Lecture Notes on Marine

Engines &AuxiliaryMachineries
Course Code: CEG 813

Βy

Engr. Kombo Theophilus-Johnson

Centre of Excellence in Marine and offshore Engineering
Rivers State University, Port Harcourt

April, 2018

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 Part One:
Marine Engines

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Section One:
Diesel Engines

3
DIESEL ENGINES

INTRODUCTION

The diesel engine (also known as compression-ignition or CI engines) named after Rudolf Diesel
is an internal combustion engine in which the ignition of the fuel injected into the combustion
chamber is caused by heat of compression – elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to
mechanical compression (adiabatic compression). Diesel engine unlike the spark-ignition
engines such as petrol engine (gasoline engine or gas engine which uses gaseous fuel as opposed
to fuel) works by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder
to a high degree that atomized diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber ignites
spontaneously. In diesel engines, glow-plugs-combustion chamber pre-warmers may be
employed to aid starting in cold weather or both. The original diesel engine operates on the
constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any regular internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which
enables heat dissipation by the excess air.

Diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke cycle versions. They were
originally designed to be used as a more efficient replacement for stationery steam engines.
Since 1910s, they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy
equipment and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they were gradually used
in some automobiles; these have increased since the 1970s as diesel engines are used in the USA
in larger on-road and off-road vehicles. As of 2007, about 50% of all new cars in Europe are
diesel engines. The world largest diesel engine is the “Wartsila-Sulzer RTA 96-C” common Rail
marine diesel.

- Total engine weight: 2300 tons (Crankshaft weight is 300 tons)

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 - Maximum (Peak) Power Output: 84.42 MW (113.210 hp) at 102 rpm

Fig. 1.1: Wartsila-Sulza RTA 96-C Marine Diesel Engine

TYPES OF DIESEL ENGINES

There are two basic types of diesel engines - two-stroke and four-stroke engines. “Stroke means
the movement of the piston in the engine cylinder”.

TWO-STROKE CYCLE

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This engine uses one stroke in each direction. The first stroke being the compression, which
results in the ignition of the compressed fuel while the return stroke brings new fuel into the
cylinder.

Fig.1.2: Two-Stroke diesel cycle engine: (a) scavenging,(b) compression, (c) power, (d)
exhaust

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Fig. 1.3: Actual p-V
V diagram of two-stroke
two diesel cycle

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE

stroke cycle has one compression stroke and one exhaust stroke and each one of those
The four-stroke
has a return stroke – hence,, four-stroke.
four stroke. The compression stroke compresses the fuel/ air mixture
prior to ignition. The exhaust stroke pushes the burnt gases out of the exhaust. Majority of diesel
engines uses the four-stroke cycle; however, some larger engines operate using the tw
two-stroke
cycle.

Fig. 1.5 shows the actual indicator diagram for a four

four-stroke
stroke diesel cycle engine. It should be
noted that line 5-11 is below the atmospheric pressure line. This is due to the fact that owing to the
restricted area of the inlet passages the entering air cannot cope with the speed of the piston. The
exhaust line 4-55 is slightly above the atmospheric line. This is because of the restricted exhaust
passages which do not allow the exhaust gases leave the engine cylinder quickly. The loop of
area 4-5-1 is called negative loop which gives the pumping loss due to admission of air and
removal of exhaust gases. 11-2-3-44 is the total or gross work obtained from the piston and
network can be obtained by subtracting area 4-5-1
4 from area 1-2-3-4

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Fig. 1.4: Four-stroke
stroke diesel cyc
cycle engine

Fig. 1.5: Actual p-V

V diagram of four-stroke
four diesel cycle

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The diesel engine is a mechanical arrangement which converts chemical energy of the fuel into
useful mechanical energy within the cylinders. The chemical energy in the fuel is released in the
form of heat as the fuel is burned in the combustion chamber of the engine. The gases resulting
from combustion are very hot and reach a very high pressure, and it is this pressure that is used
to force the piston down its cylinder to make the engine operate.

The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then
ignited by the heat of the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to
vaporize from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been
burnt. Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power
stroke. The start of the vaporization causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel
knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in
pressure above the piston. When combustion is complete, the combustion gases expand as the
piston descends further; the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying
power to the crankshaft.

Fig. 1.6: Idealized p-V diagram of a four-stroke diesel cycle

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The P-V diagram is a simplified and idealized representation of the events that take place in the
Diesel engine cycle (Similar to a Carnot Cycle). Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead center
and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at
atmospheric pressure. Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically – that is without heat
transferred to or from the environment – by the rising piston (this is only approximately true as
there will be a heat exchange with the cylinder wall). During this compressing, the volume is
reduced; the pressure and temperature both rise. At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected
and burns in the compressed hot air. Combustion and heating occurs between 2 and 3 (due to
energy released which injects thermal energy-heat into the compressed gas). In this interval, the
pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature
rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion. At 3 fuel injection and combustion are
complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3 and 4 this
hot gas expands (approximately adiabatic). Work is done on the system to which the engine is
connected. During this expansion phase, the volume of the gas rises, and its temperature and
pressure falls. At 4, the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric
(approximately). This is an un-resisted expansion and so no useful work is done by it. Ideally,
the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the line 3 – 4 to the right until the pressure
falls to that of the surrounding air; but the loss of efficiency caused by this un-resisted expansion
is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it.

After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke follows – this and the following
induction stroke are not shown on the diagram. At 1, it is assumed that the exhaust and induction
strokes have been completed, and the cylinder is again filled with air. The piston-cylinder system
absorbs energy between 1 and 2 – this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder and
is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine. Work output is
done by the piston-cylinder combination between 2 and 4. The difference between these two
increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle and is represented by the area enclosed
by the P-V loop. The adiabatic expansion is in a higher-pressure range than that of the
compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression.
It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle is
positive.

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ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL ENGINES OVER OTHER INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

• They burn less fuel than petrol engine performing the same work, due to the engine’s higher
temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio
• Gasoline engines are typically 30% efficient while diesel engines can convert over 45% of
the fuel energy into mechanical energy.
• They have no high – tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting in high
reliability and easy adaptation to damp environment. The absence of coils, spark plug wires,
etc also eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions which can interfere with
navigation and communication equipment, which is especially important in Marine
application.
• The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of petrol engine due to the
increased strength of parts used.
• Diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than petrol as well.
• Diesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. Distillation yields some gasoline but the
yield would be inadequate without catalytic reforming, which is a costlier process.
• Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Although diesel fuel will
burn in open air using wick, it does not explode and will not release a large amount of
flammable vapour.
• They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust
• The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal thus diesel engines are used in
underground mines.
• Diesel engines can accept super-or-turbo-charging pressure without any natural limit,
constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike petrol engines , which
inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure
• For any given partial load, the fuel efficiency (Mass burned per energy produced) of diesel
engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and turbine engines which use
proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs.

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• Biodiesel is an easily synthesized, non-petroleum–based fuel (through transesterification)
which can run directly in many diesel engines while gasoline engines either need adaptation
to run synthetic or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g. ethanol added to gasohol)

COMPONENTS OF DIESEL ENGINES

Diesel engine consists of a number of component parts which are assembled when the engine is
made. These parts are secured together by means of various bolts, nuts and other fasteners.
Theparts of a basic engine are illustrated in the figures below.

- CYLINDER: Internal combustion engines contain varying numbers of combustion chambers

(cylinders). The cylinder is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and
fro. It should have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bars and temperature above
2000 o C. Ordinary engines are made of cast iron and heavy-duty engines are made of steel alloys
or aluminum alloys. In multi-cylinder engines, the cylinders are cast in one block called cylinder-
block. The potential benefits of having more cylinders in an engine are; the engine can have
large displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses – that is less mass of each piston
thus making a smoother running engine and secondly, doubling the number of the same size
cylinders will double the torque and power.

Fig. 1.7: Cylinder

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- CYLINDER HEAD: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which inlet
and exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided
between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight joint.

Fig. 1.8: Cylinder head

- CYLINDER BLOCK: This is the largest part of the engine. The other engine parts are either
fitted into the block or attached to it. As its name suggests, it is basically a block of cast iron with
cylindrical holes or cylinders.

Fig. 1.9: Cylinder block

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- PISTON: It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. It transmits force
from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/ or connecting rod. In
two-stroke engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the
cylinder wall. Pistons are usually made of aluminum alloy which has good heat conducting
property and greater strength at high temperature.

Fig. 1.10: Piston

- PISTON RINGS: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer
surface of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at high
temperature. Two types of rings exist; compression and oil rings. Compression ring is upper ring
of the piston which provides air-tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt gases into the lower

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portion. Oil ring is lower ring which provides effective seal to prevent leakage of oil into the
engine cylinder.

Fig. 1.11: Piston rings

- CONNECTING ROD: It transfers the reciprocating motion of the piston to the crankshaft
causing it to rotate in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is connected
with the piston by gudgeon pin and the bigger end of the connecting rod is connected with the
crank with crank pin. Special steel alloys or aluminum alloys are used for the manufacture of
connecting rod (orange)

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Fig. 1.12: Connecting rod

- CRANKSHAFT: Most IC engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the linear motion of
a piston must be converted into rotation with the help of a connecting rod. This is typically
achieved by a crankshaft. Special steel alloys are used in the manufacture of a crankshaft. It
consists of eccentric portion called the crank.

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Fig. 1.13: Crankshaft

- FLYWHEEL: The flywheel is a heavy wheel attached to the rear of the crankshaft. Basically,
it reduces vibration by smoothing out the power impulses from the pistons. It absorbs energy
during a power stroke and gives out energy during the other strokes of the piston to keep the
engine rotating smoothly. A ring gear is fitted to the flywheel to enable the engine to be turned
by a pinion on the starter motor.

Fig.1.14: Flywheel

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- CRANKCASE: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of internal combustion engine and also
serves as sump for the lubricating oil.

Fig. 1.15: Crankcase

CAMSHAFT AND VALVE: The camshaft operates the valve mechanism to open and close the
valves in the cylinder head. This allows air to enter the cylinder through the intake valve and
burned gases to be taken from the cylinder through the exhaust valve. In two-stroke engines,
ports or holes are used instead of intake valves. The ports in the cylinder walls are opened when
they are uncovered by the piston as it moves towards the bottom of the cylinders. This enables
air to enter the cylinder. The ports are closed by the piston as it moves up the cylinder.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

- Cylinder bore (D): The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder

- Piston area (A): The area of cycle of diameter equals to the cycle bore.

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- Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion.

- Dead Centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are mechanically
connected to it at the moment when the direction of piston motion is reversed (at either end
point of the stroke)

- Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): Dead Centre when the piston is nearest to crankshaft

- Top Dead Centre (TDC): Dead Centre when the piston is farthest from the crankshaft.

- Displacement Volume or swept volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the working
piston when travelling from one dead Centre to next one and given as;

Vs = A x L

- Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at the TDC.

- Cylinder Volume (V): Total volume of the cylinder given as;

V = Vs + Vc

- Compression ratio (r) of a diesel engine is a measure of how much the air charge is
compressed in the engine cylinder i.e. it is the ratio of total cylinder volume to the clearance
volume. Compression ratio varies from 12:1 and 24:1 (average value- 15:1 to 18:1) in CI
engines.







(r) : =

Piston displacement is the volume the piston displaces as it moves from BDC to TDC

 = 
 x Lx No of cylinders

Piston speed = 2LN

Where;L – Length of stroke and N – Speed of engine (rpm)

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ACTIONS IN A CYLINDER

Diesel engines can be made with just a single cylinder or a number of cylinders. Usually the
same actions occur in all cylinders irrespective of the number of cylinders, so that the action in a
single cylinder can be followed to study engine operations.

Fig. 1.16: Actions of piston in a cylinder

A – Piston below the cylinder

B – Piston pushed up the cylinder. The air in the cylinder is now compressed because it has been
forced into a smaller space above the piston. If a small quantity of diesel is now injected into the
compressed air and burned, then a much higher pressure will develop and the piston will be
forced down the cylinder.\

C – The chemical energy in fuel is change to mechanical energy at the piston. This action
repeated many times per minute causes the engine to operate, but many more parts are needed to
make a complete engine.

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RECIPROCATING TO ROTATORY MOTION

The piston moves up and down in the cylinder. This up-and-down motion is called reciprocating
motion. The piston movement is in a straight line and this must be changed to a rotary or turning
motion. A crank and connecting rod are used for this purpose.

Fig. 1.17: Dismantled part of a piston and connecting rod assembly

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PERFORMANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success with which it does its assigned job
i.e conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work. In
evaluating engine performance, certain basic parameters are chosen and the effects of various
operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on these parameters are studied.

The basic performance parameters are;

- Power and mechanical efficiency

(1) Indicated Power: The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion
chamber is called indicated power
nP LANK x 10
I. P = kW
6
Where;
n = Number of cylinders
Pmi = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (bar);
L = Length of stroke (m)
A = Area of piston (m2)
K = ½ for 4-stroke engine and 1 for 2-stroke engine

(2) Brake Power: This is the power developed by an engine at the output shaft.
2 *+
(.  = -.
60 , 1000
Where;
N = Speed in rpm and T = Torque (Nm)
The difference between I.P and B.P is called frictional power F.P
F.P = I.P – B.P
The ratio of B.P to I.P is called Mechanical efficiency
(. 
/. 0, η =
2. 

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- Mean Effective Pressure and Torque

Mean effective pressure is defined as hypothetical pressure which is thought to be acting on

the piston throughout the power stroke. If it is based on I.P it is called Indicated mean
effective pressure (Im.e.p or Pmi) and if based on B.P it is called brake mean effective pressure
(Bm.e.p or Pmb). Similarly, frictional mean effective pressure (Fm.e.p or Pmf) can be defined as;

Fm.e.p = Im.e.p – Bm.e.p

The torque and mean effective pressure are related by the engine size

Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different engines
and thus it is not possible to compare engine on the basis of either power or torque as the
power (P) of an engine is dependent on its size and speed.

-Specific output: It is defined as the brake output per unit of piston displacement and is
given by:
(. 
34567876 9:;4:; =
<,=
= 6>?@;A?; ,BC ,
. 4. D

For the same piston displacement and brake mean effective pressure (Pmb) an engine
running at higher speed will give more output.
Volumetric efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of actual volume (reduced to N.T.P) of
the charge drawn in during the suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston. The
average value of this efficiency is from 70% - 80% but in case of supercharged engine it
may be more than 100% if air at about atmospheric pressure is forced into the cylinder at
a pressure greater than that of air surrounding the engine.
Fuel-air ratio: it is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture.
Relative fuel-air ratio: This is defined as the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the
stoichiometric fuel-air required to burn the fuel supplied.
Specific fuel consumption (s.f.c): It is the mass of fuel consumed per kW developed per
hour and is a criterion of economical power production.

