 L 0.672 97.36
T 0.874 126.74
- 67 -
—— - ' — ^"
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<D
OO
o
CO CM
•
o
•
CM 00 )
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r
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•
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i-H LO CM CO
00
•
rH
•
i 1 i
i
1
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•
CD
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00
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lo LO CM rH rH t"H r— CO r-H
•
^f
r—
o
i—
I
r — -» f
to
<u r ^
33 r — LO CO
r—
rO
r—
LO
OJ
LO
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o •
> OO LO r—
#v #» r-H CO
OJ LO OJ 00 CM
CO rH rH 1 1
— r I
rO to > — v " — i i
CM CO
s-
0)
p- LO
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o
o
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1
1
i
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1
1 C-~
i-H
03
LO r-H O 1-H 00 O 00
> • • • • • • • 0 • •
— ro LO
O CO
00
CM rH OsJ O CV t i CO rH
rH
E
03
4-
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CD + — 03 CM
C LO • •
03 <D <d CM to
-C <d CD CD LO
r*
CM CM
+->
CD r-H v —
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13
f“H
rH '
T—
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i
i
1
1
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CL
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cvi CM CM O CM
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to
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03 CO <D LO r-H CD O h>.
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03 ^ ^
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CD
4- CM LO i— rH OO LO rH CO
to •
LO
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LO
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LO
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•
oo
• •
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LO CO
• •
CO
•
4->
r—
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LO
LO
CO
o o o o r-H rH ro LO oo CO to CO
3
to
CL)
s- *
c
4-3 C o
to •r—
CL)
4-3
OJ E +-)
•r— 03
CJ 4-> — h- _J f— -J h- -J h-
a> CL) C
, CL CD
transverse
•i OO •r—
to S-
c
CL)
o f
I
4->
I
4—
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>3
S-
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E (
E —
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in
23
40 r— 4-> c longitudinal;
.33 0) 0)
CO
• r— >3
X) 4-3
^
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«s
C
o
r-
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4-
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in
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1—
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V
rH • r L_
S- CD —
in to
13
in
CL
4->
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in
CL
4-3
CD
o to
CL
4-J 4-3
C3 CD CL
c n
1
CD
c
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•i
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CJ
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CJ
1
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03 O- O o
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Q.
s; :e
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S_ -r-
1
CL *r~ O CL
>- OO ^ 21
4-> ,
ZD OO
4-> CL CD 4->
f— 00
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,
LU Q_
i O —
i
LlJ
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cl
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1—
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- 68 -
H- i L
H'
-
: H- — —
—H ~
1 H- -. —H - ' H - —H ) H
H
„ —, . — - ^— - -
.. — cr CO CO
LD
LD
CV
CM CO CM cc
o
CM ld CO
•
CO
•
cc
•
o
•
*sj"
•
CO
•
CO o o
CO
VC
CM
in
CO
cr
CO
CO LD
CO
r < r-H > „ >W- - — **— * CO oc
• •
t—
• •
co
•
CM
VC LT> f— CO r-t LT CO VC cr
LD *H rH C- a r-
O •
r—
•
?-
•
oc
• •
c •
cr
• *
rH CV CV »H cv cv CM cv
values).
a r^-
cv <x
\n
o ur
cr
o
oc
f— VC
VC
CT>
LC
CV • • • • • •
CO CO r^ CO LD VO cr.
(averaqe
*
CM
o
CM CO
r-H
cv
cr
CO CO
vr
c:
»—
cc
— —
' — • " r->
•
VC
•
CO
•
CM VC
• •
co
c- ^ > -
,,
c f— ld cc cv CM VC o ^ *d" cr
CO
CO
CM O o r-H
o
cr
CM
r-
r-H T—
foam • • • • • • •
•
« 4 f— T— cv f-H cv CV
vn
polyurethane „ * ^ —
a oc c f-H VO cr CO cc
a • • • • • •
c CO r-
CO
cr
cr
CM
o cc
VO
o r-H
CO
f-H cr r— CM CM CO CM CO CO f-H r- CC LO CM r-
—
f 1
^ _
w - «*, - .
- • • • • • •
_ ^ .
a
^— — r-H
CM
o
CM
CO
cc
CC
VC
CC
»—
r-H
o
CM cr • • • • • •
for a LD f— CC cr cr cr
f— r-H cr CM o f-H
CM
r-H
VC
#\
CO
#\
- —
’
f— f-H
> vc
•
«d-
•
cr
•
H LD
f—
• •
o-
•
cr
CM cr
CM
cr
CO
CO
CO
c CO CM VO ^ cv VC
results f-H cr cr cr cr
cr r- VO VC cc VC a oc
cc cr.
CM CM
test
K
e
e o
<L>-r-
E 4->
I- TO
U -M
a> e transverse
compressive
o- cl
C/O -r-
e
c
of
T:
;
i
nal
to
a;
Summary
e •>
tudi
c. _E
4-5 E 4-5
<C a> c cr a
— c co CJ> E >
.
jr- >.. .
o ^ M— CL •r- sr onni
q '«o 4-> r JO <+- •P— E co
l V,— S- CO
3 a
CO
• r-
CO
•
+J
r“ •r
VO 4-5 O CO 4-5
CL’
4->
• r-
CO co •>
O (J a <_>
1
s- <u
ai
+-'
a
o
—
c r—
E 3
o ^
a •i
•>
—a c f—
cr.
E
V
C CM
>
Q.
—
•r-
<T3
E
OO Cl
CL
n -
a-
E
G
e
-r-
f«3
•r—
4-5
to
•r—
4->
CO
r—
tv
•r—
4-5
to
»r—
4-5
CO
—
f
tv
(O s- 3 T3 03 o E TO a> E • fV +-> > E
E 4-> CO fO 4-5 tv tv 4->
Table
z: o_ O O C
>- ^
4- •i-
—
a. f— 4-5
>- CO
G CL r—
=D
•r—
CO IET
D
<T3
O
G OO f— r—
UJ a
O
1—
f— —
f
CL 1—
O
Cv. i s: ^r. VjJ
- 69 -
Table 20. Summary of shear strength test results for a 96-kg/m 3 polyurethane
foam (average values).
