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APPARATUS AND DEMONSTRATION NOTES
Jeffrey S. Dunham, Editor
Department of Physics, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont 05753
This department welcomes brief communications reporting new demonstrations, laboratory equip-
ment, techniques, or materials of interest to teachers of physics. Notes on new applications of older
apparatus, measurements supplementing data supplied by manufacturers, information which, while not
new, is not generally known, procurement information, and news about apparatus under development
may be suitable for publication in this section. Neither the American Journal of Physics nor the Editors
assume responsibility for the correctness of the information presented. Submit materials to Jeffrey S.
Dunham, Editor.
355 Am. J. Phys. 74 共4兲, April 2006 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2006 American Association of Physics Teachers 355
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evolves into a treatment of waves propagating in three di-
mensions. Two types of three-dimensional waves are particu-
larly useful: plane waves and spherical waves. A plane wave
w共z兲 = w0 冑 1+
z2
zR2
, 共5兲
356 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Apparatus and Demonstration Notes 356
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interference pattern produced by the focused beam and the
unfocused beam coming from the other arm of the interfer-
ometer. By moving the camera along the propagation axis of
the beams about the beam waist one can see the fringes shift-
ing due to the Gouy phase. Note that this is done without
changing the path-length difference of the light in the inter-
ferometer.
We can make the interferometer very stable against vibra-
Fig. 1. Mach-Zehnder interferometer for studying the phases of optical tions by using “pedestal” mounts, and by making the dimen-
beams. The basic components are two beam splitters 共BS兲 and two mirrors sions of the interferometer as small as possible. By mounting
共M兲, with one mirror mounted on a translation stage 共T兲. A lens 共L兲 can be one of the mirrors on a translation stage and putting a piezo-
added to one of the arms for observing the pattern produced with the light electric ceramic as a spacer in the stage, one can scan the
from the other arm. A computer-generated grating 共G兲 can be inserted in one
of the arms to produce high-order modes.
interference fringes by applying a voltage to the piezoelectric
共e.g., the piezoelectric from Thorlabs model AE0505D8 costs
about $130兲. The 0-to-150-volt driver of the piezoelectric is
a low-cost high-voltage amplifier 共e.g., EMCO High Voltage
angle, differences in the reflection coefficients of the beam
part number Q02-24 costs about $80兲. An inexpensive way
splitters and mirrors may produce changes in the state of
to scan the fringes is to attach a rubber band to the back of
polarization that depend on the interferometer path taken by
one of the mirror mounts and then to pull the other end of the
the light, and thus reducing the visibility of the interference
rubber band in a systematic way.
pattern.
When the beams coming from both arms of the interfer-
ometer are not exactly collinear the interference pattern con- III. HIGH-ORDER HERMITE-GAUSS SOLUTIONS
sists of straight fringes, as shown in Fig. 2共a兲. These can
either be projected onto a screen with a diverging lens placed The high-order solutions of the paraxial wave equation
after the interferometer, or sent to a CCD camera without a depend on the system of coordinates that we use. It is natural
lens. By inserting a diverging lens in one of the arms we can to start the discussion with the solution in rectangular coor-
investigate the spherical wave front of the beam: the inter- dinates. Rectangular solutions of the wave equation also
ference of collinear beams with different radii of curvature have a familiar mathematical formalism for the students.