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 /EF
@. 8. 6 = -H/-.ℎ
(G

- Thermal efficiency and Heat Balance

- Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the indicated work done to energy supplied by the fuel.
If /FE = mass of fuel used in kg/sec, and C = calorific value of fuel (lower)
Then Indicated thermal efficiency (based on I.P)
2. 
KLM 2  =
/FE ,N
and Brake thermal efficiency (based on B.P)
(. 
KLM (  =
/FE ,N
- Heat balance sheet
The performance of an engine is generally given by heat balance sheet.
To draw the heat balance sheet for I.C engines, it is run at constant load. Indicator
diagram is obtained with the help of an indicator. After calculating I.P and B.P. the heat
in different items (i.e. quantity of fuel used in given time and its calorific value, the
amount, inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water and weight of exhaust gases
recorded).
(i) Heat absorbed in I.P
Heat equivalent of I.P. (per minute) = I.P x 60kJ
(ii) Heat taken away by cooling water:

If Me = Mass of exhaust gases (kg/min)

Cpg = Mean specific heat at constant pressure

Te = Temperature of exhaust gases, and

Tr = Room (or boiler house) temperature

Then heat carried away by the exhaust gases = Me x Cpg (Te – Tr)

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The heat balance sheet from the data can be drawn as follows:

Item kJ Percent
Heat Supplied by fuel
(i) Heat absorbed in I.P
(ii) Heat taken away by cooling water
(iii) Heat carried away by exhaust gases
(iv) Heat unaccounted for (by difference)
Total

- Exhaust smoke and other emissions:

Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an engine if air
pollution control is the consideration. Exhaust emissions have of late become a matter of
grave concern and with the enforcement of legislation on air pollution in many countries,
it has become necessary to view them as performance parameters,
- Specific weight: It is defined as the weight of the engine in kg for each B.P developed. It
is an indication of the engine bulk.

BASIC MEASUREMENTS:

To evaluate the performance of an engine, the following basic measurements are usually
undertaken.

• Speed
• Fuel Consumption
• Air consumption
• Smoke density
• Exhaust gas analysis
• Brake Power
• Indicated Power and Friction Power

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 • Heat going to cooling water
• Heat going to exhaust

ENGINE PERFORMANCE CURVES

The following parameters are of interest for engine performance curve to an engineer;

- Torque Curve: It can be seen that the torque changes with engine speed. According to
the graph, the maximum torque that this engine produces is 408 Nm at 1600 rpm. This is
where the engine produces its greatest turning effort and would be most economical
speed at which to operate the engine. The shape of the torque curve is determined by
engine design up to a certain speed, torque increases but then decreases as higher speeds
are reached and volumetric efficiency falls. The shape of the curve is related to a number
of factors including the quantity of fuel supplied to injectors, engine breathing and
turbocharging.

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 Fig. 1.18: Power-speed and torque-speed curves for an I.C. engine

- Power Curve: The power curve of an engine increases steadily with speed until high
speed is reached, when it tends to flatten out. Higher speed beyond those shown will
cause the curve to drop off. This is due to reduced torque at higher speeds. The power
curve shows that the engine develops 97 kW at 2700 rpm. This would be the maximum
rated power and speed of the engine. At lower speeds, less power would be developed,
e.g. at 1600 rpm the power is 70 kW.Rated speed also known as the maximum speed of
the engine is the maximum speed allowed by the manufacturer of the engine. The engine
governor is set to prevent the rated speed being exceeded under normal conditions.
Reducing the rated speed decreases the maximum power output of the engine and so

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 reduces the loadings on the various parts of the engine, which if applied continuously,
would reduce engine life.

- Specific Fuel Consumption Curve:

Curve: The curve for the graph of a CI engine is flat. It
shows that at part load the compression ignition engine is more economical than the spark
ignition engine. This is the benefit of quality control rather than quantity control of
power.

Fig. 1.19: Specific fuel consumption-brake

consumption brake mean effective pressure curve for an I.C.engine
I.C.

BASIC DESIGNS OF COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The combustion chamber performs a critical function in the operation of a diesel engine and thus
care must be taken to aid the design of efficient combustion chambers. However, no one design
has yet been developed
oped that will produce the best result in all types of engines. The particular
design chosen then must be that which accomplishes the best performance for the application
desired.

The combustion chamber in a diesel engine is the space into which the atomiz
atomized fuel is sprayed
by the injector. This includes space formed in or by the piston crown as well as parts of the
cylinder head. To ensure that all the injected fuel sprayed
spray is fully burned, various designs of

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combustion chambers are used for different engines. As with most engineering works, the
designs must consider the following factors:

(i) Heat lost to combustion chamber walls (ii) Injection pressure (iii) Nozzle design (iv)
Maintenance (v) Ease of starting (vi) Fuel requirement (vii) Utilization of air (viii) Weight
relation of engine to power output (ix) Capacity for variable speed operation.

There are two designs of combustion chambers which are widely used in CI engines, and they
are;

(1) The non-turbulent (Direct Injection) type:

• Open combustion chamber
(2) The turbulent (Indirect Injection) type:
• Turbulence chamber
• Pre-combustion chamber
• Energy cell

1. NON-TURBULENT TYPE:
Fig. 1.20 (a) illustrates the design of open combustion chamber. The fuel is injected directly into
the upper portion of the cylinder, which acts as the combustion chamber. This type depends little
on turbulence to perform the mixing, consequently, the heat loss to the chamber walls is
relatively low, and easier starting results. The disadvantage of this design is; because of the need
for proper penetration and dispersal of the required fuel-air mixtures, high injection pressures
and multi-orifice, nozzles are needed. This leads to small nozzle openings and results in more
frequent clogging or diversion of the fuel spray by accumulated carbon particles, with
consequent higher maintenance cost.This type of chamber is usually used for larger engines and
two-strokes (low speed engines) where injection is spread through a greater period of time and
thus ignition delay is a relatively less important factor. Consequently, less costly fuel with longer
ignition delay may be used.

2. TURBULENT TYPE:

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(i) In the turbulent chamber, fig. 1.20 (b), the upward moving piston forces a flow of air into a
small antechamber, thus imparting a rotary motion to the air passing the pintle type nozzle. As
the fuel is injected into the rotating air, it is partially mixed with this air, and commences to burn.
The pressure built up in the antechamber by expanding burning gases force the burning and
unburned fuel and air mixtures back into the main chamber, again imparting high turbulence and
further assisting combustion.
(ii) In pre-combustion chamber, fig. 1.20 (c), the upward moving piston forces part of the air into
a side chamber, called the pre-combustion chamber. Fuel is injected into the air in the pre-
combustion chamber by a pintle type nozzle. The combustion of the fuel and air produces high
pressures in the pre-combustion chamber, thus creating high turbulence and producing good
mixture and combustion
(iii) The Energy Cell is more complex than the pre-combustion chamber. It is shown in fig.
1.20 (d). As the piston moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air is forced into the
major and minor chambers of the energy cell. When the fuel is injected through the pintle type
nozzle, part of the fuel passes across the main combustion chamber and enters the minor cell
where it is mixed with the entering air. Combustion first commences in the main combustion
chamber where the temperature is higher, but the rate of burning is slower in this location due to
insufficient mixture of the fuel and air. The burning in the minor cell is slower at the start but due
to better mixing, progresses at a more rapid rate. The pressures built up in the minor cell,
therefore, force the burning gases out into the main chamber, thereby creating added turbulence
and producing better combustion in this chamber. In the meantime, pressure is built up in the
major cell, which then prolongs the action of the jet stream entering the main chamber, thus
continuing to induce turbulence in the main chamber.

30
Fig. 1.20: Some commonly
ly used C.I. engine combustion chambers

TURBOCHARGING, SUPERCHARGING AND SCAVENGING, DISSOCIATION

1. SUPERCHARGING::

The purpose of supercharging is to raise the volumetric efficiency above that value which can be
obtained by normal aspiration. The engine is an air pump. Increasing air consumption permits
greater quantities of fuel to be added and results in a greater potential output. The indicated
power produced is almost directly proportional to the engine air consumption
consumption. While brake
power is not so closely
ly related to air consumption, it is never the less, dependent upon the mass
of air consumed. It is desirable then, that the engine takes in greatest possible mass of air.

Three possible methods used to increase the air

air consumption of an engine are;

- Increasing
sing the piston displacement; this increases the size and weight of the engine and
introduces additional cooling problems.
- Running the engine at higher speeds, which results in increased fluid and mechanical
friction losses, and imposes greater inertia stresses
str on engine parts.
- Increasing the density of the charge, such that a greater mass of the charge is introduced
into the same volume or same total piston displacement.

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The last method of increasing the air capacity of an engine is widely used and is termed
supercharging. An apparatus known as supercharger which is merely an air compressor that
provides a denser charge to the engine is used to increase the air density of an engine.

Fig. 1.21: Supercharger

During the process of compressing the charge, the supercharger produces the following effects;

- Provides better mixing of the air-fuel mixture due to the turbulence created by the
supercharger which assists in additional mixing of fuel and air particles.
- The temperature of the charge is raised as it is compressed resulting in higher temperature
within the cylinders. This is beneficial in SI engines as it produces better vaporization of fuel
but detrimental in that it tends to lessen the density of the charge,
- Power is required to drive the supercharger. This is usually taken from the engine and
thereby removes from overall engine output, some of the gain in power obtained through
supercharging.

Compressors used are;

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(i) Positive displacement type (ii) Axial flow type (iii) Centrifugal type

SUPERCHARGING IN C.I.. ENGINES

Fig. 1.22 (a) and (b) shows the schematic arrangement for supercharging CI engines and an ideal
P-V
V diagram for a supercharged constant pressure (diesel) cycle.

Fig. 1.22: Supercharging C.I. engine

Unlike SI engines, supercharging does not result in any combustion problem; rather it improves
combustion in diesel engine. Increase in pressure and temperature of the intake air reduces
significantly delay and hence the rate of pressure rise resulting in a better, quieter and smoother
combustion. This improvement in combustion allows a poor-quality fuel to be used in diesel

33
engine. The increase in intake temperature reduces volumetric and thermal efficiencies but
increase in density due to pressure compensates for this and intercooling is not necessary except
for higher supercharged engines.

If an un-supercharged engine is supercharged, it will increase the reliability and durability of the
engine due to smoother combustion and lower exhaust temperatures. The degree of
supercharging is limited by thermal and mechanical loads on the engine and strongly depends on
the type of supercharger used and design of the engine.

Effects of supercharging on performance of the engine;

- The output of the supercharged engine is higher than its naturally aspirated counterpart
- Mechanical efficiencies of supercharged engines are slightly better than the naturally
aspirated engines
- In spite of better mixing and combustion due to reduced delay a mechanically
supercharged Otto engine almost always have specific fuel consumption higher than a
naturally aspirated one.

2. SCAVENGING
The action of clearing the cylinder of exhaust gases is known as scavenging. The action of
incoming air helps to clear the exhaust gases from the cylinder and so assists scavenging.

In the four-stroke engine, this is arranged by valve overlap, that is having both the exhaust valve
and intake open together for a short period of time, and also by combustion chamber design. In
two-stroke engine, scavenging occurs when air from the blower is admitted to the cylinder
through the inlet ports. The inlet ports are often referred to as scavenge ports and the air from the
blower as scavenge air. This air scavenges or clears the cylinder of exhaust gas.

34
Fig. 1.23: Scavenger

SCAVENGING METHODS

Various arrangements of porting are used in conjunction with a blower to scavenge

the cylinder in two-stroke diesel engines namely;

i. Uniflow scavenging;
ii. Cross-flow scavenging, and
iii. Loop scavenging.

35
(i) Uniflow (ii) Cross-flow

(ii) Loop
Fig. 1.26: Scavenging Methods

36
3. TURBOCHARGING
Although some application may be best served by normally aspirated or mechanically blown
engines, the vast majority of main propulsion engines and generator- drive engines are
turbocharged and after-cooled. An engine and its turbocharger(s) are interdependent in their
performance; a defective or mismatched turbocharger will preclude proper engine
performance.The principal reason for turbocharging, or supercharging in any form, is to increase
the power output of an engine of given size and speed, by enabling the cylinder to be charge with
air at an elevated pressure (the boost pressure) and therefore, at a higher density than air at
atmospheric pressure. (The ratio of boost pressure to atmospheric pressure is the boost ratio).
Since the cylinders then contain a greater mass of air, a correspondingly greater mass of fuel can
be burned, and the engine output can be higher. After-coolers are fitted at the compressor
discharge to remove the heat of compression thereby increase the density of the delivered air.

Fig. 1.27: Turbocharger with intercooled casing

37
Turbocharging tends to reduce fuel consumption as friction losses of turbocharged
engine do not increase as fast as the increase in power output, and because the
improved charging results in better combustion conditions. A turbocharger may be
operated on the constant-pressure principle or pulse principle.

A turbocharger is marched to an engine as the design of the engine is developed. If

subsequently, a turbocharger of improved efficiency becomes available,
replacement with the upgraded turbocharger may be feasible. Such a replacement
has the potential of improving the engine design and rating by providing a higher
boost pressure or greater rate of air flow. There are three ways that the operation of
an engine can be altered to take advantage of an improved turbocharger:

i. By changing the exhaust lining of the engine or the configuration of its

exhaust system, an engine’s efficiency can be improved without altering its
rating.
ii. A higher boost pressure may permit the engine output to be increased.
iii. An excess turbine output potential can be exploited by using an exhaust gas
turbine.

WORKED EXAMPLES 1.1

A turbo-charged six-cylinder diesel engine has the following performance details:

i. Workdone during compression and expansion = 820kw

ii. Workdone during intake and exhaust = 50kw
iii. Rubbing friction in the engine = 150kw
iv. Net workdone by turbine = 40kw
If the brake mean effective pressure is 0.6mPa, determine the bore and stroke of
the engine taking the ratio of bore to stroke as 1 and engine speed as 1000rpm.

Solution:

Given: Pmb = 0.6MPa = 6bar

D
= 1
L

N = 1000rpm

38
Network available = 820 - (50 + 150 + 40)

= 580Kw
n x Pmb x L x A x N x K x 10
I.PP =
B.
6

6 x 6 x D x π x D 2 x 1000 x 1 x 10
580 =
6x4x2

= 23571.4
23565D³
1
 580 
3

D =  
 23565  =1.291m
0.1387m = 138.7mm
291

∴ L= D = 291
138.7mm

2. The following observations were recorded during a test on a single-cylinder

diesel engine. Bore = 300mm; stroke = 450mm; speed = 300rpm; i.m.e.p =
6bar; net brake load = 1.5N; brake drum diameter = 1.8m; brake rope
diameter = 2cm. Calculate:

i. Indicator power
ii. Brake power
iii. Mechanical efficiency

Solution:

Bore of engine cylinder D = 300mm = 0.3m

Stroke (L) = 450mm = 0.45mm

Engine speed, N = 300rpm

Indicated mean effective pressure, Pmi = 6bar

Net brake load (W - S) = 1.5KN

Diameter of brake drum, Db = 1.8m

39
Brake rope diameter, d = 0.02m

i. Indicated Power, I.P

n Pmi x L x A x N x K x 10
=
6

1 x 6 x 0.45 x π x (0.3) 2 x 300 x 1 x 10

=
6x4x2

∴ I. P = 47.71Kw

ii. Brake Power, B. P. =

(W − S ) x π x (Db + d ) x N
60
1.5 x 3.142 x (1.8 + 0.02) x 300
=
60

= 42.88Kw

B.P 42.88
iii. ȃmech = = = 0.8987 = 89.87%
I .P 47.71

40
 Section Two:
Steam & Gas Turbines

41
STEAM TURBINE

INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do
mechanical work on rotating output shaft. It is a form of heat engine that derives much of its
improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple sages in the expansion of the
steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process.