76 L 1.025 148.59
T 1.118 162.15
4 L 1.064 154.38
T 1.020 147.99
shown that convective heat transfer will not occur in cells whose dimensions are
less than 3 mm. The cells of undamaged polyurethane foam with density of 32 kg/m^
or greater are at least a factor of three smaller than this threshold size. The
foams studied here have cell dimensions smaller than 0.5 mm (see table 1). The
portant to keep in mind that if cracks develop in the foam, either due to thermal
heat transfer.
Radiant heat flow through foam insulation is due to both transmission and to
absorption and reradiation. Resins used for making foams are partially trans-
(thickness >> photon mean free path), however, so that direct transmission will
- 70 -
be small. The effective conductivity due to radiant heat transfer (k r ) can be
estimated by
3
k = 4 aei T (4)
p
-8 -2 -4
where o is the Stefan-Bol tzrnan constant (5.67 x 10" W*m~ K~ ) , e is the emis-
sivity of foam, i is the cell dimension parallel to heat flow, and T is the tem-
Solid conduction (k s ) takes place through the cell walls and membranes of
the foam. Since PU resins are disordered (noncrystall ine) insulators, heat is
which arise due to elongation of cell axes parallel to the direction of heat
The remaining mode of heat transfer is conduction through the gas (kg) oc-
cupying the foam cells. Figure 41 indicates the conductivity of gases sometimes
mated by
k
g
"
^mixture 2
i =1
X k
i i
- 71 -
mW/fm-K)
CONDUCTIVITY,
THERMAL
TEMPERATURE, K
Figure 41. Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for gases commonly
found in polyurethane foams (Touloukian, Li ley, arid Saxena , 1970).
- 72 -
.
where thermal conductivities of the individual species are given by k-j , X-j
represents the corresponding mole fraction, and n is the number of species pre-
sent. The k-j are temperature dependent and, as seen in figure 41, are nearly
linear functions of temperature. The gases present in PU32, PU64, and PU96 are
k = X k + 1 _X k 8)
g CC£
3
F CC£
3
F
(
CU 3 f) air ^
Harding (1964) indicates that the values predicted by this simple molar mixing
approach tend to be slightly higher than those computed using kinetic theory
(Tsederberg, 1965).
(they are not independent of one another), the total apparent conductivity (ky)
k = k + ks + kr (9)
T g
For temperatures near ambient, only gases exist in the cells and ky can be es-
timated using eqs (4), (5), ( 8 ), and (9) when is known. If partial
p
pressures are also known at T-j, eqs (10) and (11) can be used to determine
p
cc* f,t
P
CC* F.T < T > /T 1» T> T
c
3 3 i
(10)
p
r
air,T
- P T T
air,T.( >/ i’
T> 100 K
- 73 -
and
(ID
6
P = P = 8.0875 x 10 /exp(3340.4/T) , T < T ( 12
v CC£ F c )
where T is in K and pressure is in kPa (the saturated vapor pressure is more ac-
The equations given above and the thermal conductivity data were used to in-
dependently determine the cellular gas content of PU32, PU64, and PU96 (table 5).
Results of the calculations are shown in table 21. The components of the total
apparent thermal conductivity were calculated using the relationships given here
and are also shown in this table. Comparison of the computed conductivities to
the experimentally observed values indicates that the rel ationshi ps for ks , kr ,
Delta L/L or CTE of polyurethane. Materials which have been tested are generally
current values to the existing data base indicates that Delta L/L at 105 K for
PU32, PU64, and PU96 fall near the median with a band of approximately +20%
The diagram shown in figure 42 indicates the parameters that can affect the
- 74 -
— - - 1 1 H H 1 H H
as
_x
i CL. — *3- LO O'! CO oo co
Q. X 3^ • • • • •
X
a>
a> - o I
OO
1
o r-H
|
O
temperatures
a.
X E
• CO
•
CTi
•
CO
•
O'!
•
co
•
LO
•
LO
.
o •
a> x. rH O'! CO CO — LO CO
18.0
OJ rH r-H OJ
t
OJ
1
\
— 1 OJ OJ
vapor-pressure
t- E
• X Ot *3" OJ CO o r-H
-X X
3
•
r-H
OJ
<T>
t-H
•
CO
r-H
•
CO
OJ
•
r-H
OJ
•
LO
rH
•
cn
OJ
•
CVJ
• 17.9
initial rt
oo
•
o
oo
•
r-t
o
•
CO
—
r
...
4
LO
f-H
r-H
(. J
LO
.-H
.
O')
O
. 0.1
on
based
• CO OJ
-X
oo E
X CO
•
OJ
•
o •
OJ
•
00
•
o • OJ
•
i—
•
7.5
3
E
CO CO CO 00 r*x LO r-H i—
components
CO
•
E
rv CO OJ o CO CT o
data.
-X X
3 OJ
•
r-H
rH
t-H
•
o
r-H
•
CO
r-H
•
OJ
r-H
•
o
rH
•
•xf
rH
•
OJ
r-H
• 10.3
conductivity
+-> ca LO CO 00 Ox LO 00
O CL . • • • • • • • 3.0
conductivity
Q_
+-> -X OJ
X Cx
LO
rx. CO
CO
f—
LO
Ox o
OJ
CO
»-H
1 «
|
1 1
i. ca
l
OJ
CO
X . • •
1
CO
X •
OJ
•
*xi"
•
1
CO
O'!
o •
CO
• 3.0
thermal •r- CL 3 O'! 00
—
Ox 3 <T> 00 Ox 3 00 CO
thermal
a.
ca
—.x CL r— T CL
1
i-H rH CL
1
of
s_
!
X Cx o
OJ OJ o
1
CT
OJ
<T>
OJ
o
o
1
CTi
CO
CTi
CO 1.00
•r— . • • • • • • •
X ca o o r-H o o t~H o o
from
values
u_
CO —
.
00 OJ o i— LT> o LT) OJ 0.0
ca . • • • • • • .