produces the “bulls-eye” pattern shown in Fig. 2共b兲. We start by revisiting the paraxial wave equation 关Eq. 共2兲兴,
One can also use the interferometer to observe the Gouy and introducing the more general trial solution:
phase. This is done by placing a converging lens in one of 2+y 2兲/关2q共z兲兴 ip共z兲
the arms of the interferometer such that it focuses the beam E共x,y,z兲 = Ag共x,z兲h共y,z兲eik共x e . 共6兲
going through that arm outside the inteferometer. A CCD
Note that now we allow the solution to have independent x
camera placed in the path of the beams will show a bulls-eye
and y dependencies. Substituting Eq. 共6兲 into Eq. 共2兲
yields5,7,9 two Hermite differential equations for g and h. The
final solution is
Em,n共x,y,z兲
=
A
w共z兲
Hm 冉 冊冉 冊
冑2x
w共z兲
Hn
冑2y
w共z兲
2+y 2兲/w共z兲2 ik共x2+y 2兲/关2R共z兲兴 i共z兲
⫻e−共x e e . 共7兲
A beam described by this solution is known as a Hermite-
Gauss beam. The indices m and n of the Hermite polynomi-
als Hm and Hn label particular solutions or modes. We define
the order of the solution by N = n + m. Modes of the same
order are degenerate in laser resonators. Since H0 = 1, the
solution of Eq. 共4兲 for n = m = 0 is the zero-order solution
described in the preceding section. Aside from the Hermite
polynomials, the other terms of Eq. 共7兲 are the same as those
of Eq. 共4兲 except for the Gouy phase, which is given by a
modified expression, 共z兲 = 共N + 1兲tan−1共z / zR兲. The depen-
dence of the Gouy phase on the order N gives rise to the
higher resonant frequencies of 共high-order兲 transverse modes
in laser resonators. The constant term that normalizes the
total intensity is given by10 A = 关21−N / 共n ! m ! 兲兴1/2.
The Hermite-Gauss solutions have a variety of interesting
Fig. 2. Pictures of images of interference patterns produced with the Mach- shapes that can be investigated in the laboratory by use of an
Zehnder interferometer and recorded with a CCD camera. In patterns 共a,b兲,
共c,d兲, and 共e,f兲 the signal beams were zero-order Gaussian, first-order
open-frame laser with a thin wire placed in the cavity.10,11
Hermite-Gauss, and first-order Laguerre-Gauss, respectively. In patterns Losses by scattering off the wire cause the laser to oscillate
共a,c,e兲 the reference beam was unexpanded and noncollinear, and in 共b,d,f兲 in a mode that has its nodes along the wire. An alternative
the reference beam was expanded and collinear. method is to use a thin coverslip as an etalon and frequency
357 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Apparatus and Demonstration Notes 357
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Fig. 3. Computer-generated holograms to generate first-order Hermite-
Gauss beams 共a兲, and Laguerre-Gauss beams 共b兲. The lower images are
photos of the diffraction patterns that result when the gratings above are
illuminated by a zero-order beam. The gratings used to produce the patterns Fig. 4. Perspective view of the wave front of a first-order Laguerre-Gauss
in the images did not have the same density of fringes. beam. The helical surface is formed by points where the wave has the same
phase 共crests, in the picture兲.
f共x,y兲 = 再 1,
0,
2m + ⑀/2 艋 共x,y,0兲 ⬍ 共2m + 1兲 − ⑀/2,
共2m + 1兲 − ⑀/2 艋 共x,y,0兲 ⬍ 共2m + 2兲 + ⑀/2,
共11兲
358 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Apparatus and Demonstration Notes 358
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where m is an integer. One can set a graphing routine to fill reproduce because of the low efficiency in producing
with white where f共x , y兲 = 1, and black where f共x , y兲 = 0. The Laguerre-Gauss beams with the forked amplitude gratings.
ratio of the white to black thickness is given by 共1 − ⑀兲 / 共1 The recent report of a low-cost phase plate26 holds promise
+ ⑀兲. The pattern of Fig. 3共b兲 was made with ⑀ = 0.11. for implementing a feasible angular momentum transfer
One can use the interference setup of Fig. 1 to investigate demonstration in the undergraduate laboratory.
the peculiar phase of Laguerre-Gauss beams. Similar to the The orbital angular momentum carries over to the photon
discussion in the preceding section, we place a charge-1 level when the photons are propagating in that mode of the
forked diffraction grating in one of the arms of the interfer- light. This is an interesting but challenging concept to grasp.
ometer. In general, when a zero-order input beam is incident We must imagine that a single photon has a spatial extension
on a grating of charge q, the nth diffracted order is a in the transverse direction in order to carry the phase prop-
Laguerre-Gauss beam with ᐉ = qn 共see also Ref. 16兲. In the erties of a Laguerre-Gauss mode, and thus orbital angular
arm with the q = 1 forked grating we steer the first order 共i.e., momentum. The total angular momentum of a photon can be
with ᐉ = 1兲 to interfere with the zero order mode going expressed as18,22
through the other arm. When the reference beam is unex- L=ប + ᐉ ប, 共12兲
panded and noncollinear, the interference pattern is a recre-
ation of the forked hologram, as shown in Fig. 2共e兲. When where = ± 1 represents the spin angular momentum of the
the unexpanded reference beam is collinear with the one in photon.