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75Kw (1hp) units (rare) used
for mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft equipment, to 1.5GW
(2,000,000hp) turbines used for electricity generations.Steam turbines are used to propel many
types of vessels having widely varying requirements with respect to power, economy, weight and
arrangement. In the selection and development of a turbine design for a specific application, the
following factors must be considered:

- The maximum ahead power needed to provide the desired ship’s speed.
- The relative amount of time spent at maximum power and reduced cruising powers.
- The turbine throttling steam pressure and temperature.
- The steam cycle arrangement, together with the number and location of extraction points
and corresponding steam flows.
- The turbine exhaust vacuum for design purposes.
- The type of power transmission to the propeller
- The astern operating requirements
- Space limitation of the engine room arrangement
- The importance of machinery weight and size.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbines are mostly classified with respect to the action of the steam, as;

- Impulse,
- Reaction, and
- Combination of impulse and reaction.

42
The main difference between the simple impulse turbine and reaction turbine lies in the way in
which the steam is expanded while it moves through them. In the former type, steam expands in
the nozzles and its pressure does not alter as it moves over the blades but the steam velocity
drops, while in the latter type the steam expands continuously as it passes over the blades and
thus there is gradual fall in the pressure while velocity increases during expansion.
Except for low-power applications, turbine blades are arranged in multiple stages called
compounding, which greatly improves efficiency at low speeds. A reaction turbine is a row of
moving nozzles. Multiple reaction stages divide the pressure drop between the steam inlet and
exhaust into numerous small drops, resulting in a pressure-compounded turbine. Impulse stages
may be either pressure-compounded, velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded. A
pressure-compounded impulse stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving
blades, with multiple stages for compounding. This is also known as Rateau turbine, after its
inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by Curtis and also known as “Curtis
Wheel”) is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two or more rows of moving blades alternating
with rows of fixed blades. This divides the velocity drop across the stage into several smaller
drops. A series of velocity-compounded impulse stages is called a pressure-velocity compounded
turbine.

BLADE-DESIGN CHALLENGES

A major challenge facing turbine design was reducing the creep experienced by the blades. Due
to high temperature and high stresses of operation, steam turbine materials become damaged
through these mechanisms. In an effort to improve turbine efficiency, temperatures are increased
which makes creep becomes significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings and superalloys with
solid-solution strengthening and grain boundary strengthening are used in blade design,
stabilized zirconium dioxide-based ceramics are used as ceramic coatings to reduce thermal
damage and limit oxidation. Using a thermal coating limits the temperature exposure of the
nickel superalloy which reduces the creep mechanisms experienced in the blade while oxidation
coatings limit efficiency losses caused by a build-up on the outside of the blades, which is
especially important in the high temperature environment.

43
Fig. 2.1: Velocity diagram for moving blade

Velocity triangle paves the way for a better understanding of the relationship between the
velocities. In the velocity diagram below, we have

Cbl = Linear velocity of moving blade (m/s)

C1 = Absolute velocity of steam entering moving blade (m/s)

C0 = Absolute velocity of steam leaving blade (m/s)

CW1 = Velocity of whirl at the entrance of moving blade

= tangential component of CI

CW0 = Velocity of whirl at the exit of the moving blade

= tangential component of C0

Cf1 = Velocity of flow at entrance of moving blade

44
 = axial component of C1

Cf0′ = Velocity of flow at exit of moving blade

= axial component of C0

Cr1 = Relative velocity of steam to moving blade at entrance

Cr0 = Relative velocity of steam to moving blade at exit

α= Angle with the tangent of the wheel at which the steam with velocity CI enters.
This is called nozzle angle.

β = Angle which the discharging stream

stream makes with the tangent of the wheel at the
exit of moving blade

θ = Entrance angle of moving blade

ϕ = Exit angle of moving blade.

Fig. 1.2: Velocity diagram on a common base

Work done on the blade

From Newton’s second law of motion;

Force (tangential) on the wheel

45
= Mass of steam x acceleration

= Mass of steam/sec x change of velocity

= Ms (CW1 - CW0)

The value of Cw0 is actually negative as the steam is discharged in the opposite direction to the
blade motion, therefore, due consideration should be given to the fact that values of Cw1 and Cw0
are to be added while doing the solution of the problem i.e. (β< 90º)

Work done on blades/sec = force x distance travelled/sec

∗
= M S (CW1 + CW0) x Cbl

∗
Power per wheel = Ms (CW1 + CW0) x Cbl

∗
M S C w Cbl Kw
= (Cw = Cw1 + Cw0)
1000

Blade or diagram efficiency

Work done by the blade

=
Energy sup plied to the blade

∗
M S (C w1 + C w 0 ) X
+ C bl ∗ C12
= MS − K .E
∗ C2 2
M 1
2

2C bl (C w1 + C w 0 )
=
C 12

If h1 and h2 be the total heats before and after expansion through the nozzles, the (h1-h2) is the
heat drop through a stage of fixed blades ring and moving blade ring.

Stage efficiency (ηstage)

46
 Workdone on blade per kg of steam
=
Total energy sup plied per kg of steam

Cbl (C w1 + C w0 )
=
(h1 − h2 )

C12
Now, nozzle efficiency =
2(h1 − h2 )

Also, ɳstage = Blade efficiency x Nozzle efficiency

2Cbl (C w1 + C w0 ) C12
= x
C12 2(h1 − h2 )

Cfi = Velocity of flow at entrance of moving blade

= axial component of CO

Energy converted to heat by blade friction

= Loss of K.E. during flow over blades

( )
∗
Ms ( Cr1 − Cro
2 2
=

Owing to friction in the blades, Cr0is less that Cr1, thus;

Cr0 = K.Cr1

Where K is the blade velocity co-efficient

from the fig. above;

Cw = PQ = MP + MQ = Cr1Cosθ + Cr0Cosφ

 C Cosφ 
= Cr1Cosθ 1 + ro 
 C ri Cosθ 

Cosφ
= Cr1Cosθ (1 + K.Z), where Z =
Cosθ

47
Generally, the angles θ and φ are nearly equal for impulse turbine and hence it can safely be
assumed that Z is a constant.

But Cr1Cosθ = MP = LP - LM = C1 Cos α - Cbl

Cw = (C1Cos α - Cbl) (1 + K.Z)

2C bl . C w
Blade efficiency, ɳbl =
C12

2Cbl .(C1 Cos α − Cbl ) (1 + KZ )

ɳbl =
C12

= 2(ρ Cos α - ρ2) (1 + KZ)

= 2ρ (Cos α – ρ) (1 + KZ)

C bl
Whereρ = is the ratio of blade speed to steam speed and is commonly called
C1

Blade speed ratio

dη bl
= 2(Cos α - 2ρ) (1 + KZ)
dρ

Cos α - 2ρ = 0 for maximum or minimum value of ɳbl

Cosα
∴ρ =
2

d 2η bl
= 2(-2) (1+KZ) = -4(1+KZ)
dρ 2

The negative value so obtained is maximum optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam
speed and it is;

Cosα
ρopt =
2

48
substituting this value, in (ɳbl) max

Cosα  Cos α 
(ηbl)max = 2x  Cos α −  (1 + KZ )
2  2 

Cos 2 α
= (1+ KZ)
2

For symmetrical blades (θ = φ) and no friction in fluid passage;

Z = 1 and K = 1

∴ (ηbl)max = Cos2α

Work done per Kg of steam is given thus;

W = (Cw1 + Cw0) x Cbl

= (C1Cos α - Cbl) (1 + KZ) Cbl

= 2Cbl (C1Cos α - Cbl), (i)

when K = 1, Z = 1

The maximum value of W can be obtained by substituting the value of Cos α in equation
(i)above.

C bl
Cos α = 2ρ = 2
C1

2
∴ Wmax = 2Cbl(2Cbl - Cbl) = 2 C bl

1. For a given steam velocity work done per kg of steam would be maximum when Cos2α =
1 or α = 0
2. As α increases, the work done on the blades reduces, but at the same time surface area of
the blade reduces, therefore there are less, frictional losses.

49
IMPULSE TURBINES

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets
contain significant kinetic energy that converts into shaft rotation by the buckle
buckle-like shaped rotor
blades, as the steam jet changes direction.

Fig. 2.3: Simple impulse turbine

Reaction turbines

In this turbine, the rotor blades are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine
makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by
the rotor. Steam is directed onn to the rotor by the fixed van
vanes of the stator.

50
Fig. 2.4: Reaction turbine (three stage)

Velocity Diagram for Reaction Turbine Blade

Figure 2.5 shows the velocity diagram for reaction turbine blade. In case of an impulse turbine
blade the relative velocity of steam either remains constant as the steam glides over to the blades
or is reduced slightly
ightly due to friction. In reaction turbine blades, the steam continuously expands

51
as it flows over the blades. The effect of the continuous
continu s expansion of steam during the flow over
the blade is to increase the relative velocity of steam.

Fig. 2.5: Velocity

ty diagram for reaction turbine

Cr0> Cr1 for reaction turbine

(Cr0≤ Cr1 for impulse blade)

Degree of Reaction (Rd)

The degree of reaction of reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of heat drop over moving
blades to the total heat drop in the stage.

Thus, the degree of reaction of reaction turbine is given by,

Heat drop in moving blades

Rd =
Heat drop in the stage

∆hm
= as shown in the velocity diagram above
∆h4 + ∆hm

The heat drop in moving blades is equal to in

increase
crease in relative velocity of steam passing through
the blade.

52
 C r 0 − C r1
2 2

∴∆hm =
2

Fig. 2.6: Graph of total heat drop in the stage

( f + ∆hm) is equal to the work done by the steam in the stage

The total heat drops in the stage (∆h
and it is given by;

∆hf + ∆hm = Cbl (Cw1 + Cw0)

C r 0 − C r1
2 2

∴ Rd = ….. (a)
2Cbl (C w1 + C w0 )

Referring to the figure above

Cr0 = Cf0 Cosec φ and Cr1 = Cf1 Cosecθ

and (Cw1 + Cw0) = Cf1 Cot θ+

θ Cf0 Cot φ

The velocity of flow generally remains constant through the blade

blades

∴ Cf1 = Cf0 = Cf

Substituting the values of Cr1, Cr0 and (Cw1 + Cw0) in the equation (a) above, we get

53
Rd =
2
(
C f Co sec 2 φ − Co sec 2 θ )
2C bl C f (Cotθ + Cotφ )

=
( ) (
C f  Cot 2φ + 1 − Cot 2θ + 1  )
 
2C bl  Cotθ + Cotφ 

C f  Cot 2φ − Cot 2θ 
=  
2Cbl  Cotφ + Cotθ 

Cf
= [Cotφ − Cotθ ] ….. (b)
2C bl

If the turbine is designed for 50% reaction (∆hf = ∆hm), then the equation (b) can be written as

Cf
½ = (Cotφ - Cot θ)
2Cbl

∴Cbl = Cf (Cot φ - Cot θ) ….. (c)

Also, Cblcan be written as;

Cbl = Cf (Cot φ - Cot β) ….. (d)

and Cbl = Cf (Cot α - Cot θ) ….. (e)

Cf1 = Cf0 = Cf is assumed in writing the above equations

Comparing the eqns (c), (d), (e)

θ =β and φ = α

which means that the moving blade and fixed blade must have the same shape if the degree of
reaction is 50%. This condition gives symmetrical velocity diagrams. This type of turbine is
known as “Parson’s reaction turbine.” Velocity diagram for this turbine is given in the figure
below;

54
Fig. 2.7: Comparing efficiencies of impulse and reaction turbines

PRACTICAL TURBINE EFFICIENCY

In practical terms, thermal efficiency of a steam turbine varies with turbine size, load condition,
gap losses and friction lose. They reach top values up to about 50% in a 1200MW turbine but
smaller ones have a lower efficiency.

STEAM TURBINE OPERATIONS

Because of the high pressures used in the steam circuits and the materials used, steam turbines
and their casings have high thermal inertia. During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to
vibration, which because of the high rotation velocities, could lead to a blade breaking away
from the rotor and through the casing. This risk is however reduced by putting in considerable
efforts to balance the turbine. High quality steam, either superheated (dry) steam or saturated
steam with high dryness fraction are used to run turbines. This prevents the rapid impingement
and erosion of the blades which occurs when condensed water is blasted onto the blades
(moisture carry over). Also, liquid water entering the blades may damage the thrust bearings for

55
the turbine shaft. To prevent this, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to
the turbine along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high-quality
steam.Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are simple and at low costs. Their
operational life often exceeds 50 years.

THERMODYNAMICS OF STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbines operates on basic thermodynamics principles using the part 3-4 (see diagram
below) of the Rankine cycle. Superheated steam (or dry saturated steam, depending on the
application) leaves the boiler at high temperature and high pressure. At entry to the turbines, the
steam gains kinetic energy by passing through a nozzle (a fixed nozzle in an impulse type turbine
or the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine). When the steam leaves the nozzle, it moves at high
velocity towards the blades of the turbine rotor. A force is created on the bladesdue to the
pressure of the vapour on the blades causing them to move. A generator or other device can be
placed on the shaft; an energy that was in the steam can be stored and used. The steam leaves the
turbine as a saturated vapour (or liquid-vapour mix depending on the application) at a lower
temperature and pressure than it entered with and is sent to the condenser to be cooled. The first
law of thermodynamics enables us to find a formula for the rate at which work is developed per
unit mass. Assuming there is no heat transfer to the surrounding environment and that the
changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible compared to the change in specific
enthalpy, we arrive at the following equation;

•
W
• = h3 - h4
M

•
Where; W = the rate at which work is developed per unit time.

•
M = the rate of mass flow through the turbine.

56
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY

This measures the performance of the turbine. It compares the actual performance of the turbine
with the performance that would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. When calculating
this efficiency, heat lost to the surroundings is assumed to be zero. Steam’s starting pressure and
temperature is the same for both the actual and ideal turbines, but at turbine exit, steam’s energy
content (specific enthalpy) for the actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because
of irreversibility in the actual turbine. The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same steam
pressure for the actual and ideal turbines in order to give a good comparism between the two.

actual work h3 − h4
ɳtiso = =
ideal work h3 = h4 s

where; h3 = specific enthalpy at state three

h4 = specific enthalpy at state 4 for the actual turbine

h4s = specific enthalpy at state 4s for the isentropic

turbine

(Note that state 4s should be vertically below state 3 in the T-S steam diagram).

In steam ships, advantages of steam turbines over reciprocating engines are smaller size, lower
maintenance, lighter weight, and lower vibration.

STEAM POWER RECYCLES

A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a certain order. It may be

repeated by repeating the processes in the same other. The cycle may be imaginary perfect
engine (ideal cycle) or actual engine (actual cycle). In ideal cycle, all accidental heat losses are
prevented and the working substance is assumed to behave like a perfect working substance.

57
CARNOT CYCLE

The fig. below shows a Carnot Cycle T

T-S and P-V
V diagrams. it consists of (i)
(i two constant
pressure operations (4-1)
1) and (2-3)
(2 and (ii) two frictionless adiabatic (1-2)
2) and (3-4).
(3 Although
Carnot cycle is simple (thermodynamically) and has the highest thermal efficiency for given
values of T1 and T2, yet it is extremely difficult to operate in practice.

Fig. 2.8: Classical carnot heat engine

Fig. 2.9: Carnot cycle on T-ss and p-v

p diagrams

58
RANKINE CYCLE

This is the theoretical cycle on which the steam tubine

tub (or engine) works. It is an ideal
thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing
undergo
phase change. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the
working fluid. The heat sources used in these plants are usually nuclear fission or a combustion
of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil, or concentrated
concentrated solar power. The high
higher the
temperature, the better.