O
o CL OJ CT> o Ox CO o OJ o
Computed
determined
Cl —
x: LO *xf r- I c
oo CO
x O CO o r—H
X o — CO
o... ...
f i
<=* IX IX CO CO
21.
o <_> o o o o o o o • *
0.00
X
00 00 OJ 00 LO OJ 00 LO OJ
Table
CT
OJ
X
OJ
r—
rH
<T
OJ
X
OJ
rH
rH
cn
OJ OJ
r—i
H
75
foams.
plastic
expanded
of
expansion
thermal
Expansion
Thermal
measured
the
affecting
Parameters
42.
Figure
- 76 -
parameters are independent of one another, e.g., the blowing agent will dissolve
in the resin to some extent and will alter the resin chemistry. Viscosity will
also be affected by dissolved gases and will, in turn, affect the cellular mor-
is not known to these authors. Each is a polyether-based material but the spe-
cific isocyanate is not known. PU32 and PU64 were foamed as continuous buns hav-
ing unrestricted freedom to rise. PU96 was poured in a form which also allowed
and coloring agents are unknown as are formulation temperatures. Each of these
items can affect the chemistry and/or molecular linkages and therefore the expan-
sion characteristics. Each variable will affect the cell structure, however, so
that the net effect of resin chemistry is reflected in the cell morphology and
the resins can be calculated. In spite of all foams being polyether based and
expanded with fluorocarbon, thermal strains in the three lattices differ signifi-
cantly.
The difference between the changing internal pressure and the external pres-
sure define a temperature dependent stress on the foam. Internal pressures were
computed using the procedure discussed under thermal conductivity and are tabu-
lated in table 22. The experimental external pressures were 89.3 kPa for PU32
and PU96, and 84.0 kPa for PU64. Compressive Young's modulus, E (Arvidson
c ,
and Sparks, 1981; Arvidson, Sparks, and Guobang, 1983; and Arvidson, Bell,
Sparks, and Guobang, 1983) and this pressure stress can be used to compute a
strain. These computed strains are parallel to the direction of the experimental
determinations and are tabulated in table 22. The uncertainty of the calculated
- 77 -
- '
-
'
-
-
'
• 11 H —H — — — i
CU
G G
3 -r- CM CM to CM CO
•3
tO
tO
</3
ro
G—
p—
O sl-
CS
d
O
-
LO
CD
00
O o
r-H
03 CU -M • • • • •
oc ZD
cl
G
CL
tO o o O CD o
<T3T3
C CO CO
— rC S'-' to 03 CD d- 03 d-
O
,
rO 0>r- IO
C 3 CL
r- d -
oo LO d-
G CM CM r— 03 CO d- co
g co 3 -a 03 r^. 00 to LO LO
cu zd o o^- CM CO CO d- LO to
+J Q.
c
CO
03
>- s
G ID
,o CL cu
4- 4- G CO
O 3 IO''
ro CO CU ro CM CM to LO CO to
c cl CO G CL • • • • • •
o -i«£ CU +->
— 03 CM LO CO LO to
•1— G 00 to P-- r^- oo 00 co
+j ro CL
o •
c cn
3 00 i— CU
4— CO G
<U C 3
ro G
o»
G CO
cu to
ro
CL
1 —
•
t~h
•
r~-
•
oo
•
o • •
to
ro
3
C G—
4-> O) o
CM
r--
rH
CO
T—
LO d- CM
to <—i
Cl
T3 <U
0) G
+-> =3 CU
ro
— to C
G •!- I p^ CM CO
to 3 LO P-- CO rH CD
i
3
O G
O) CO
« GJ«
ro ' —
O o o o o CD
r— CL —
CU 4->
G tO
o •
CD
•
o •
CD
•
O •
<o 1 1
O P— Cl
ro
G C
O G co to
35 to CO 00 00 CO oo
•i-
+-> +->
CU
COi — ro
,
LO e'- o CM
U X G 3 CL
CU UJ
G
30^
o o—
d-
CM
CM
CO
03
CO
CM
CO-
d
en
oo
LO
to
CO
p^
CM
CO
03
•(— d" >- s:
a * —
• to
ZD
+-> r- CL cu
C 03 G CO
a> G 3 CO '—
E -r- CO 00 00 CO d-
0) 'O
G 3
io ta
to CU ro
• • • •
1
•
1
p^
•
G 00 —
CU 4-> CO d- 00 CD d-
3 +-> r— 1 LO to 1
p'- P".
to -i— CL
ro 03
CUC
O
E — CU
i roG
cu C 3 '—
JD G CO ro CM CM P-- 03 to
+-> -p- CL • •
— CU CO
LO
•
03 CO
•
CO 03
•
to
•
C G—
t +-> CU -3«C
o 3 •— CL
to CM CM r" 1
-m -a l
o
E
CU CU
—
1 to G C g- LO i 1 to si-
1— — 3 •!-
— CO CM CO r-. te
ro 03 CO ro CO d" d- co CO
C
S_ CO G—
yi CD • • • • •
CL O
3
ro CU
G
+J
tO
o1
o 1
o 1
CD
1
o 1
>- CL
c
•i— T3 •
IB C<J
U- ro VO
to
3
co
—
•
CD to- d- LO d- 1 1
+-> CO 03 i— to LO d 03 CO CM
to CO Cl C 3
3 -a
Ol LO o
o CO G- LO
1
CO
G S^
cu CO CD CO d-
"O G G o o rH —
t 1
1
rH
1
\ 1 i—
<U 3 O 4-
CM
CJ to CO
aC3 CO
CU
G
ro
Cl
ZD
CL CU
G
•r- CLL^ 3
CO
CO —
O
-
CU i— o CO
CO
CU
G Cl
ro
•
o •
CM
•
to
• •
c--
*
G ro • CU +J
—
-iC 00 CD to LO O) CM
3 c d- G CO r— to to 00
00 G 00 CL
to CU
CU +j -o
G X G r— CU
Cl CU ro roG
C 3 r— -
G CO ro CM CM CM p — <T> to
• CU CO CL • • • • • •
CM +J <U rH 03 CO CO to
CM C CM CM —
t 1
•—< CL
CU
r—
JD
<T5
CO
03
o
LO
o
d-
o
o o
in
o
o
1— CM CM CM CM r-H r-H
78
pressure-induced strains cannot be determined from available data. Straight-line
behavior of Ec (figs. 19, 26, and 34) was assumed in the temperature range from
values are tabulated in table 23. If the pressure stress given in table 22 is
applied to the foam in the transverse orientation, i.e., the transverse Young's
A value for the total transverse apparent thermal contraction can then be calcu-
lated by summing the resin component and transverse pressure induced strain.