the Laguerre-Gauss mode, the interference pattern consists of
an off-axis “blob” that gyrates about the central spot when VI. CONCLUSIONS
the path difference between the two interferometer arms is
The topic of Gaussian beams provides students with the
varied 共see, for example, Ref. 17兲. If the reference beam is
fundamentals for understanding the physics of laser beams
expanded, then the interference pattern has a unique spiral
and their propagation. Given the wide-spread use of lasers
shape, as shown in Fig. 2共f兲.
today, this material should be an essential part of a course on
There are other interesting aspects of high-order modes of
optics. The coverage of high-order Gaussian modes serves to
Gaussian beams that can be studied in upper-level under-
deepen the discussion of light waves, and to underscore the
graduate laboratory projects. One is the conversion between
key components of the wave function: amplitude and phase.
Hermite-Gauss and Laguerre-Gauss modes using astigmatic
The discussion of Laguerre-Gauss beams is necessary for
mode converters,10,11,18 which also constitutes an important
introducing students to the orbital angular momentum of the
application of the Gouy phase. Other interesting solutions to
light.
the wave equation are the “diffraction-free” Bessel beams19
We have successfully introduced this new material to un-
and the solution of the wave equation in elliptical-cylindrical
dergraduates in our optics course. As presented in this article,
coordinates, which is expressed in terms of Mathiew
we expanded the treatment of Gaussian beams to include
functions.20
beams in high-order modes, especially the Laguerre-Gauss
solutions of the wave equation. This discussion was pre-
V. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM sented early in course, in a chapter on light waves. Orbital
angular momentum was introduced more formally later in
As mentioned before, Laguerre-Gauss beams carry orbital
the course, after a chapter on polarization. This way we
angular momentum. This is different from spin angular mo-
could cover under the unifying theme of momentum, the
mentum, which is associated with the circular polarization of
linear momentum of the light and both forms of angular
the light. Orbital angular momentum has been discussed ex-
momentum, spin and orbital. The phase of Gaussian beams
tensively in the literature.21,22 It can be understood intuitively
was revisited in the chapter on interference. The topic also
by analyzing the wave front of Fig. 4. In free space the local
provided interesting exercises, such as the calculation of in-
momentum of the beam is normal to the surface of the wave
terference patterns that could be compared to images of real
front. Since this momentum has an azimuthal component,
patterns, like those of Fig. 2. The experiments discussed in
then there is a finite longitudinal component of the angular
this article were used in the laboratory component of the
momentum. A rigorous derivation shows that the total angu-
course or in class demonstrations.
lar momentum of the beam along the propagation direction is
proportional to ᐉ.18,21,22
There have been numerous demonstrations of the transfer ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of orbital angular momentum to matter. All of the demonstra- The authors thank P.R. Crawford, P.J. Haglin, V. Matos,
tions involve optical tweezers. Microscopic objects 共e.g., M.W. Pysher, H.I. Sztul, and R.E. Williams for their contri-
micron-sized latex spheres兲 can be trapped in the high- butions to our laboratory experience at Colgate University,
intensity region of the doughnut and carried along the ring and C.H. Holbrow and J. Noe for help and useful discus-
by the tilted wave front.23 In this case one can think that the sions.
wave front is doing the same job that a rotating drill bit does
to the filings after shaving them off the drilled material. It is APPENDIX: INTERFEROMETER ALIGNMENT
important to note that the light is not traveling in a helical
trajectory. The helical surface is the mathematical locus of Aligning the Mach Zehnder interferometer requires a sys-
points of equal phase. Absorptive particles have been shown tematic approach. Here we describe a method that produces
to rotate by the transfer of angular momentum,24 and larger an excellent alignment with not much frustration. This align-
irregular objects have been set to rotate via light-induced ment also gets the beam very close to the condition of zero
torques.25 Unfortunately these experiments are not easy to path-length difference. The basis of our alignment is simple:
359 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 4, April 2006 Apparatus and Demonstration Notes 359
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Fig. 5. Procedure to align a laser beam to the rows of holes on an optical breadboard 共see text兲.
3
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