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of vaporization of the working
fluid. The cold source (the colder the better) used in these plants are usually cooling towers and a
large water body (river or sea). The lower practical temperature of the working fluid on the cold
side limits the efficiency of the Rankine cycle. The working fluid follows a closed
close loop and is
reused constantly.

Fig. 2.10: Rankine cycle

59
Fig. 2.11: (a) p-v
v diagram; (b) T-s
T diagram; (c) h-ss diagram for Rankine cycle

There are four processes in Rankine cycle identified by numbers in the T

T-S
S diagram above.

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. The fluid at this stage is a
liquid, thus the pump requires little input energy (process is reversible adiabatic
adiaba expansion in the
feed pump)

60
Process 2-3: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler to become a dry saturated vapour.
The input energy can be easily calculated graphically using an enthalpy-entropy chart (h-s chart
or mollier diagram), or numerically using steam tables.

Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some condensation may occur
(reversible adiabatic expansion process in the turbine).

Process 4-1: The wet vapour enters condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure to
become a saturated liquid.

In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic i.e. the pump and turbine
would generate no entropy and hence maximum network output.

Applying steady flow energy equation (SFEE)to boiler, turbine, condenser and pump;

(i) For boiler

hf4 + Q1 = h1

∴ Q1 = h1 - hf4

(ii) For turbine:

h1 = WT + h2, where WT - turbine work

∴ WT = h1 - h2

(iii) For condenser:

h2 = Q2 + hf3

∴ Q2 = h2 - hf3

(iv) For the feed pump

hf3 + Wp = hf4; where Wp - pump work

∴Wp = hf4 - hf3

61
Now, the efficiency of Rankine cycle is given by:

Wnet W − WP
ɳRankine = = T
Q1 Q1

=
(h1 − h2 ) − (hf 4 − hf 3 )
h1 − hf 4

Since the feed pump handles liquid water (incompressible fluid), which means with the increase
in pressure its density or specific volume undergoes a little change.

From general property relation for reversible adiabatic compression;

Tds = dh - vdp

∴ds = 0

dh = Vdp

or ∆h=V∆p (since change in specific volume is negligible)

or, hf4 - hf3= V3 (P1-P2)

when P is in bar and V in m3/kg, we have;

hf4 – hf3 = V3(P1 – P2)

Since the feed pump term (hf4 - hf3) < turbine work, Wpis usually neglected especially when the
boiler pressures are low,

h1 − h2
then; ηRankine =
h1 − h f 4

REAL (NON-IDEAL) RANKINE CYCLE

In real power plant cycle, the compression by the pump and the expansion in the turbine are not
isentropic. In other words, these processes are non-reversible, and entropy is increased during the

62
two processes This in a way increases the power required by the pump and decreases the power
generated by the turbine.

Fig. 2.12: T-s diagram for Rankine cycle with superheat

REHEAT CYCLE

The purpose of a reheating cycle is to remove the moisture carried by the steam at the fixed
stages of the expansion process. In this variation, two turbines work in series. The first accepts
vapour from the boiler at high pressure. After the vapour has passed through the first turbine, it
re-enters the boiler and is reheated before passing through a second, lower-pressure turbine. The
reheat cycle prevents the vapour from condensing during its expansion thereby damaging the
turbine blades, it also improves the efficiency of the cycle, because more of the heat flow into the
cycle occurs at higher temperature.

63
Fig. 2.13: Raheat cycle

Fig. 2.14:
4: Ideal reheating process on T-s
T and h-s chart

Thermal efficiency with reheating (neglecting pump work);

64
Heat supplied= (h1-hf4)+(h3-h2)

Heat rejected= (h4-hf4)

Work done by the turbine = heat supplied - heat rejected

=(h1-hf4)+(h3-h2)- (h4-hf4)

=(h1-h2)+ (h3-h4)

Thus, theoretical thermal efficiency of reheat cycle is ;

MO PMQ  MRSTU 

ηthermal = M
O PMVU MR PMQ 
ֺ

V GO PGW  Z[
XYYY Z\
if pump work, Wp = is considered

MO PMQ  MRSTU  P_`

ηthermal = ] ^
MO PMVU MR PMQ  P_a

Wp is usually small and neglected

Thermal efficiency without reheating is

(therefore, ℎEb = ℎEc )

MO PMQ 
MO PMVU 
ηthermal =

Advantages of reheating:

- There is an increased output of the turbine.

- Erosion and corrosion problems in the steam turbine are eliminated/avoided.
- There is an improvement in the thermal efficiency of the turbines
- Final dryness fraction of steam is improved.
- There is an increase in the nozzle and blade efficiencies.

Disadvantages of reheating:

- Reheating requires more maintenance

65
- The increase in thermal efficiency is not applicable in comparison to the expenditure
incurred in reheating.

REGENERATIVE CYCLE

Because the condensate from Rankine cycle which is at fairly low temperature has an irreversible
mixing with hot boiler water which results in decrease of cycle efficiency, methods are therefore
adopted to heat the feed water from the hot well of condenser irreversibly by interchange of heat
within the system and thus improving the cycle efficiency. This heating method is called
regenerative feed heat and the cycle is called regenerated cycle.

The principle of regeneration can be practically utilized by extracting steam from the turbine at
several locations and supplyingit to the regenerative heaters. The resulting cycle is known as
regenerative or bleeding cycle.

The heating arrangement comprises of;

1. For medium capacity turbines - not more than 3 heaters

2. For high pressure, high capacity turbines - not more than 5 to 7 heaters; and
3. For turbine of supercritical parameters - 8 to 9 heaters.

66
Fig. 2.5:
.5: Regenerative Cycle

Fig. 2.6: Regenerative cycle on T-s

T chart

67
Let M1= Kg of high pressure (H.P.) Steam per Kg of steam flow
M2= Kg of low pressure (L.P.) steam per Kg of steam flow
Energy/heat balance equation for H.P. heater ;
M1=dℎX − ℎEf g = 1-M1)ℎEf − ℎEh 
X

Or M1iℎX − ℎEf  + ℎEf − ℎEh k=ℎEf − ℎEh 

lMVm PMVn 
lMO PM
hVmf5
Or

Energy/heat balance equation for L.P. heater ;

M2=dℎ
X
 − ℎEh g = 1-M1−/ ℎEh − ℎEo 

Or
M2idℎ − ℎEh g + ℎEh − ℎEo k = 1−/X ℎEh − ℎEo 
Or
XPpO MVn PMVR 
dMQ PMhVn
f3 g
M2=

Neglecting pump work ;

the heat supplied externally in the cycle = (ℎY − ℎEf 
isentropic work done
= M1(ℎY − ℎX  + / ℎY − ℎ  + 1-/X − / ℎY − ℎo 
The thermal efficiency of regenerative cycle is
qrst urvw
η thermal =MwxL yzz{|wu
}XM~ PMO pQ M~ PMQ XPpO PpQ M~ PMR 
dM~ PMVm g
= M1

[Work done by the turbine can also be calculated by summing up the products of the steam flow
and the corresponding heat drop in the turbine stages i.e work done = (ℎY − ℎX  + 1-/X ℎX −
ℎ  + 1-/X − /  ℎ − ℎo ]

WORKEDEXAMPLE 2.1

1. A stage of a steam turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 50bar and 360℃ and
exhausts at a pressure of 5bar. The isentropic efficiency of the stage is 0.82 and the steam
consumption is 2270kg/min. Determine the power of stage.

68
Solution

Steam supply pressure, P1= 50bar, 350℃

360oc

Exhaust pressure P2 = 5bar

Isentropic efficiency of the stage,ɳ

stage, stage = 0.82

•
Steam consumption, Ms = 2270Kg/min

From mollier chart:

h1 = 3130.7KJ/Kg of steam

h2 = 2640KJ/Kg of steam

69
Isentropic heat drop:

= h1-h2 = (3130.7 - 2640)

= 490.7KJ/Kg

Actual heat drop:

= h1-h2′

h1 − h2 '
But ɳise.stage =
h1 − h2

h1 − h2 '
0.82 =
490.7

h1-h2′ = 0.82 x 490.7 = 402.4KJ/Kg

Power developed;

•
= M S (h1-h2′)

2270
= x 402.4
60

= 15224Kw

70
GAS TURBINES

INTRODUCTION

Gas turbine represents perhaps the most satisfactory way of producing very large quantities of
power in a self-contained
contained and compact unit. All gas turbines are practical application
applications of the
Brayton thermodynamic cycle. The Brayton cycle is an ideal cycle in which the working fluid is
a perfect gas (air in most cases) and it is not changed or contaminated by the combustion process.
The working fluid is contained permanently in the plant and passes repeatedly through the
various units of the plant. The arrangement is a thermodynamic engine and the working fluid is
subjected to a cycle consisting of four processes, viz

1-2: Isentropic compression

2-3: Heating at constant pressure

3-4: Isentropic
entropic expansion through the turbine

4-1: Cooling at constant pressure

Fig. 3.1: Closed gas turbine cycle

71
The efficiency of a gas turbine is not the criteria for the choice of the plant. A gas turbine is used
in aviation and marine fields because of it is self -contained, light weight, not requiring cooling
water and generally fit into the overall shape of the structure. Gas turbines however have the
following limitations;

i. Not self-starting
ii. Low efficiencies at part loads
iii. Non-reversibility
iv. Higher rotor speeds, and
v. Overall efficiency of the plant is low.

CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINES

They are divided into two groups namely:

1. Constant pressure combustion gas turbine

(a) Open cycle constant pressure gas turbine

(b) Closed cycle constant pressure gas turbine

2. Constant volume combustion gas turbine

BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle is a constant pressure cycle for a perfect gas. It is also called Joule cycle. The
heat transfers are achieved in reversible constant pressure heat exchangers. An ideal gas turbine
plant would perform the processes that make up a Brayton cycle. The cycle is shown in the fig.
below:

72
Fig. 3.2: Brayton cycle (a) Basic components of a gas turbine power plant;
plant

(b) p-vv diagram; (c) T-s

T diagram

The various operations are:

1-2: Air is compressed isentropically from the lower pressure, P1 to the upper pressure P2, the
temperature rising from T1 to T2. No heat flow occurs.

2-3: Heat flows into the system increasing the volume from V2 to V3 and temperature from T2
to T3 while the pressure remains constant at P2. Heat received = MCp (T3-T2)

73
3-4: Air is expanded isentropically from P2 to P1, the temperature failing from T3 to T4. No
heat flow occurs.

4-1: Heat is rejected from the system as the volume decreases from V4 to V1 and temperature
from T4 to T1 while the pressure remains constant at P1. Heat rejected = MCp (T4 - T1)

Workdone
ɳair-standard =
Heat received

Heat received / cycle − Heat rejected / cycle

=
Heat received / cycle

MC p (T3 − T2 ) − MC p (T4 − T1 ) T4 − T1
= = 1−
MC p (T3 − T2 ) T3 − T2

From isentropic expansion,

r −1
T2 P  r
=  2 
T1  P1 

r −1
r
T2 = T1 (rp)
rp , where rp = pressure ratio

Similarly,

r −1
T3 P  r
=  2 
T4  P1 

r −1
r
or; T3 = T4 (rp)

T − T1
4 1
∴ɳair-standard = 1 - = 1-
T4 (r p ) − T1 (r p ) (r )
r −1 r −1 r −1
r r r
p

74
Fig. 3.3: Effect
ffect of pressure ratio on efficiency of Brayton
B Cycle

Pressure ratio for maximum work:

Work output during the cycle;

= heat received/cycle - heat rejected/cycle

= MCp (T3 - T2) - MCp(T4 - T1)

= MCp (T3 – T4) - MCp(T2 - T1)

  T  T 
= MCp T3 1 − 4  − T1  2 − 1 
  T3   T1  

r −1
T3 T2
Since, = (rp ) r
=
T4 T1

Using a constant, Z = r-1/r, wee have work output/cycle to be;

  1 
W = [ ]
K T3 1 − 2  − T1 rp2 − 1 
  rp  

75
Differentiating with respect to rp

dw  Ζ 
( z −1) 
= K T3 x − T1 z rp 
drp  rp ( z − 1) 

= 0 for a maximum

ΖT3
∴ ( z −1)
= T1 z (rp) (z-1)
rp

T3
rp2z =
T1

1 r
2 ( r −1 )
 T3  T 
2z

and rp =   i.e. rp =  3 
 T1   T1 

Thus, the pressure ratio for maximum work is a function of the limiting temperature ratio.

Work Ratio

Work ratio is defined as the ratio of network output to the work done by the turbine.

WT − WC
∴work ratio =
WT

where: WT - Work obtained from the turbine and,

WC - Work supplied to the compressor

MC p (T3 − T4 ) − MC p (T2 − T1 )
=
MC p (T3 − T4 )

T2 − T1
= 1-
T3 − T4

76
 r −1
 
T1  p r − 1 
( )
( r ) T1 r −1
= 1- = 1 − r
T3  r −1 
r
p
T3
1 − ( rp ) r 
 

OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINES

Fig. below refers. The fundamental gas turbine unit is one operating on the open cycle in which a
rotary compressor and a turbine are mounted on a common shaft. Air is drawn into the
compressor and after compression passes to a combustion chamber. Energy iis supplied in the
combustion chamber by spraying fuel into the air stream, and the resulting hot gases expand
through the turbine to the atmosphere. In order to achieve network output from the unit, the
turbine must develop more gross work output than is required
required to drive the compressor and to
overcome mechanical losses in the drive. The working fluid (air and ffuel) must be replaced
continuously as they are exhausted into the atmosphere from the turbine since they cannot be
reused.

Fig. 3.4: Open cycle gass turbine

77
If the pressure loss in the combustion chamber is neglected, this
th s cycle may be drawn on T
T-s
diagram as shown below:

Fig. 3.5: T-s Diagram for open cycle gas turbine

1-2′:represents irreversible
rreversible adiabatic compression

2′-3: represents constant pressure heat supply in the combustion chamber

3-4′: represents irreversible

rreversible adiabatic expansion

1-2: represents ideal isentropic compression

3-4: represents ideal

deal isentropic expansion

Assuming change in kinetic energy between the various points

poi in the cycle
ycle to be negligibly small
compared with enthalpy changes and then applying the flow equation to each part of
o cycle, for
unit mass, we have;

Work input (compressor) = Cp (T2′ - T1)

78
Heat supplied (combustion chamber) = Cp (T3 - T2′)

∴ Network output = work output - work input

= Cp (T3 - T4′) - Cp (T2′ - T1)

Net work output

andɳthermal =
Heat sup plied

C p (T3 − T4 ' ) − C p (T2 '−T1 )

=
C p (T3 − T2 ' )

Compressor isentropic efficiency;

Work input required in isentropic compressor

ɳcomp =
Actual work required

C p (T2 − T1 ) T2 − T1
= =
C p (T2 '−T1 ) T2 '−T1

Turbine isentropic efficiency;

Actual work output

ɳturbine =
Isentropic work output

C p (T3 − T4 ' ) T3 − T4 '

= =
C p (T3 − T4 ) T3 − T4

The thermal efficiency and specific output of open cycle gas turbine can be improved by;

- Intercooling;
- Reheating;
- Regeneration

79
1. INTERCOOLING
A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilizes the major percentage of power developed by the gas
turbine. The work required by the compressor can be reduced by compressing the air in two
stages and incorporating an intercooler between the stages as shown in Fig.3.6.