These values are also given in table 23. Figure 43 shows the comparative values
predicted values of resin contraction to be smaller than they actually are. The
slightly positive values for resin contraction of PU32 at 250 and 240 K are
can be determined from this family of curves for densities between 32 and
knowledge of internal gas pressure, external gas pressure, and E c . The in-
section, when the partial pressures are known. The compressive Young's modulus
is discussed below.
- 79 -
—— — - — J
-
-
'
-
m
fO
CO
O0
ZD
Cu
"O
c
<TJ
co
5
\ 1
OS
CD
*sr > 03 a-£
'
CO CO 4->
ZD c ,
03 <u
Cl t- o
OS
CM
CO CO 03
ZD L—
5r?
CL o> *->
i> oo
4-
o
l/) to
—
c/1
sc
cn<
C D
—Z3 03
Q-
o 3 T3
o o ^
*t
>- 51
4->
O
(tS
s_ —J c
4-1 • •r- a*
** 03 CO
£C '
o CL)
]-*->
r- Cd
CD
u 00 CD
— i~ a
1 0)
<T3>
e oo
S. c
<D <13
JC s_
4->
—
4-1
"
01
in •r—
S- r—
<D Z3
> o 13 -r-
—
00O CO 03
L
-
55
e E lO
-4->
<0
s~ oo
4-1 —
Ol
o <u
c
Z3 cr>. — 03
+-> o C 3 Q.
=3 T3
<0 >-
a
I
Z5
O c
i <a
<13
r— -- —
U Ol 03
•
to a^‘
Ol
O) ai
s: s~
+J 4-1
Ol
TD
C
<13
T3 s
a»
1
—
d)
O > 03 a-*
CO
1/1 Z3
C T3
•r— C
1/1 •i
<D !
S- ai
i- Z3 •<-
0) 3 CO
^ L
03
55
s
.c Ol
+J Ol
a)
4- c_
O CL
C 0J
o JC C 3 Ol
r—
4->
4-1
Z3
O O
>- 21
“U
—
o E
<D O
C. s_
4-1 4—
c
o "O
o O) r— Cd
c CD
O
r— •f—
HD E
E S-
s~ ai
0) 4->
_c
i
o CL)
•
OO
C\J
CL)
S ra
h-
80
L/L
DELTR
- 81 -
EXPANSION
THERMAL
CALCULATED
- 82 -
Mechanical properties - The strength properties near room temperature are
g
strength property = Ap (13)
which is equivalent to
(Hilyard and Young, 1982; DuPont, 1979). DeGisi and Neet (1976) found that B
1
= 1.75 for both compressive strength and modulus, and that A' (A = log A) was a
linear function of temperature. Their formulation was limited to T _> 298 K for
strength and T >_ 219 K for modulus for materials in the density range 153 to
392 kg/m^. Cell size and orientation were not considered in developing their
genic temperatures. The strength data and the characteri zation of cell size and
model, based on fundamentals and the current data and which would allow predic-
tive capabilities for the mechanical properties, has not yet been established.
The behavior of the compressive Young's modulus (figs. 19 and 26) and the tensile
strength (figs. 24 and 31) in the temperature range 76 to 111 K was particularly
adopted. As is the case with all such relationships, the extent of its applica-
ures 45 through 48, eq (14), the height-to-width ratio of the foam cells (H/W),
and the foam density can be used to estimate average moduli and strength in
- 83 -
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
3 i
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
3
DENSITY, kg/m
- 84 -
.
MPa
STRENGTH,
TENSILE
3
DENSITY, kg/m
- 85 -
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
3
DENSITY, kg/m
- 86 -
.
MPa
STRENGTH,
COMPRESSIVE
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
3
DENSITY, kg/m
- 87 -
}
tension and compression. The temperature range is 76 to 295 K and the density
range is 32 to 96 kg/m 3 . DeGisi and Neet (1976) found that crosslink density,
urethane to urea bond ratio, and type of isocyanate had no significant effect at
Factors for the direction of stress relative to the elongated cell axis are
1
F(longitudinal )
= 1/2 { [0.6 + 0.15 (H/W)]" + (H/W)
(14)
1
F(transverse) = 1/2 [0.85 - 0.1 (H/W) + (H/W)" ]
48, must be multiplied by this factor. This procedure produces values for the
strength properties that are generally within ±20% of the NBS experimental data.
The low temperature data base for polyurethane foams has been significantly
improved with the addition of the data generated by this effort. These data are
insulation users, and they are related to materials whose morphologies are also
known. The materials used span the range of densities usually considered for
Empirical rel ationshi ps and procedures were developed for predicting the
procedures.
procedures could be adopted for general use in lieu of standard procedures which
are not intended for use at low temperatures . Revised standard procedures are,
of course, the ultimate goal in this area. A basis and need has been established
- 88 -
Major Technical Problems (IF)
Three areas presented technical problems which persisted to the end of the
program and had significant impact on the results: meaningful characteri zation
erties.
The materials studied were obtained from commercial producers because of the
experience and expertise required to produce well designed foams. The chemical
composition and foaming parameters were proprietary and in essence, only the
polyether base could be determined. The characteri zation technique which best
Material variability was high for all materials; the concomitant uncertain-
ties can only be assessed by large numbers of repeat measurements. Time and
funding caused compromises in this area. The variabilities themselves are of in-
terest since they reflect what a user must expect in batch lots of foam.
Modeling based on fundmentals was not possible due, in part, to unexplained tem-
perature effects.
Conclusions (IF)
perature, cell morphology, and gas content. Empirical procedures have been de-
veloped which allow predictions of thermal conducti vity , thermal expansion, and
Parameters which must be determined in order to make use of these procedures are
indicated in table 24. The empirical procedures are based on the results for
must be evaluated.
- 89 -
Table 24. Parameters needed to estimate the thermophysical properties of
polyurethane foams as a function of temperature.