Fig. 3.6: Gas turbine plant with intercooling

The actual processes take place as follows;

1-2′: Low Pressure (L.P.) compression

2′-3: Intercooling

3-4′: High pressure (H.P.) compression

4′-5: Combustion chamber (C.C.) - heating

5-6′: Turbine (T) - expansion

The corresponding T-S diagram for the unit is shown below

80
Fig. 3.7: T-s diagram for gas turbine plant with intercooling

The ideal cycle for this arrangement is 1-2-3-4-5-6; the compression process without intercooling
is shown as 1-L′ in the actual case, and I-L in the ideal isentropic case.

Now;

Work input (with intercooling)

= Cp(T2′ - T1) + Cp (T4′ - T3)

Work input (without intercooling)

= Cp(TL′-T1) = Cp(T2′-T1) + Cp (TL′ - T2′)

Comparing the two equations above, it is observed that the work input with intercooling is less
that the work input with no intercooling

i.e. Cp (T4′ - T3) < Cp (TL′ - T2′) since the pressure lines diverge on the T-S diagram from left to
the right.

81
 Net − work output
Again, work ratio =
Gross work output

Work of exp ansion − Work of compression

=
Work of exp ansion

From the above, we can conclude that when the compressor work input is reduced, then the work
ratio is increased.

Heat supplied (with intercooling) = Cp(T5 - T4′)

Heat supplied (without intercooling and max cycle temperature, T5) = Cp(T5 - TL′)

∴ Cp (T5 - T4′) > Cp (T5 – TL′)

2. REHEATING
By expanding the gases in two stages with a reheater between the stages as shown in fig. 3.8 can
amply improve the output of a gas turbine. The H.P turbine drives the compressor and the L.P.
turbine provides the useful power output. The line 4’-L’
L’ represents the expansion in the L.P.
turbine if reheating is not employed in the T-s
T s diagram as shown in fig. 3.9

Fig. 3.8: Gas turbine plant with reheater

82
Fig. 3.9: T-ss diagram for gas turbine with reheater

Neglecting mechanical losses, the work output of the H.P. turbine must be exactly equal to the
work input required for the compressor;
i.e. Cpa (T2′ - T1) = Cpg (T3 - T4′)
The work output (net output) of L.P. turbine is given by;
ating) = Cpg (T5 - T6′)
Network output (with reheating)
and network output (without reheating) = Cpg (T4′ - TL′)
(T5 - T6′) > (T4′ - TL′)) since the pressure lines diverge to the right on the T-S
T diagram so that
reheating increases the network output.
Heat supplied = Cpg (T3 - T2′) + Cpg (T5 - T4′)

3. REGENERATION
The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity of heat with them since their
temperature
rature is far above the ambient temperature. They can be used to reheat the air coming
from the compressor thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the combustion
comb chamber.
Figure 3.10 shows a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. The corresponding T-S
T diagram is
shown as well below.

83
Fig. 3.10: Gas turbine with regenerator

Fig. 3.11: T-s diagrams for gas turbine with regenerator

2-3′: represents the heat flow into the compressed air during its passage through
the heat exchanger.
3-4: represents the heat taken in from the combustion of fuel.

84
Point 6: represents the temperature of exhaust gases at discharge from the heat exchanger.
The maximum temperature to which the air could be heated in the heat exchanger is ideally that
of exhaust gases but less than this is obtained in practice because a temperature gradient must
exist for an unassisted transfer of energy.

The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is given by;

Increase in enthalpy per kg of air
ɛ =
Available increase in enthalpy per Kg of air

T3 − T2 '
=
T5 '−T2 '

(assuming Cpg and Cpa to be equal)

Cpg and Cpa specific heats of air and gas respectively at constant pressure.
A heat exchanger is usually used in large gas turbine units for marine propulsion or industrial
power.

CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES

As shown in figure 3.12 below, in a constant volume combustion gas turbine, the compressed air
from an air compressor, C is admitted into the combustion chamber, D through the valve, A.
when the value, A is closed, fuel is admitted into the chamber by means of a fuel pump, P. Then
the mixture is ignited by means of a spark plug S. The combustion takes place at constant
volume with increase of pressure. The valve, B opens and the hot gases flow to the turbine, T
and finally they are discharged into the atmosphere. The energy of the hot gases is thereby
converted into mechanical energy. For continuous running of the turbine, these operations are
repeated.
The main disadvantage associated with this type of turbine is that the pressure difference and
velocities of hot gases are not constant, thus the turbine speed fluctuates.

85
.

Fig. 3.12: Constant volume combustion gas turbine

USES OF GAS TURBINES

Gas turbines are widely used in the following fields;

- Supercharging
- Turbo-jet and turbo-propeller
propeller engines
- Marine
- Railway
- Industry
- Electric power generation
- Road transport

GAS TURBINE FUELS

Various fuels used in gas turbines are;
- Gaseous fuels: Natural gas is the most ideal but not always available.
Liquid fuels: of petroleum origin like distillate and residual oils
- Solid fuels: like coal in pulverized form. This presents several difficulties.

86
WORKED EXAMPLES 3.1

Q 1: Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine plant operating on Brayton cycle at
101.325Kpa, 27oC. The pressure ratio in the cycle is 6. Calculate the maximum temperature in
the cycle and the cycle efficiency. Assume WT = 2.5WC; where WT and WC are turbine and
compressor work respectively. Take  = 1.4.

Solution:

Pressure of intake air, X = 101.325-4A

Temperature of intake air +X = 27 + 273 = 300-
The pressure ratio in the cycle,
„ = 6
T

P=C
2
4
P=C

1
S

Fig. 3.13

Maximum temperature of the cycle, T3;

From the T-S chart above,
‡PXˆ
+  ‡ ‡PXˆ
= … † =
z ‡
+X X
= 6 X.b = 1.668
X.bPXˆ

∴ + = 1.668+X = 1.668 , 300

= 500.4k
‡PXˆ
Also, ‹R = drp g = 6
X.bPXˆ
X.b = 1.668
‹ ‡
U

+o
∴ +b =
1.668

87
But WT = 2.5WC
∴ /Nz +o − +b  = 2.5/Nz + − +X 
+o
+o − = 2.5500.4 − 300 = 501
1.668
1
+o 1 − Ž = 501
1.668

501
+o =  X ‘
1 − X.ff

= 1251k or 978oC

(iii) Cycle efficiency, K’{w

Now, +b = = = 750-
‹R XhX
X.ff X.ff

*5;“>
-
K’{w =
”5A; A••5•
/Nz +o − +b  − /Nz + − +X 
=
/Nz +o − + 
1251 − 750 − 500.4 − 300
=
1251 − 500.4
= 0.4 or 40%

1 1
–6ℎ56-; K’{w = ‡PXˆ = 1 − X.bPXˆ ˜ = 0.4 = 40%
d
z g ‡ 6 X.b

Q2: The air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine at a pressure of
1 bar and temperature of 20oC. The pressure of the air after compression is 4bar. The isentropic
efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85% respectively. The air-fuel ratio used is
90:1. If flow rate of air is 3.0kg/s, find: (i) power developed (ii) thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assume Nz = 1.0š›/-Hš and  = 1.4 of air and gases calorific value of fuel = 41800KJ/kg.

Solution:

88
 X = 1 œA
; +X = 20 + 273 = 293š

 = 4 œA
; KrBz. = 80%; KLys. = 85%

<7
8:5ž
A;7> = 90: 1; A7
8:5ž
A;5, Dx = 3.0-H/@

(i) Power developed, P

C.C
2 3

C T Work

1 4

(a)

+X = 20 + 273 = 293š

T P2 = 4bar
3

P1 = 4bar

2’ 4’
2
4

293

(b) S
Fig.3.14

Form Fig 3.14(b) above;

‡PXˆ X.bPXˆ
‡ X.b
=  G ¡ =  X¡
‹Q GQ b
‹O
= 1.486
O

+ = 20 + 273 , 1.486

+ = 435.4š

89
 + − +X
KrBz. =
+ ¢ − +X
435.4 − 293
0.8 =
+ ¢ − 293
142.4
+ ¢ = + 293 = 471š
0.8

Heat supplied by fuel = heat taken by burning gases

DE , N = dDx + DE gNz +o − + ¢ 
(Where Dx = mass of air, DE = mass of fuel)
Dx
∴ N = £ + 1¤ Nz +o − + ¢ 
DE
41800 = 90 + 1 , 1.0 , +o − 471
41800
+o = + 471 = 930š
91
‡PXˆ X.bPXˆ
‡ X.b
Again, ‹ =  G ¡ =  b¡ = 0.672
‹U GU X
R R

+b = 930 , 0.672 = 624.9š

+o − +b ¢
KwEE. =
+o − +b
930 − +b ¢
0.85 =
930 − 624.9
+b ¢ = 930 − 0.85306.1 = 670.6š
.‹ysC|vw = D\ , Nz +o − +b ¢ 
(Where D\ = mass of hot gases formed per kg of air)
90 + 1
∴ .‹ysC|vw = … † , 1.0 , 930 − 670.6
90
= 262.28š›/-H >8 A7

.rB. = Dx , Nz + ¢ − +X 
= 1 , 1.0 , 471 − 293 = 178š›/-H >8 A7

.vwL = .‹ − .
= 262.28 – 178 = 84.28KJ/kg of air.
Hence, power developed

90
P = 84.28 x 3 = 252.84KW/kg air

(ii) Thermal efficiency of cycle, KLMwsBx{ ;

Heat supplied per kg of air passing through combustion chamber;
, 41800 = 464.44š›/-H >8 A7

X
¥Y
=
.>
- >:;4:; 84.28
KLMwsB. = = = 0.1814 >
18.14%
”5A; @:44ž75• 464.44

Part Two:
AUXILIARY
MACHINERIES

91
AUXILIARY MACHINERY

The term auxiliary has a very wide application in marine engineering practice. It has been said
that in a vessel fitted with a reciprocating engine the main engine requires most attention, while
in a turbine ship the care of auxiliaries is of greatest importance, this is true to some extent but
the care and proper adjustment of auxiliaries is essential in any vessel if the efficiency of all
installations is to be maintained.

FUNCTIONS OF THE AUXILIARIES

The auxiliary machineries functions in many different combinations and arrangements to support
the main engines on board ships to operate and achieve their functions.

The main functions of the auxiliaries are;

1. Maintaining the circle of operation which ensures the continuous running of the main
machinery (ie feed systems, circulating water and lubricating systems)
2. Utilizing the power produced by the main machinery to propel or maneuver the ship
(propeller, steering-gear)
3. Keeping the ship free from leakage and in port, regulating water carried as ballast (bilge
and ballast systems)
4. Supplying the domestic requirements of the ship (fresh-water systems, refrigeration,
heating and ventilating)
5. Handling cargo in port (deck machinery, andfor instance, the case of tankers, special
pumping routines)
6. Ensuring the safety of the ship

92
 No auxiliaries are entirely independent, but there are some which may be studied
independently. These include steering gear, propeller, deck machinery, heating and
ventilating, and refrigeration each of which are dealt with as separate subject. Other auxiliary
systems are most intimately connected including the feed, bilge, ballast, fresh-water,
lubricating and circulating. Many pieces of machinery, ranging from the simplest valve to
pumps or oil purifier, are involved and are discussed here.

PIPES AND FITTINGS

The different pressures and temperatures of the various gas and liquids used on board ships make
marine piping installations generally complicated. The substance carried by the pipe may be air,
steam, salt and fresh water, oil or refrigerating gases. Certain limitations and requirements are
also imposed on the piping systems by the construction of the ship and the intricate nature of the
machinery arrangement. Thus, many different kinds of pipes, fittings, valves and accessories are
used on board ships.

Pipes, valves etc. carry and control the flow of a number of fluids at various temperatures. The
term fittings cover valves, corks, reducers, strainer filters, separators and expansion pieces. In
short, everything in a piping system which is not a pipe may be referred to as fittings.

In general, pipes convey liquids, gases and vapour from one place to another by flow processes
which may be due to natural forces such as gravity or imposed forces such as pressure provided
by pumps or compressors. Machinery space pipe work is made up of assorted straight lengths
and bends joined by flanges with an appropriate gasket or joint between, or very small-bore
piping may use compression couplings.

Some of the fluids in ship power plants are:

i) Liquids – (a) Sea water for cooling (b) fresh water for cooling and general use (c ) fuel oil
(d) lubricating and other oils
ii) Gases – (a) air (b) steam (c ) combustion gases

PIPES SIZES

Pipes, whatever purpose it is utilized are usually sized. The parameters are:

93
a) Inside diameter
b) Outside diameter
c) Wall thickness
d) Length

The capacity of the pipe is determined by the internal diameter, if V is the velocity of the fluid
flowing through a pipe and Q the volume flow rate then;

Q = AV

From the above equation, it will be possible to determine the internal diameter of the pipe or the
flow rate if the relevant parameters are known, since;

•
< =
4

Where d is the internal diameter of the pipe. The wall thickness of the pipe gives an indication
of what maximum pressure the pipe can hold for a given material.

METHOD OF FASTENING PIPES

Three main methods are adopted for fastening pipes together namely; Welding, Flanging and
Threading.

Welding has the biggest advantages in that is does not leak even when subjected to high
pressure. Flanging is convenient when the part to be connected are likely to be disconnected and
hocked up again so as to remove blocking or for inspection and necessary repairs of associated
vessels and machinery or for other reasons with the best possible attention, flanged
connectiondoes still leak. When small pipes such as those used for low pressure water supply
lines are to be connected, threaded joints are used. Here again there is the convenience of
breaking the joint and later coupling back, they can ensure long leak-proof life if well joined.
Tapes are usually used to ensure a good seal.

PIPING SYSTEM

94
In ships, piping system forms a pervasive network that is required to support all of the ships
essential function. The various systems are arranged to carry many different fluids at various
temperatures and pressures. These systems convey steam, fuel, lubricating oil, and cooling water
to operate machinery, transport bulk cargo and ballast, provide for human health and comfort
(e.g. Portable – water, heating, chilled water and waste collection system). Protect the safety of
the ship and crew with fire extinguishing agents and damage – control systems and collect and
remove pollutants.

PIPING MATERIALS

Materials used for piping arrangements are cast or wrought iron, steel, copper, brass, lead and
ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Standard cast-iron piping is not generally suitable for use due to
strain or vibration. Wrought iron piping are extensively used for water piping because it is
corrosion resistant. Seamless drawn-steel pipe is also mostly used for steam at high pressures and
temperatures, and in oil-fuel lines. Seamless drawn-copper and brass pipe are used at low and
moderate temperatures, but cannot be used for superheated steam, and copper pipes must not be
used for fuel oil. Lead pipe, protected against mechanical damage, is used in salt-water lines and
bilge lines.

The various factors considered when making a choice of materials for use in piping system are
the corrosion resistance of the pipe materials to the liquid it will carry, the allowable liquid
velocity of the liquid being moved in the material under consideration and the strength of the
pipe material and the thickness of material required to withstand the internal pressure in the pipe.
The weight of the system, and the possible use of suitable plastic coatings on cheaper pipe
materials, are also considered together with the initial cost of the system and expected
maintenance cost. If the pipe is used for a steam subject to high temperature and pressure,
special creep resistance alloy steels must be used.

Table 1. Pipe Work Material

System Material
Waste steam Carbon steel to BS 3601

95
SW circulating Aluminum brass
Wash deck and fire main Carbon steel to BS 3601 – galvanized
Bilge and Ballast Carbon steel to BS 3601 – galvanized
Control air Copper
Starting air Carbon steel to BS 3602
Where piping is to be galvanized, the completed pipe with all joints fully welded is to be hot
dipped galvanized. The pipes are supported and held in place by hangers or pipe clips in such a
way as to minimize vibration.

Steam pipes or pipes in systems with considerable temperature may be supported on string
hangers which permit a degree of movement. An alternative to string hangers is the use of
expansion loops of piping or an expansion joint.

Cast Iron: has fair corrosion resistance but its weakness in tension and under shock loading
limits its use for;

(i) Low pressure steam (ii) Air (iii) Oil (iv) Low speed water

It is difficult to weld. Its performance is improved by the addition of nickel to the melt and by
heat treatment in which the free graphite assumes spherical pour (SG Iron) and may be used for
high pressure services and for steam below 400oC lined in the inside with rubber, plastic and
Epoxy-compound. It is used for sea water fittings.

Seamless – Mild Steel: used for steam (also for moderate pressure and temperature of steam)
high pressure air, feed discharges and all oil feed pressure piping. Its strength begins to fall at
about 460oC above which steel having small addition of Melodeum (Mo) and chromium (Cr) or
both come into use.

Seamless Copper: may be used for lubricating oil (not for fuel oil) and certain water services;
fresh water and salt water but it stands up badly to high water speeds, entrained air and polluted
river water.

Cuprous Alloys: used for water and for oil tanks heating coils.

96
Cast Iron and Gun-Metal Fittings: used in small sizes at moderate pressures. Large fittings,
those for high pressures and temperature and for pressure fuel oil are cast welded mild steel or
SG iron for temperatures above 460oC. They are usually 0.5% Mo steel.

Non-metallic pipes and fittings are not used on board ships because of their low mechanical
resistance. They can be damaged by the ship hull movement.

Marine piping is divided into two classes;

Class One

a) Power piping (steam) for pressure above 6.9KN/m2 regardless of temperature

b) Hot water piping – for pressure above 6.9KN/m2 regardless of temperature and for
temperature above 121oC regardless of pressure
c) Oil piping – for pressure over 6.9KN/m2 regardless of temperature and for temperature
above 65oC regardless of pressure.

Class Two – includes all piping for use with pressures and temperatures lower than Class One.

PIPE FITTING

When piping must pass through a water tight bulkhead, the integrity of the bulkhead is
maintained by using a bulkhead piece. In most cases, bulkhead pieces are made of cast and
wrought iron, steel, brass, and alloys with their allowable working strength generally given in
terms of the water and steam pressures for which they are intended or fabricated by welding
together shaped pieces. In modern ship construction bulkhead pieces are a continuation or part
of the piping system.

Branches, bends, tee pieces and cross pieces are used as fittings in steel pipe work, forged pieces
are available for fabrication purposes. These forged pieces are welded into the various pieces
when they are required.

Reducers are important pipe fittings available in most materials. These are hollow truncated
cones, with the smaller diameter in line with the larger diameter or offset from it. They are used
where a larger diameter pipe must join up with a smaller diameter pipe such as centrifugal pump

97
flange. The reducer prevents the formation of waste eddies by giving an easy transition between
the two diameters.

TYPES OF FITTINGS

Fig. 4.1: Types of Fittings

FLEXIBILITY IN PIPING

Flexibility in piping is a major consideration in the design of high temperature piping systems.
High temperature piping system must have sufficient flexibility to prevent excessive stress in the
piping material, excessive bending moment at a joint or excessive forces or moments at point of
connection. Piping flexibility should be taken into consideration when:

98
 ¦,§
> 200
¨ − =

Where D: Pipe nominal diameter (mm)

Y: Resultant movement to be absorbed by the pipe (mm)
U: Developed length of the pipe
L: Straight line distance between anchor points (m)

Check if it is necessary to use a steam pipe for the above consideration

U = 4 + 4.3 + 4.3 + 6 = 18.6m

L = 17.2m y = ? d = 100mm

Y = ª,∆+,¬

ª = coefficient of linear expansion (0.00001/oC)

Steam temperature = 325oC, Ambient temperature = 25oC

y = 0.00001 x 18600 x 300 = 55.8mm

¦,§ 100 , 55.8

= = 2850 ≫ 200
¨ − = 18.6 − 17.2

Flexibility should be incorporated into pipe system by the use of the equipment used to allow
thermal expansion to take place from the cold, or to accommodate hull bending. Equipment used
to allow thermal expansion to take place are bellows pieces, piping loops or omega bends, and

99
pipe expansion gland fittings. When these items are used it is necessary to anchor one end of the
pipe to move.

Fig. 4.2: Flexible fittings

COMPOUND PIPE IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

1) SERIES – We consider several pipes of different lengths and diameters and with different
local features joined in series.

Fig. 4.3: Compound pipe in series

The rate of discharge through all portions of the system (compound pipes in series) is the
same and the local loss of head between points “M” and “N” is the sum of the head losses
in each of them.

100
 The basic equations are:

Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q and ℎBP® = ∑ ℎX + ∑ ℎ + ∑ ℎo

2) PARALLEL – Several pipes joined in parallel between joints M and N, for simplicity, we
assume all of them to be in the horizontal plane.

Fig. 4.4: Compound pipe in parallel

Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = Q and ∑ ℎX = ∑ ℎ = ∑ ℎo

101
Equation for continuity can be written thus;

• ²
°D /@ =
o
, √1000,³• DD
4

√1000
° = , ,6,• .h
4

° Y.b
• =  Ž
24.84 ,N

Do
• = DD, °= A?•N − 6Až6:žA;5•8
>D;Aœž5.
@

N√•DD ≤ µBx¶

If the calculated value of N√• = µBx¶ >

< µBx¶ from the table, then the calculation is
finished, but if greater than, then recalculation is necessary with adjusted d.

if N√• > µBx¶ , ;ℎ5?¦ =

 ¶³¸
¹ .
º»¼
i.e.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.1

Determine the pipe diameter and the fluid velocity of the fuel oil transfer suction pipe for a
capacity of 10m2/hr. c from table = 0.06.

Solution:

102
Capacity, °Do /@ = = 0.00278Do /@
XY
ofYY

Y.b Y.b
• = ½ ¿ = ½ ¿ = 0.001865Y.b = 0.806D = 80.6DD
¸ Y.YYc
b.b ¶¾ b.b ¶ Y.Yf

µ = N√•DD = 0.06 √80.6 = 0.538D/@

µ < µBx¶ 1.8D/@

Table 2: Fluid Velocity Table

SERVICE Fluid Velocity, À√Á Vmax Limit (m/s)

0.06√¦
(D-nominal diameter in mm)
Condensate Pump Suction 0.9
Condensate Pump Discharge 0.18√¦ 2.4
Condensate Drains 0.018√¦ 0.3
Hot Water Suction 0.06√¦ 0.9
How Tater Discharge 0.18√¦ 2.4
Feed Water Suction 0.078√¦ 1.2
Feed Water Discharge 0.24√¦ 3.0
Cold Fresh Water Suction 0.18√¦ 4.5
Cold Fresh Water Discharge 0.30√¦ 6.0
Lub. Oil Service Pumping Suction 0.06√¦ 1.0
Lub. Oil Service Pumping Discharge 0.12√¦ 1.8
Fuel Oil Service Suction 0.06√¦ 1.2
Fuel Oil Service Discharge 0.09√¦ 1.8
Fuel Oil Transfer Suction 0.06√¦ 1.8
Fuel Oil Transfer Discharge 0.12√¦ 4.5
Diesel Oil Suction 0.30√¦ 2.1
Diesel Oil Discharge 0.30√¦ 3.65
Hydraulic Oil Suction 0.09√¦ 2.4
Hydraulic Oil Discharge 0.48√¦ 6.0
Sea Water Suction 0.18√¦ 4.5*
Sea Water Discharge 0.30√¦ 4.5*
Steam High Pressure 3√¦ 60
Steam Exhaust 4.5√¦ 75
Steam High Vacuum 4.5√¦ 100
*2.7 m/s for galvanized steel pipe

103
The upper velocity may not be exceeded even for the larger sizes because of erosion or water
hammer or the possibility of noise.

FLOW RESISTANCE

Losses of energy or head losses as they are commonly called depend on:
a) Shape of the pipe line.
b) Size and Roughness of pipe line
c) Velocity and Viscosity of the fluid.

The head loses do not depend on the absolute pressure of the fluid. Experiments show that in the
case of turbulent flow, flow resistances (head losses) are approximately proportional to the
square of velocity. For laminar flow, the head losses are directly proportional to the flow
velocity.

Fig. 4.5: Graph of head loss and flow velocity

The general expression for head loss of any flow element and turbulent flow is:

µD
ℎE = Â
2H

and pressure loss,

104
 µD
E = ℎE , = Â,,
2H

Where Vm = mean flow velocity (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)

ℎE = head losses (m)

 = mass density (kg/m3)

 = coefficient of friction (loss coefficient)

Head losses are generally divided into:

a) Local losses (minor losses) and

b) Frictional (major) losses

Fig. 4.6: Straight and curved pipes

ℎE > ℎEX , ℎE = ℎEX + ∆ℎ

Normally, ℎEX ≫ ∆ℎ

For straight pipes with uniform cross section i.e. with uniform flow, the energy losses of the head
due to the internal friction of a fluid are uniform and therefore they appear not only in rough
pipes but also in smooth pipes as well. For straight pipes, the loss of head due to friction can be
expressed thus:

105
 µB
ℎE = Â
2H

A more convenient form however, is one in which loss coefficient is correlated with the relative
length =ˆ¦ of a pipe.

Consider a circular pipe equal in length to its diameter, D = L and denoting the loss coefficient
by à for the whole pipe of length L, and diameter D, the coefficient will be =ˆ¦ times greater and
for head losses we have;

= µB =
ℎE = Ã, , ; Â = Ã,
• 2H •

= 16°  1
ℎE = Ã, ,  b ,
• ,• 2H

Pressure losses

= µB
E = Ã, , , − ¦A
6Ä − .57@@œA6ℎ8>
D:žA

• 2H

The friction factor is defined as;

4 ,@ℎ5A
7?H@;
5@@
à = 4. Å/µ  /2 =
•Ä?AD768ž>“4
5@@:
5

The friction factor is a function of Reynold’s number (Re) and a dimensionless

parameter,šˆ¦called the roughness ratio in which K is the measure of absolute roughness of the
inside pipe surface and d is the internal diameter of the pipe.

ÃX = 8Æ5; šˆ• 

For laminar flow, the friction factor is only a function of Reynold number, (roughness does not
affect the flow resistance).

VALUES OF FRICTION FACTOR

106
For Laminar flow - Re< 2300

ÃÇ = 64/Æ5

For turbulent flow – 2300 <Re < 105

a) Smooth pipes – Blasius equation

0.3164
ÃL =
î5
U

b) Rough pipes:

1 Æ5
ȳà = 1.8log Æ5. š ⁄• + 7Ž
L

Fig. 4.7:

Pipe Material K(10-3mm)

Drawn tubing, Brass, Lead Copper 0.0

Seamless steal (high grade) 0.6 – 2.0
Cast iron 25 – 50
Steel pipe 3 – 10

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2

107
Determine the head loss and pressure loss due to friction in the cylindrical portion of a cooling
pipeline. The coolant (fresh water) is delivered by a pump with capacity 400m3/hr, the diameter
of the tube, d = 200mm, the length of the conduit, L = 12m; the temperature of the section under
consideration is constant at 60oC. Pipe material is seamless steel and Ë = 0.00659 ,10Pb D /@.

Solution:

Mean Velocity, µB = ÌÍQ = = 3.536D/@

¸ bYY ¶ b
ofYY ¶¹¶Y.Q
U

= = 1073140
uÎ Y. ¶ o.hof
Î Y.YYfh¥ ¶XYSU
Re =

Flow is turbulent.

= 1.8 log Ñ Ô
X Òw
Ó
³ÏÐ Òw¶  ¡  c
Friction factor,
Í

But;

- 2 ,10Po
= = 10Ph
• 200

1 1073140
= 1.8 log  Ž
³ÃL 10.73 + 7

1 1
=
³ÃL 8.231

à = 0.0147

= µ 12 3.536
ℎE = Ã, , = 0.01478 , … † , = 0.565D
• 2H 0.2 2 , 9.81

Pressure loss

E = ℎE  = 0.565 , 1000 = 565-H/D

∆ = 565-H/D = 0.0565-H/6D ≈ 0.057œA

108
List all the factors influencing the head losses in a straight pipe

Solution:

Q
ℎE = Ã, u , \ ; Re = =
Ç uÎ ¸
Î ÌÍQ
; = V =
U

From the above formulas,

1) Length of pipe
2) Diameter of pipe
3) Mean velocity or capacity Q
4) Viscosity of fluid Ö,
5) Roughness of the pipe, k
6) Fluid density ×>


The last factor is included if pressure losses is considered.

VALVES

The process of shutting off, throttling, prevention of flow reversal, relief or pressure build-up
and the directing of fluid to specific pipes involves the use of valves. Valves are extremely
important in every type of piping system and their shapes, size and location in the network must
conform to precise and specific requirements such as the various points where the valves are
installed.

There are many different types of valves, some used more extensively than others in the various
systems found aboard ship.

CLASSIFICATION

A general classification criterion for valves is function performed. Consequently, we have five
groups given as:

• On-off (shut – off) service

109
• Throttling service
• Prevention of back flow
• Safety and protection
• Automatic process control

There are wide ranges of other valves, which may not exactly fit into the groups above.

In group (i) there are:

i. Gate valve
ii. Slide valve
iii. Plug valve
iv. Ball valve

Group (ii) consists of:

i. Globe valve
ii. Angle valve
iii. Y – valve
iv. Needle valve
v. Butterfly valve
vi. Diaphragm valve
vii. Pinch valve

Group (iii) are:

i. Check valve
ii. Foot valve

Group (iv) consist of:

i. Safety valve
ii. Relief valve

Group (v) have a wide variety of control valves

110
FUNDAMENTAL PARTS

A valve consists fundamentally of a body, a bonnet, a seat, disc and slam with hand wheel and
other actuating mechanisms. The fluid is led into one side of the body and the stem, which
operates through a packing gland in the bonnet to keep the valve from leaking, is removed to
force the disc into the seat or draw it away from the seat. The fluid passes through openings in
the seat or through an orifice of which the seat is the rim and flows out of the other side of the
valve body. In the angle valve, the flow makes a right-angle turn through the valve.

MATERIALS

Materials of which valves are made must be suitable for the fluid flowing through them. For
certain corrosive substance “valve bronze” (an alloy composed of copper 87%, tin 7%, zinc 5%,
lead 1% and a maximum of 0.06% iron) is used for constructing the valve. Some valves may
have to be lined with non-corrosive material when used with chemicals. High-pressure valves
are usually of cast or forged steel cast-iron. Valve bodies are seldom used for steam pressure
above 150psi.

PACKING

Packing for valves is an extremely important feature. It is installed in packing gland where the
stem projects through the valve bonnet to prevent leakage of the fluid. It must also provide
lubrication so that the stem will slide or run without sticking and with minimum friction loss.
Various types of graphite materials are used for packing.