Material Parameters
Property Foam Gas Gas Cel 1 ul ar
Density Content Pressure H/W
Thermal Conductivity X X X X
Delta L/L X X X X
Tensile Strength X X
Tensile Modulus X X
Compressive Strength X X
Compressive Modulus X X
- 90 -
,
References ( IF)
Arvidson, J. M. ,
Bell, R. S. , Sparks, L. L. , and Guobang, C. (1983). Tensile,
Boulder, CO.
ASTM Annual Book of Standard s, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
Exner, H. E. (1969). Discussion of the Relation Between Grain Section and Grain
- 91 -
Harding, R. H. (1964). Heat Transfer Through Low-Density Cellular Materials, I
Hensler, J. H. (1968). The Relation Between Grain Section and Grain Size,
Brief B75-10069.
genic Engineering 18, K. D. Timmerhaus, ed.. Plenum Press, New York, NY,
184-193.
- 92 -
Roberts, J. M. ,
Herring, R. B. ,
and Hartman, D. E. (3.958). The Use of Capaci-
87-96.
Polystyrene, in ASTM STP 718, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
- 93 -
Touloukian, Y. S. , Liley, P. E. , and Saxena, S. C. (1970). In Thermal Conduc -
surement Problems and Effect of Moisture, Bull. Int. Froid, Annexe 1976-2,
119-127.
- 94 -
INSULATING CONCRETES
There are four immediate objectives for the insulating concrete effort:
(3) To perform thermal and mechanical property screening tests on selected mate-
rials.
(4) To select one or more of the available materials for further testing.
LNG industry with the data base needed to incorporate one or more of the insulat-
sulating concretes was done. This effort was initiated by a computerized search
in the following data bases: COMPENDEX, INSPEC, NTIS, and SSIE (further informa-
tion in reference section under Data bases). The references cited in the com-
sisted of measuring the thermal conductivity of five candidate types and the
modulus of rupture and the compressive strength of four candidate types of con-
cretes. The materials were supplied by three private companies and Brookhaven
In addition to the information collected from the literature and the screen-
ing tests, discussions with users and producers of insulating concretes were also
- 95 -
Project Rationale and Projected Benefits (IC)
Increased use of LNG and other liquid fuels along with more stringent safety
titled Flammable Vapor-Gas Dispersion Protection, have created a need for an in-
and basins. One or more of the insulating concretes could be developed to fill
the gap existing between the properties of good insulators, such as expanded
ability to water and liquid fuels, mechanical strength to support service ve-
tively low cost. Once developed, use of a material with these attributes will
time and several commercially produced products are available. The primary ap-
plications are roof insulations, firewalls, and air conduits. The engineering
data developed for these purposes is not sufficient for design of cryogenic fuel
storage installations.
The benefits of developing and using such a material are enormous both from
areas would allow new tanks to be sited in populated areas, i.e., near the users,
and in the event of a catastrophic tank failure and fire, would minimize both
- 96 -
,
cretes: open literature, industry files and experience, and new experimental
data. The literature search and discussions with industry were to be concurrent
and last from beginning to end of the effort. The experimental portion was de-
signed to fill in gaps in information from the other sources. Three screening
selected. The mechanical tests were to be done at 76 and 300 K. Based on all
The literature search resulted in 301 hard copies and microfiche. Of these,
select materials for use in dikes and impounding areas. The number of references
containing data for low temperatures is even more restricted. Annotated bibli-
ographies have been prepared for nine of the technical papers: expanded shale-
portland cement (Monfore and Lentz, 1962; Lentz and Monfore, 1965), vermicul i te-
perlite-, or polystyrene-portland cement (Adams, 1969; Reid and Wang, 1978; Reid,
1980), cel 1 ul ar-portl and cement (Richard, Dobogai, Gerbardt, and Young, 1975;
Richard, 1977), polymer matrix (Lang, Moorhouse, and Paul, 1980; McClune and
Moorhouse, 1981). These bibliographies follow the References (IC) section. The
remaining sources are given in the References (IC) section. The information con-
group these diverse papers into meaningful sets so titles were included in the
references and can be used as guidelines to the paper's contents. Data from the
- 97 -
W/(m-K>
CONDUCTIVITY,
THERMAL
- 98 -
MPa
STRENGTH,
SPLITTING
TEMPERATURE, K
- 99 -
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
TEMPERATURE, K
- 100 -
Figure 52. Compressive strength as a function of temperature for expanded
shale/portland (Monfore and Lentz, 1962) and for several lightweight
concretes at 295 K (McClune and Moorhouse, 1931).
- 101 -
Table 25 lists the companies and people contacted regarding lightweight con-
crete. Some entries represent a single phone contact, while others involved per-
phase were acquired from organi zations listed in this table. Discussions with
members of the GRI Advisory Group were useful in establishing the needs of in-
vacuum environment. The values for portl and/polystyrene are lower than those
usually reported because of porosity and the concomitant lack of gas conduction.
The values for the less porous polyester-based materials are not expected to be
strongly affected by the vacuum environment. Adjusting the port land/ polystyrene
values to account for the lack of gas conduction would increase the conductivity
Although the data base for insulating concretes is very limited, several
strength arjd thermal conductivity can be used to evaluate the relative merits of
tank basin. A minimum compressive strength of 5 MPa (725 psi) is estimated. The
screening tests at NBS (fig. 54) indicate that the particular specimen of
- 102 -
1
Table 25. Industrial sources of information and/or materials used in the N5S/GRI
survey of insulating concretes. This list is not comprehensive in re-
gard to companies involved with lightweight concretes and no endorse-
ment, is implied.
- 103 -
W/(m-K)
CONDUCTIVITY,
THERMAL
- 104 -
is
MPo
STRENGTH,
COMPRESSIVE
TEMPERATURE, K
- 105 -
TEMPERRTURE, K
- 106 -
)
3
application and that one of the polyester-gl ass materials (554-kg/m density)
for portl and-cement-based materials. A similar, but much more tenuous relation-
ship
5
Compressive Strength = 3.174 x 10"^ x p + 1.639 x 10" x p^ (16)
can be used for polymeric-based materials. The least-squares fits in eqs (15)
and (16) were based on data given by McCl une and Moorhouse (1981) and the NBS
data given in this report. It must be stressed that these rel ationships are not
economics of the site area and material costs would necessarily cO'ie into play in
making this decision. The relative thermal property merits of the materials and
The solution to the one-dimensional heat flow equation for infinite slabs
- 107 -
M is the LNG boil off rate, k is thermal conductivity, p is density, C is spe-
ture thermal conductivity for both Portland- and resin-based concretes can be es-
timated by
10“'" 7 2
k = 0.1453 - 3. 1319 x x p + 3.8844 x 10“ x P (18)
for dry materials. The boil -off rate can be expressed as a function of density
-4 2 -7 3 If?