GLOBE VALVE

In this type of valve, the closing device consist of a circular disc with some arrangement of
wings or a centrally located guide rod on the base of the disc. The disc prevents flow through the
valve. Although the globe valve is commonly used, the change of direction of fluid flow causes
energy to be wasted when fluid passes through the valve. The energy wastage increases, as the
flow is resisted when the amount of valve opening is used to adjust flow rates.

111
Fig. 4.8: Globe Valve

GATE VALVE

A gate valve uses a wedge-shaped closing device. The wedge fits into a wedge-shaped opening
in the valve body. Fluids pass straight through this type of valve without a change in direction so
there is less energy loss. The gate valve is used commonly where a high rate of liquid flow is
required, such as in condenser cooling water systems, tanker cargo pipelines and the likes.

112
Fig. 4.9: Gate Valve

RELIEF VALVES

Excess pressure is avoided in a pipe system by the use of relief valve. The valve disc is held
closed by a spring arrangement on the stem as shown below. The spring compression can be
adjusted to enable the valve to open at the appropriate pressure. Boiler safety valves are a
special case of relief valves.

Fig. 4.10: Relief Valve

QUICK CLOSING VALVES

Oil tank suction valves are arranged for rapid closing from a remote point by the use of quick
closing valves. The collapsing of the bridge results in the valve closing quickly under the
combined effects of the gravity and an internal spring. A manually operating wire or a hydraulic
cylinder can be used to collapse the bridge.

113
Fig. 4.11: Non-return Valve

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS

Pumps

Before a fluid can be moved around any piping or trunking system, energy is required to
overcome inertia of the fluid, the frictional resistance imparted by pipe or trunk surfaces and the
resistance to flow created by pipe bends and valves. Energy is also required to overcome the
pressure at the discharge end of the system when it is higher than at the suction end.For example,
in the boiler feed system energy is required to bring the inlet pressure at the pump suction branch
to a pressure high enough at the delivery branch to enable the feed water to pass through pipe
bends, branches, valves and feed water regulators before overcoming the boiler pressure and
entering the boilers. The pump discharge pressure will then be considerably higher that the
pressure at the pump entry branch. In a similar way, energy is required to overcome the head
difference when pumping ballast water from double bottom tanks to a higher level through the
ship’s side overboard valve. The energy used to move a fluid is obtained from pumps and fans.
Pumps and fans are usually driven by electric motors, but in some cases, steam is used to supply
the motive power, for reasons of safety, economics, or convenience.

Types of Pumps

114
Pumps are used to move liquids, known technically as non-compressible fluids, around or
through a pumping system. The fundamental types are: kinetic-centrifugal, regenerative turbine
and vertical turbine pumps and positive displacement pumps – reciprocating, rotary and
diaphragm pumps.

Pump Classification

Pumps are usually classified by names descriptive of the type of pump. Each pump type then has
some other distinguishing name or names indicating the sub-divisions within the class.

Centrifugal Pumps

These may be vertical or horizontal, of single stage or multi-stage type. They may be driven by
an electric motor or a steam turbine. A centrifugal pump with a double inlet rotor is shown in
figure 4.12a and a centrifugal pump with a single inlet rotor is shown in figure 4.12b.

115
Fig. 4.12: Centrifugal Pumps: a) with double inlet rotor;
b) with single inlet rotor

A centrifugal pump basically consists of a stationary casing. As it turns, the impeller transfers
energy to the liquid flowing between its vanes. In general, as a liquid enters a centrifugal pump's
impeller its flow is primarily in the axial direction. If there is a tangential component to the inlet
flow, it is often referred to as "pre-whirl or pre-rotation. Centrifugal pumps are more commonly
used for pumping liquids than any other type of pump due to the small space they occupy and the
ease with which they can be coupled to an electric motor without the need for reduction gearing.
These large capacity pumps are used for the discharge of Cargo in Very Large Crude Oil Carriers
(VLCOCs).

Axial Flow Pump

These consist of an impeller (simila to a ship’s propeller) fitted in a casing. The outlet passages
and guides vane are arranged to convert the velocity increase of the liquid into a pressure. Axial
flow pumps are sometimes used for circulating cooling water through the condenser in high
propulsion steam turbine installations where scoop cooling has been adopted. An axial flow
pump is shown in figure 4. 13.

116
Fig. 4.13: Axial flow pump

Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pumps

Reciprocating pumps are sometimes used for applications involving high pressures and relatively
low capacities. In these positive displacement pumps, pressure is developed by the reciprocating
motion of a displacement element that applies a force directly against the fluid contained within
an enclosed cylinder. These pumps are manufactured as vertical or horizontal, simple acting,
double acting, or differential types, where this direction refers to the orientation of the
displacement elements axis. Each pump consists basically of two elements; the liquid end and
the drive end. Reciprocating pump is shown in Figure 14. They may be used as boilers feed
pumps for harbour duty or auxiliary boilers in motor ships. They may also be used for bilge, or
fuel oil pumping duty. They are sometimes used for ballast pumping duty when the capacity of
the ballast system is relatively small.

117
Fig. 4.14: Reciprocating positive displacement pump

Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps

These type sub-divisions indicate whether the pump is of a fixed or variable displacement type.
The pump is also classified by the type of its internal parts. These may be described as the helical
type (screw type) having one, two or three helices, gear pumps, sliding vane pumps; flexible
vane pumps, lobe type pumps; and screw and wheel type pumps. Figures 4.15a-d show various
types of rotary positive displacement pumps. They are commonly used for lubricating oil supply
to both main and auxiliary diesel engines as well as for main and auxiliary steam turbines.

118
Fig. 4.15: Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
a) Lobe pump; b) Screw and Wheel Pump; c) Sliding Vane Pump; d) screw Pump

FACTORS IN PUMP SELECTION

The selection of pumps for specific duty depends on many factors including the following:

i. Flow rate
ii. Total head
iii. Properties of the pumped fluid, including density, viscosity, temperature, pump materials,
solid suspension, dissolved or entrained gas content, volatility

119
iv. Static lift
v. Desired location of the pump and space available
vi. Speed of operation
vii. Minimum operation efficiency
viii. Others including standardization, inter-changeability, ease of maintenance reliability and
noise

PUMPING SYSTEM

A ship cannot function without the various pumping systems placed in or controlled from the
machinery spaces. The pumping systems are of major importance and they are many and varied.
A pumping system on a ship will consist of suction, static, pump, discharge, total and available
net positive suction heads. These will be defined in relation to the typical pumping system of
figure 4.16 in which the centerline of the pump is chosen as an arbitrary datum.

Fig. 4.16: Typical Pumping System

a) Static Heads: a static head Z is the height of a column of liquid above or below some
arbitrary chosen datum. Hence in figure 4.16 there are two static heads, each on either
side of the pump:
Zs – static suction head (acting on suction side of pump)
Zd – static discharge head (acting on discharge side of pump)

120
 If the liquid level on the suction side is below the centerline of the pump, Zs is negative
and it is then called suction lift. Further, the difference between the liquid levels in the
suction and discharge sides is called the total static lift or total static head ZT.
ZT = Zd - Zs
Where Zs is negative for a suction lift.
b) Suction head: the suction head, hs is the total head that is favorable to fluid flow through
the suction piping. Hence:
N 
ℎ = Ø + + − ℎÇÙ
2H ×H

Where Zs is negative for a suction lift, Ps is the gas pressure (gauge) above the liquid in
the tank on the suction side of the pump, Csis the velocity of the fluid on the suction side
and hLS is the sum of the dynamic loses (due to friction, fluid entry into pipe, change in
cross-section of pipe, valves, bends, etc) in the pipe network on the suction side.

c) Discharge head: the discharge head, hdis the total head against which the pump will be
working on the discharge side. Thus,

Nu u
ℎu = Øu + + + ℎ{u
2H ×H

d) Total system head: the Total system head (simply system head or total head) is the net
head the pump is required to impart to the fluid flowing through the entire system, and it
is equal to the difference between the discharge and the suction heads. Hence

Nu − N  u −  
” = ℎu − ℎ = Øu − Ø  + + + ℎ{u + ℎ{
2H ×H

or the total head is the energy added by a pump to the liquid passing through it and it is
equal to the total suction head of the liquid when it enters the pump subtracted from the
total discharge head of liquid when it leaves the pump

121
Fig. 4.17: overall pump system characteristic curve

The operating point of a centrifugal pump is determined by the intersection of its head-capacity
curve with the curve of total head versus capacity for the system in which it operates.

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): An important consideration, particularly when drawing
liquid from below the pump, is the suction side conditions of the system. The suction condition
for a pump is often expressed in terms of net positive suction head (NPSH). NPSH is the amount
by which the total suction pressure of the pumped liquid exceeds its true vapour pressure at the
pumping temperature i.e. the absolute suction head above the fluid vapour pressure at the
temperature of the fluid.

When referring to NPSH, it is necessary to differentiate between the amount available to the
pump and the amount required by the pump. The determination of NPSH is undertaken for both
the system and pump. The NPSH available is a function of the system design on the suction side
of the pump and the liquid being pumped and it is calculated thus:

Î
*3” = ℎ −
4\

122
 N   − Î 
= Ø + + − ℎ{
2H ×H

Where Î is the vapour pressure of the fluid at the temperature of the fluid. As the flow rate
increases, ℎ{ increases, hence the available NPSH decreases with increasing pumping rate. The

available NPSH must always be positive …ℎ > †so that the suction head,ℎ can overcome the
GÚ
zÛ

vapour pressure. When the liquid is at the boiling point:

N 
 = Î >
*3” = Ø + − ℎ{
2H

The pump and system must be matched in terms of NPSH such that NPSH available is always
greater that NPSH required. An insufficient value of NPSH required will result in cavitation.

NPSH available is calculated but values of NPSH required are determined by test. A method
commonly used to perform this type of test is to gradually reduce the NPSH available to the
pump during operation at a constant capacity until a specified reduction; usually 3% is measured
in total head. The NPSH available at this point is considered the minimum NPSH required by
the pump at the test capacity.

PRIMING OF PUMPS

To prime a pump, the stop valve is opened. The pressure of the air or gases in the pump is
lowered as the gases expand and flow to the vacuum tank. The external atmospheric pressure
forces water up the suction line to fill the pump before it is started. After the pump is started and
the discharge pressure is normal, the stop valve on the vacuum line connection to the pump may
be closed.

The suction effect of centrifugal pumps rarely exceeds 1cm water gauge. When empty, therefore
the pump must be primed with water or the liquid to be pumped for a start-up of the pump.

When the pump is located below the level of liquid, the pump is fitted by opening the inlet valve
and the air releasing lock on the top of the pump casing. The pump is fully primed when water

123
emerges from the air lock. When the pump is located above the liquid level one of the following
methods is used.

1. By fixing a foot valve at the end of the suction pipe and filling up the suction pipe and
pump casing from outside supply while the air lock is left open.

2. By fitting a non-return valve or a screw-down valve on the delivery (discharge) pipe and
exhausting the air between this and the liquid in the suction pipe by means of an air
pump, till the liquid rises (due to the outside atmospheric pressure) and fills the piping
and pump casing. Air ejectors or air pumps may be used.

3. Liquid rising primer. This type is most frequently used. In the pump is a liquid rising
device consisting of a bladed circular rotor rotating on an oval casing (the self-priming
stage).

Characteristics of centrifugal pumps

• Capacity varies directly as rotational speed i.e. Q α η

• Discharge pressure or head varies as the square of speed i.e. h α n2
• Power consumption varies as the cube of speed i.e. P α n3
• All these variations take place simultaneously for a given change in speed and for a given
pump.

For water temperature above 75oC the suction head must be negative, i.e. the pump must be
installed below the suction reservoir.

To increase capacity, pumps are connected in parallel and to increase head, pumps are connected
in series.

Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual intake air volume flow to the compressor
displacement. Volumetric losses are due to re-expansion of the air in the clearance volume (i.e.
by heating of air in the clearance volume).

124
CAVITATION IN PUMP

Cavitation involves the local vaporization of a liquid when the absolute pressure falls to the
vapour pressure of the liquid at the existing temperature and the subsequent sudden collapse of
the pocket vapour that may be formed. In pumps, cavitation may occur at the entry of pumps;
this is the point where pressure is lowest.

The collapse of the vapour bubbles is accompanied by localized impact forces due to the liquid
rushing to fill the cavities, thus generating very high localized pressures (up to 109N/m2) which
cause erosion of the adjoining solid surfaces and ultimate fatigue failure of the solid material. It
is also accompanied by noise and vibration, the noise being similar to gravel passing through a
centrifugal pump when cavitation occurs in pumps, such cracking sound cover a wide range of
frequency (up to 1mHz). The higher frequency noise being due to the collapse of small vapour

bubbles while the lower frequency noise is caused by large cavities, and the attendant vibration
may in extreme cases, shake a power station or ship.

Cavitation Coefficient: the susceptibility of a system to cavitate can be quantified by the

cavitation coefficient or defined as:

 − Î
Ü =
×µ 
X


Where P is the absolute pressure at the point of interest (i.e. point of maximum pressure), Î the
vapour pressure of the liquid at the local temperature and V is a reference velocity.

When Ü= 0, the local pressure equals the vapour pressure and then the formation of pocket of
vapour ensures, this condition is called cavitation inception.

Suction specific speed is another parameter for the assessment of cavitation which is also same
as specific speed and is defined as:

O O

* = * =
®¸ Q ®¸Q
R Or R
\.®GÙÝU ÝU

Where N is the operating speed (rpm), Q volumetric flow rate and H total head.

125
PREVENTION OF CAVITATION

To avoid cavitation, increase pressure at the points where the bubbles are created. Suction pipe
must be short, straight and the speed of flow must be low. For this reason, the suction pipe is
very often larger than the delivery pipe.

WORKED EXAMPLE4.3

A centrifugal pump in a piping system has the following operating data:

Impeller rotational speed = 550rev/min

Loss in impeller = 0.404N

Loss in volute casing = 0.571N

Power required, w = 340.5KW

Fluid inlet velocity, N| = 5.14m/s

Fluid delivery velocity, Nu = 4.22m/s

If the pump and piping system delivers 0.26m3/s of water with an overall efficiency of 70%,
determine:

i. The static and total head developed by the pump

ii. The shaft power input
iii. Specific speed of the pump

Solution

From Bernoulli’s equation – flow through the impeller;

X NX “⁄  Nu
D
+ + −ℎÇ| = + + ℎÇu
×H 2H H ×H 2H

 − X NX − N “⁄
D ℎ
=> = + − Ç| + ℎÇ 
×H 2H H

126
ℎ| = static head rise across the impeller =
GQ PGO
„\

NX − N “⁄
D
ℎ| = + − ℎNj
2H H

5.14 − 4.22 340.5

ℎ| = + − 0.404 + 0.571
2 , 9.81 9.81

ℎ| = 34.2D

Hence total head developed:

“⁄ 340.5
D
” = = = 34.7D
H 9.81

>“5
7D4A
;5•;>8ž:7•
K =
@ℎA8;4>“5
7?4:;

“⁄ 340.5š.
D
 = = = 486.5š.
K 0.7

Specific speed,

*° Q 550 , 0.26Q 280.4

O O

* = = = = 19.6
5Ö/D7?
”
R
U 34.7
R
U
14.3

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

A centrifugal pump lifts water from a well and discharges to the atmosphere. The pump has the
following operational data:

Static suction lift = 2.5m

Static discharge head = 14m

Vel in suction pipe = 1.02m/s

127
Vel in delivery pipe = 8.4m/s

Overall efficiency = 68%

Losses:

Loss in suction pipe = 1.2m

Loss in delivery pipe = 5.6m

Determine (i) the suction, discharge and total system heads;

(ii) The power required to drive the pump

(iii) The Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) at cavitation inception
(iv) The maximum permissible suction lift

Assume that the dimensionless specific speed Ns= 0.64 and the vapour pressure is 1.2 x 104N/m2
at the prevailing temperature.