M = [(0. 1453p - 3.1219 x 10 x p + 3.8844 x 10 x p )C] G (19)
840 J/kg*K (Yoshiwa and Iwata, 1977) while that for resin-based materials is
• •
1000 J/kg*K (Sparks, 1983). For a given density, M (polymer base) = 1.1 M
specific heat for nonspecific materials, this 10% difference should be considered
rial. Lang, Moorhouse, and Paul (1980) and McClune and Moorhouse (1931) have
bibliography section.
Concern about water uptake is due to the dependence of boil -off rate on p,
k, and C (eg 17); each of these parameters increase as water content increases.
The relationship for thermal conductivity as a function of density (eq 18) ap-
plies to dry materials. Valore (1956) has shown empirically that the thermal
- 108 -
density due to absorption of free water. Specific heat is also increased due to
the relatively high heat capacity of water. The net effect of water absorption
can be seen by comparison of LNG boil -off for a given material before and after
= 1586 kg/m3, k = 0.62 W/nrK, and C = 840 J/kg*K. The resulting LNG boil-
= 0.82 W/nrK, p = 1686 kg/m^, and, by the rule of mixtures, C = 1051 J/kg*K
• • •
Boil -off for the damp material is M = 1205 G. M(damp)/M(dry) = 1.33, or an in-
alters the distance down wind from the tank at which a 5% methane concentration
occurs (Arthur D. Little, 1974). McCl une and Moorhouse (1981) find absorption in
It does not, however, take several very important factors into account, e.g.,
initial cost, maintenance, flanmabil ity, and water absorption. This ratio is
given in table 26 for the lightweight concretes tested at NBS and for several
materials reported in the literature. Ordinary concretes, which are stronger but
have higher conductivity, have Q values on the order of 20. The resin-based
materials listed in the table are suggested by this ratio while the Portland/
most dense material considered. The Q for this material approaches that of the
resin-based mixes.
- 109 -
)
Table 26. Density, thermal conductivity (k), compressive strength (CS), and the ratio Q
= CS/k for the lightweight concretes tested at NBS and for several materials
reported in the literature. The data are for 295 K.
Density k CS Q
Material Source (kg-iTT 3 )
(W*nrl* K"1 (MPa) (MPa-m-K-ir 1 )
- 110 -
Major Achievements (IC)
The results of the literature survey and the discussions within the user-
based materials are now being evaluated more thoroughly in this country.
The over-riding problems encountered were the lack of low temperature data
in the literature and user inexperience with the candidate materials. This
placed an unexpected burden on the experimental screening effort. The term and
funding of the survey were not sufficient to obtain and perform necessary tests
on the variety of materials and the range of densities needed to establish quan-
Conclusions (IC)
portl and-cement-based materials is due to high strength-to-wei ght ratio and low
after exposure to water. There are, however, unanswered questions which must be
Resins are organic in nature and are therefore relatively flammable. The effec-
als are inherently more expensive, at least initially, than portl and-based mate-
rials. This fact will lead to use of resin-based materials as caps on less
- 111 -
costly substrates. The quality of bond between cap and substrate and the effect
Strength-to-wei ght ratios for portl and-cement-based materials are lower than
those for the resin-based materials. Relatively dense mixes are required to meet
It has been shown that reasonably low equilibrium levels of free water can be
Recommendations (IC)
were mentioned in the Conclusions (IC) section above. The following research is
tion, thermal stresses expected from an LNG spill could cause fractures
and lead to an unacceptable LNG boil -off rate. These data should cover
dimensions.
(2) Tests involving large slabs of the selected material (same resin and
- 112 -
compliment the property determinations discussed in project (1). Plac-
termined. Specimens for the study in (1) would ideally come from these
would be assessed.
(3) Programs similar to (1) and (2) are needed for a portl and-cement-based
(4) Flammability tests are needed for the particular resin chosen. Types
facilities are needed and must be expressed in a form which can be re-
A single, best material for use in insulating dikes and impounding areas
there are six types of materials which would be useful in particular circum-
stances: tl) expanded shal e/portl and , (2) perl ite/portl and , (3) polymer/perlite,
polystyrene, and (6) vermicul ite/portl and. Although data is not available to es-
tablish a figure of merit for all of these materials, (1), (3), and (4) appear to
- 113 -
References (IC )
Tech. 5, 10-11.
Alleaume, J. I. (1970). Fixed Fluid-Tight Tank or the Like and Method of Con-
Altman, Von Klaus (1974). The Behaviour of Moisture in Foam- Polystyrene Concrete
318-63.
Recommended Practice for Measuring, Mixing, Transporti ng, and Placing Con-
mittee 302.
Guide for Cast-in-Pl ace Low Density Concrete (1982). Manual of Concrete
- 114 -
Guide for Cellular Concretes Above 50 pcf, and for Aggregate Concretes Above
50 pcf with Compressive Strength Less than 2500 psi ( 1982 ) . Manual of Con-
API Standard 620 (1978). Recommended Storage Tanks, American Petroleum Insti-
Washington, D.C.
Andrier (1972). Concrete Floating Storage for LNG, Pipeline Gas J. 199 , 75.
Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1974). Evaluation of LNG Vapor Control Methods, Report
ASTM Annual Book of Standards , American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
Standard C42. Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Con-
- 115 -
Standard C78. Flexural Strength of Concrete (using simple beam with third-
Standard C192. Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory,
Part 14.
Batson, G. (1976). Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Mater. Sci. Eng. 25, 53-58.
- 116 -
' . , o
3er;er, E. ,
ceRr-s, -., anc Heyer, D. 1976 . Offshore Nat-ra’ Oas Producti on 2
_ cuefact' o r . Storage a
r
: _-'oa:' ng 0 - a Serai -So b«ersio1 e -'at'o — . -etro-
ar o Tech. 27 , 3-10.
r 1
co
£-«a-:e-, C. a": 5a r <a-, -. . 1976'. Therma Exoa^sio 0 0* C: r c -ece a": :
e'"-
m *a*e_. ,
r
. a-: w attsor , E. V. 1958). Rer'ite Concrete, Cornon.vea' tf Scien-
1
tific arc I-oustria Research Organization, Division of BL**cing -esea-on
1 -
i __ 2a -al i a Report 03 "
Hontrea' , Queoec.
an Bre'-ge" ,
•
. 1982’. 1 Designers Perspective c Cryogenic Storage S_*sce- s fo
‘£«e r Eng*neeri n
Laboratories Deter-'' nation 0* 0 De**''ce r :
* _r - ^- =
r
g 1978;. 0 5
r -
oo>cooQoocQ
J, of PCA l , 2-17.
rei-e-, ,1 .
195" . Se r e-a* Relation o~ -eat r
'o« -actors to t n e co ^e': r
t
r
•-uggeling, c. s. (1982;. State-of-tne-Art Report-C^-yoger'c Ee-a.’o- c
trai nte.
5-0- ,
-. 0. 19~5 . Ir .est* gati or c~ r
-ost Resistance 0* t r tar a
r
: Ccnc-eta.
-.S. Ar-y Eng" nee- natenvays Exce—’-e-t Station, ’ec-. Rept. 1-75-A.
*
-
Ca~ 00 e* * -A en , D. arc "home, C. P. 1953 . "he '-e- a * Conduct' . it., c* !: r -
Concrete Tunnel Support and Lining, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Report REC-
EDC-73-23
266-271.
Closner, J. J. (1968). Prestressed Concrete Storage Tanks for LNG, The Preload
Closner, J. J. (1968). LNG Storage with Prestressed Concrete, The Preload Com-
Closner, J. J. (1971). Prestressed Concrete Dike Systems for LNG Storage Con-
Closner, J. J., DeBock, L. F., Legatos, N. A., Marchaj, T. J., and Gerwick, B. C.
ASME 73-PET-37 ,
1-9.
Storage of LNG and LPG on Ships or Barges and as a Secondary Barrier, The
- 118 -
Cook, D. J. (1972). Polystyrene Aggregates, Constr. Rev. 4T[, 52-53.
on LNG.
Data bases
Springfield, VA.
- 119 -
.
Duffy, A. R. and Shoup, A. J. (1966). 60,000-bbl LNG Tank to Use Internal Insu-
Durr, Charles (1974), Process Techniques and Hardware Uses Outlined for LNG Re-
Dycon Concrete: The Energy Saving Insulation for Roof Decks (1976). Koppers Com-
Eakin, B. E., Bair, W. G., Closner, J. J., and Maroti , R. (1963). Below Ground
- 120 -
Escalante, E. and Cohen, M. (1980). Measuring the Rate of Corrosion of Reinforc-
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Federal Register (1980). Liquefied Natural Gas Facilities; New Federal Safety
Safety Standards for Siting, Design, and Construction 45, Research and Spe-
Fontana, J. J., Webster, R., and Kukacka, L. E. (1978). Rapid Patching of De-
teriorated Concrete Using Polymer Concrete, BNL Report, Vol . 24217, Brook-
crete £, 28-30.
Washington, D.C.
- 121 -
,
Tokyo, Japan.
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Hendriks, N. A. (1978). Safety Wall tor a Storage Tank, United States Patent
Holman, 0. B. and Post, H. J. (1974). Unique Design Features-Phil adel phia Gas
137-140,
- 122 -
Horler, D. B. (1979). Lightweight Aggregates in the U.K., Inti. J. Lightweight
Concr. 2.,
35-37.
ture, NASA Tech. Memorandum, Vol . 75286, National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
Vol. 3,473,689.
Klieger, P. (1952). Studies of the Effect of Entrained Air on the Strength and
Highway Res. Board 177-202. Also available as PCA Bulletin 40, Portland
Fertigteil-Tech. £, 191-197.
- 123 -
Kukacka, L. E., Auskern, A., Colombo, P., Fontana, J. and Steinberg, M. (1974).
Upton, NY.
Kukacka, L. E., Mediatore, R., Fontana, J., Steinberg, M. and Levine, A. (1975).
The Use of Polymer-Concrete for Bridge Deck Repairs on the Major Deegan Ex-
Lai, K., Singh, R., and Upadhyaya, V. G. (1976). Bloated Clay an Unconventional
Process Hazards, Manchester, U.K., Also British Gas Report MRS 372, British
- 124 -
.
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- 126 -
Nekrason, K. D. and Masl ennikoua , M. G. (196?). Heat Resistant Perlite Concrete,
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Pittsburgh Testing Lab (1963). Perlite Concrete Testing Program for Perlite In-
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Reid, R. C. (1980). Boiling of LNG on Typical Dike Floor Materials, Report to
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- 129 -
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- 130 -
Steinberg, M., Kukacka, L. E., Colombo, P., Auskern, A., Manowitz, B., Dikeou,
Steinberg, M. (1976). Concrete Polymers: Past, Present and Future, BNL 22524,
Stockhausen, N., Dorner, H., Zech, B., and Setzer, M. J. (1979). Freezing Phe-
Res. 9, 783-794.
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and the Hexagonal Ices, Physics of Ice , Plenum Press, New York, NY.
- 131 -
Taylor, W. H. (1954). Lightweight Concrete, CSIRO Report, Commonwealth Scien-
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Verfounceng von Beton bei Sehr Tiefer Temperatur, Beton 30, 54-59.
- 132 -
Weigler, H. and Sieghart, K. (1980). Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
Whiting, D., Litvin, A., and Goodwin, S. E. (197#). Specific Heat of Selected
Wills, M. H., Jr. (1974). Lightweight Aggregate Particle Shane Effect on Struc-
- 133 -
-
the period 1962 through 1966. This work is referred to in a large percentage of
papers dealing with concrete at low temperatures. The purpose of their study was
to develop a data base to use in the design of LNG facilities. The temperature
range studied was -157 to 24 °C. The materials of primary interest were ordinary
weight concretes, e.g., densities on the order of 2290 kg/m^ (143 lb/ft^).
One series of expanded-shal e-portland specimens were included; the density of
these specimens was 1554 kg/nr (97 ib/ft^) which puts them in the structural
lightweight category.
Material Expanded shal e/portl and; 1554 kg/m^ (97 Ib/ft^) density;
:
334.6 kg/m3 (6.0 bag/yd^) cement content; 0.45 t/kg (5.1 gal/bag) water to
cement ratio.
- 134 -
Expanded shal e/portl and
Narrati ve This paper is the second of the series by Lentz and Monfore dealing
:
Material Expanded shale/portland; 1586 kg/m^ (99 lb/ft^) density; 334.6 kg/m^
:
(6.0 bag/yd^) cement content; 0.45 A/kg (5.1 gal/bag) water to cement ratio.
Data : Thermal conductivity (moist, 50% RH, oven dry); -157 <. T _< 24 °C.
Concl usions These data emphasize the importance of moisture content on the con-
:
- 135 -
.
several candidate dike insulating materials. The boiling rate, M/A, was found to
)
be M/A = Ft" anc p = (k?rC/p - 1/2 aT/aH.
) Both coated and uncoated specimens
were tested and no difference in boiling rates was detected. Apparent thermal
conductivities were computed.
Material Polystyrene-portland
: , vermicul ite-portl and , soil, corrugated aluminum,
polyurethane.
Cone! usions The relative boil -off rates for the insulating concretes were
:
- 136 -
Cellular Portland cement concrete
Concl usions The data are indicative of moist specimens which tend to make the
:
- 137 -
Perl ite-portl and cement concrete
Concl usions The values presented in this paper are useful because the ana-
:
- 138 -
Polymer matrix composites and waterproofing
Narrati ve This paper reports the continuation of the effort to establish a vi-
:
superior to treated lightweight concretes with regard to water uptake and com-
pressive strength. Data presented here for the bond strength between resin and
ordinary concretes indicate that this should not be a major problem in the prac-
tical application of resin concretes. In applications where the exposure to
water can be reasonably limited, such as well graded or vertical sections, the
water uptake in treated lightweight concretes can be kept to levels causing rela-
tively small increases in thermal conductivity, e.g., water content increasing
from 0 to 10% by volume increases the conductivity by approximately 50%.
- 139 -
s
portl and-cement binder. Epoxy and polyester binders used with several unspeci-
fied aggregates and with clay aggregates. Latex, epoxy, and silicon admixtures.
Data: Water uptake and water content as a function of time in wetting and drying
environments. Compressive strength and thermal conductivity as functions of den-
sity.
increase in density due to free water content. This trend makes water uptake
critical to the performance of these materials. Waterproofi ng by application of
surface sealers is not satisfactory because thin layers of sealer are not effec-
tive and thick layers are expensive and are detrimental to the thermal proper-
ties. Reactive admixtures are not effective when used with lightweight con-
cretes. Nonreactive admixtures, particularly latex, and treatment of aggregate
with waterproofi ng agents prior to mixing was found to be effective in reducing
water uptake. Resin-based concretes were most effective in reducing water up-
take. Possible drawbacks to the use of resin binders are flammability, cost, and
bondability to substrate materials.
- 140 -
^ —
U »• OCPT. OF COMM. 1. PUBLICATION OR 2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date
REPORT NO.
ilBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET (See instructions) NBSIR 84-3011 OR I -84/0086 April 1984
4 . TITLE AND SUBTITLE .
—
hemal and Mechanical Properties of Polyurethane Foams and a Survey of Insulating
Concretes at Cryogenic Temperatures
5. AUTHOR(S)
L. L. Sparks and J. M. Arvidson
b . PERF ORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than N BS. see in struction s) 7. Contract/Grant No.
5081-352-0425
national bureau of standards
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 8 . Type of Report & Period Covered
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20234
Final , Jan 1979-Feb 1981
9. r’ ) N SO RING ORGANIZATION NAME and COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City. State. ZIP)
10 . supplementary notes
Thermal and mechanical properties of expanded plastics, foams, are reported. The
system studied was rigid, closed cell, CCJI 3 F blown, polyether based pol yurethane. The
primary temperature range of study was 100 to 300 K; however, several properties were
determined to 4 K. The nominal densities of the foams tested were 32, 64, and 96 kg/m J .
Properties reported are thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, strength and moduli in
tension and in compression, proportional limit, yield strength, ultimate strength, and
shear strength. Physical properties were determined both parallel and perpendicular to
the orthogonal axes of the bulk supplies. The gas content of the specimens was deter-
mined using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer and with a gas displacement pycnom-
eter. Empirical procedures for estimating the temperature dependent thermophysical
properties were developed. These procedures are based on the experimental data and uti-
lize the characteri zati on parameters for molar gas concentration, gas pressure, and cell
morphol ogy.
Regulations affecting vapor dispersion in the area around liquefied natural gas fa-
cilities make it attractive to construct dikes and impounding areas out of materials
having low thermal conductivities. Several insulating concretes have the general prop-
erties required for such applications. Screening tests were done to determine the
thermal conductivity, modulus of rupture, and the compressive strength of several poly-
ester based materials with glass bead or perlite aggregate and of port land cement based
materials with vermiculite or polystyrene aggregate. A bibliography resulting from an
extensive literature survey of lightweight concretes is presented. Seven of the refer-
ences which were particularly applicable are presented in annotated form.
12. KEY WpRDS(S/x to twelve entries: alphabetical-order; capi ta ze.on ly prosper names- and separate <ey woreIs tv
I i cojODii i i
celT size; compressive strength; elongation; TTexuraT strehgtn; foam; glass bead; instil ation
low temperature; mechanical properties; modulus of rupture; perlite; polyester; polymer
concrete; polystyrene; portland cement; proportional limit; shear strength; tensi e str angth ]
v th ‘^l ^gp^cti ^H-ty ; th e rmal, expansion; vcrmicul i t e ; yield str e ngth; fowqd *
^ A
- — 1
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