Solution:

System Heads:

a. Suction head;

N 
ℎ = Ø + + − ℎÇÙ
2H ×H

128
Now, total head at B = total head at A

 N r
+ = = 0 HA:H5
×H 2H ×H

Since Po = atmospheric pressure = 0 (gauge)

Therefore ℎ = −2.5 − 1.2 = 3.7D

b. Discharge head;
u Nu
ℎu = Øu + + + ℎÇu
×H 2H
Since the delivery pipe discharges to the atmosphere, discharge pressure

Pd = atmospheric pressure = 0 (gauge)

Nu 8.4
ℎu = Øu + + ℎÇu = 14 + + 5.6 = 23.196D
2H 2 , 9.81
c. Total system head, ” = ℎu − ℎ

= 23.196 + 3.7 = 26.896m

Power required:

Shaft energy input:

 H” 9.81 , 26.98
= = = 388.019“-H/@
/ K 0.68

NPSH:

Î
*3” = ℎ − Aœ@>ž:;5ÖAž:5@
×H

In which each of the three terms is an absolute head. Thus, substituting the full expression for hs,

 N Î
*3” = Ø + + − ℎÇ −
×H 2H ×H

129
In which Ø is negative for suction lift.

 N r
But + =
×H 2H ×H

Where, Po = absolute atmospheric pressure = 1.01 x 105N/m2

r Î
Hence NPSH = Ø + − ℎÇ −
×H ×H

r − Î
Therefore ∶ NPSH = Ø − ℎÇ +
×H

*3” U
R

Speciæic speed, * ≤ 2.88 … † * •7D5?@7>?ž5@@

”

*3”
≥ 0.244* b⁄o
”

Minimum Value *3”B|v = 0.244 ,* b⁄o ,” − value of NPSH at cavitation inception

Hence Ø is maximum when

r − Î
0.244* b⁄o ” = Ø − ℎÇ +
×H

r − Î
Ø = 0.244* b⁄o ,” + ℎÇ −
×H

1.01 ,10h − 1.2 ,10b

Ø = 0.244 , 0.64b⁄o
, 26.89 + 1.2 −
10o , 9.81

Ø = 3.6196 + 1.2 − 9.0724

Ø = −4.528D

Hence max permissible suction lift = 4.53m

COMPRESSORS

130
Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a gas. Like pumps, compressors can be
classified into:

(a) Reciprocating single (b) Rotary (c) Centrifugal

or double acting
screw, lobe, fixed or vaneless diffuser multi-
horizontal or
vertical sliding vane vane diffuser

Single or multi- Single or multi-stage Single or multi-stage for

stage for medium for low and medium low and medium
to high pressure pressure pressure

Compressor can be further classified into air or water cooled

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Fig. 4.17: Idealized Indicator Diagram for Single Stage Air Compressor

131
At point 1, piston is at TDC and a certain amount of air at discharge pressure is trapped in the
clearance volume (volume between piston and cylinder head). As piston starts its backstroke, the
contained air expands until point 2, at which the inlet valve opens and a fresh charge of air enters
the cylinder. The cylinder continues to full until the piston reaches BDG (point 3). At point 3, the
inlet valve closes and compression takes place when the piston travels upwards to point 4. At
point 4, the pressure in the cylinder exceeds that in the discharge vessel and the discharge valve
opens permitting the piston to discharge the compressed air into the system along line 4-1.

Fig. 4.18: Two-Stage (Idealized) Compressor with Intercooling

The compression begins at point 3 and would continue to point 4 in single stage compressor. In a
two - stage compressor, the compression in the first stage continues to point 3a, at which the air
is withdrawn from the cylinder and cooled along line 3a - 3b while the pressure (Pi) remains
constant, thereby reducing its volume to that represented by point 3b.Compression then
continues in the 2nd stage.

The work of compression is considerably reduced (shaded area) by a lower inlet air temperature.
The work of adiabatic compression is given by

132
 š 
íSO

.x = X µX … † − 1‘ …. 1
í

š−1 X

Where X is initial gas pressure;  is discharge gas pressure; µX is actual volume flow at initial
GQ
GO
pressure, K is adiabatic index (K= 1.4 for air); is compression ratio, to increase the

compression ratio, multi-stage units are often used. The above equation i.e. equ. (1) applies to
any type of compressor, either single or multi-stage which compression is substantially adiabatic.

In an actual reciprocating compressor, the compression work follows a polytrophic process with
exponent m in place of exponent k.

Polytrophic work in an actual compressor is given by:

D 
ºSO

.z = X µX ï… † − 1ð , D = 1.3 ;> 1.35 8>

A7

D−1 X

The work of isothermal compression (with the most efficient cooling) is given by:


.|L = X µX ln
X

Inter-cooling between stages in a multi stage compressor reduces work of compression by

reducing the volume flow to the succeeding stage or stages, for maximum work of compression,
the work should be divided equally between the various stages, for a two-stage compressor, this
require that,

| =  1Q
O

| - intermediate compression pressure

Perfect intercooling requires a reduction in the inter-stage compression temperature to the inlet
gas temperature, so that the net compression effect for any stage and its intercooler is isothermal.
This implies that Pv = constant after each stage and its intercooler. This is the perfect
intercooling.

133
Application of these conditions leads to the expression for minimum work of adiabatic
compression in a multi-stage compression with perfect intercooling as:

š 
íSO

.xv = ? X µX … † − 1‘
í

š − 1 X

Where n = number of compression stages.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPRESSOR INTER COOLING

1. Reduction in gas temperature in the succeeding stages.

2. A certain amount of the initial water vapour content of the gas is condensed in the cooler
and can be drained off.
3. Higher volumetric efficiency due to reduction in the clearance expansion losses.
4. Maximum piston loads are reduced.

PERFORMANCE AND DEFINITIONS

Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual intake air volume flow to the compressor
displacement. Volumetric losses are due to re-expansion of the air in the clearance volume, by
heating of the air during admission into cylinder, flow resistances in the inlet system and
leakages past valves and pistons.

Mechanical efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the air indicated power input
(from the indicator diagram) to brake power input.

°ò x|s
ñ = ; ñB =
°‹ |v

Mechanical efficiency accounts for all mechanical friction losses and ranges from 88% to 93% of
the input power usefully applied to compressing the air.

Compression efficiency is the ratio of the adiabatic work or power of the compressor to the
indicated work or power input.

134
 |r.rBz. .|r.
K = >
K =
|v .|v

The overall efficiency ranges from 75% to 85%. It should be noted that the compression work
equations and corresponding efficiencies are based on actual intake air and are therefore not
influenced by the clearance volume.

COMRESSOR CLASSIFICATION

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

In a reciprocating piston compressor, all bearings are lubricated under pressure with the oil
delivered through holes drilled in the crankshafts; rods are pressure lubricated from gear type oil
pump. Cylinders and piston are splash lubricated.

Reciprocating compressors are used for many shipboard air services such as starting diesel
engines (main and auxiliary), control air ship services, cleaning, for air tools and sand blasting.
They use water for cylinder cooling and inter-cooling.

ROTARY COMPRESSORS

A two-lobe type of positive displacement rotary air compressor follows the design of the pump.
Pressure developed is up to 7bars.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

The details of construction and shape of impeller vanes are quite similar to those of centrifugal
pumps. They require high speed in the range of 5,000 to 40,000rpm and are normally driven by
speed increasing gears of electric motors or internal combustion engines. They may be single or
multi-stage. Discharge pressure is up to 40bar for multi-stage.

EJECTORS (STEAM PUMP)

135
Ejectors are used principally to remove air and non-condensable gases from vacuum equipment
(condenser). They are pumps without moving parts. The working medium may be pressure
steam, pressure air or pressure cold water.

The ejector is a simple compressor in which high-pressure steam is expanded in a nozzle to a

pressure corresponding to the desired vacuum.

The steam exits from the nozzle at a high velocity and non-condensable gases (air) surrounding
the issuing jet are extracted in the high velocity jet and carried into the diffuser. The passage of
the mixture through the convergent-divergent diffuser effects conversion of the kinetic energy
into pressure energy elevating pressure at the discharge above the suction inlet pressure.

Ejectors may be of single stage (one unit) or multi stage (several units in series). They may be of
condensing or non-condensing types depending on whether or not the discharged steam is
condensed or not.

Fig. 4. 19: Steam ejector

APPLICATION

Air ejectors are used onboard ships to eject air from

(a) Main steam turbine condenser

(b) Turbo-generator condenser
(c) Heating system drain condenser

136
(d) Low pressure type distilling plant condenser and
(e) Auxiliary condenser for auxiliary steam

Air ejectors may be used to prime centrifugal pumps. Air ejectors are usually installed in
duplicates; one set being sufficient for normal operating requirement and the other set used as
standby set or operated together under abnormal conditions. This arrangement is termed twin
unit and is designed that either one of the ejectors may be inspected and cleaned without
interfering with the operation of the system.

DOMESTIC WATER SYSTEM

At one time, three domestic water systems would be found on a ship; the domestic salt water
system; the domestic fresh water system; and the drinking or potable water system. The salt
water system is now redundant.

The various domestic water systems use an automatic pump supplying the liquid to a tank, which
is pressurized by a compressed air. The compressed air provides the head to supply the water
where required. The pump is started automatically by a pressure switch, which operates as the
water level falls to a predetermined level. The fresh water system has, in addition, a clarifier or
heater which is heated, usually with steam.

137
Fig. 4.20: Domestic Fresh Water System

CENTRIFUGAL SEPERATOR-CENTRIFUGES

Separators are prefabricated pressure vessels, which are suitable for separating oil, water and
gases (if applicable).

Fuel oil and lubricating oil are always polluted and must be cleaned thoroughly before use to
remove both solid and liquid impurities. Solid consist mainly of magnet, sand, and remains of
catalyst from the refineries. Liquid impurities are mainly fresh or salt water. The impurities can
give rise to many operating disturbances e.g.

a. Clogging of high pressure pumps

b. Damage of the fuel oil injectors
c. Fouling of the exhaust system
d. Damage to turbocharger blades.

Effective cleaning can be achieved mainly by centrifuging. In order to attain optimal cleaning, it
is necessary not only for the viscosity of the oil to be as low as possible but also for the oil to be
in the centrifuge bowl for the maximum possible time i.e. the thorough flow must be adjusted to

138
correspond precisely to the consumption. The centrifugal system comprises the following:
settling tank, delivery pump, preheater, purifier, clarifier, and suction day tank. Centrifuges may
be connected in series or in parallel.

Fig. 4.21: Centrifugal separators

139
One of the reasons for increased use of centrifuge is that over recent years, the amount
of catalyst particles in the fuel has been increasing. These particles which are mainly
oxides of aluminum and silicon causes a great deal of wear. The engine manufacturers
recommend that oil should not contain more than 30ppm of AI corresponding to 60ppm
of AL2O3 which in turn corresponds to 250ppm AL2O3and SiO2.
In setting tanks, the sedimentation velocity is given by:

•
µ = Hd×z − 4r g
18¬

Where; µ = velocity of sedimentation (m/s)

d = diameter of particle (m)

¬ = dynamic viscosity of oil (kg/m.s)

×z = density of particle (kg/m3)

4r = density of oil (kg/m3)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)

The separation force, Fs is given by

• o
ó = . Hd×z − 4r g
6

Since the centrifugal acceleration a, is not constant but increases with the distance of the particle,
from the axis of rotation and with an angular velocity, equation (1) and (2) becomes:

•
µ = d× − 4r g
. “ 
18¬ z

and

• o
ó = d×z − 4r g
. “ 
6

Where r = Distance of Particle and w= Angular Velocity.

140
Both the rotational speed and effective radius are controllable within certain engineering limits.
Thus, if a settling tank is replaced by a rotating cylinder, the separating force and hence the
speed of separation can be increased. This is what happens in a centrifuge.

When a bowl separator is operated as a purifier, the choice of the gravity disc given the hydraulic
seal is of great importance.

ó>
65 ó
Pressure = 7. 5.  =
<
5A <
sQ
/A
 = ô •

sO <

×. ℎ. 2 .
. •
 ?  .

sQ
= ô ,
sO 2 .
. ℎ 900

×  ?  ×  ? 
= ô
•
= 
−
X 
900 X 1800 

Where: P = Pressure, A = Area, F = Force, M = Mass, a = acceleration, a = w2r, ×= Density, ? =

Speed (rpm), r1r2 = radii.

The equation of hydrostatic balance for centrifugal separation (purifier):

×r  ?  •s •r q  ?  •s •q
Ñ − Ô = Ñ − Ô
1800 2 2 1800 2 2

97ž4
5@@:
5.A;5
4
5@@:
5

×r •s − •r  = ×q •s − •q


Diameter of the gravity disc, dw

×r ×r
•q = õ•s 1 − Ž + •r
×q ×q

141
Hence,

×r
•q = 8 … †
×q

When the selected disc is too small, the contact surface shifts to the center and the cleaned oil
will be contaminated by water.When the selected disc is too large, the contact surface shifts to
the periphery and oil will be discharged along with the sludge.

The capacity of the separator is given as;

• × − ×r . H
° = ؓ  ;A?ñ•so − •Yo Do /@
18¬ ÷÷ù
ö÷÷÷ø÷ 12H
ö÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ø÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ù
Îw{r|L’ rvLxLÎx{ywtErsx\|ÎwvvwLs|Ey\x{wzwsxLrs BQ 

° = µš

Where: d = diameter of smallest particle to be separated (m), Z = number of separator disc, ú =

angle of inclination of separation disc to the horizontal plane.

HOW TO SELECT THE GRAVITY DISC

1. Calculate from the formula with correctly assumed values of dr and do. ×q and×r are taken
to three decimal places at separation temperature.
2. Read-off from the table provided with the separator gravity disc diameter required for
purifying oils of various specific gravities at various temperatures.
3. By trials: starting with the largest disc and checking colour of water outlet, it must be
dirty or white when proper disc is used.

To prevent oil passing out of the water side or start up, it is necessary to put water into the bowl
until the water shows at the water discharge. The bowl is then hydraulically sealed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.5

142
Given a bowl separator with the following data: dr = 220mm, do = 88mm and ú = 30o; the
number of disc Z = 150. If it is used to centrifuge at a temperature of 80oC having a density of
20oC, ×20oC = 0.840kg/dm3 and a coefficient of specific gravity α = 0.00065/oC.

a. Determine the gravity disc diameter, dw

b. Assuming the following
i. Diameter of smallest particle to be separated, d = 2 x 10-6m
ii. Density of impurities (particle) × = 3000kg/m3
iii. Number of revolutions of disc, n = 5000rpm
iv. Dynamic viscosity of oil at separation temp, µ = 0.12kg/m.s

Calculate the capacity of the separator.

SOLUTION:

For oil: density at 80oC is given by the formula

×L = @r − ; − ;r ª

אYûü = 0.840 − 80 − 20 0.00065 = 0.801-H/•Do

For water; from table ×q 80oC = 0.972kg/dm3

r 0.801
= = 0.824
q 0.972

r • >r
•q = õ• 
1 − Ž +
q q

= ³220 ,1 − 0.824 + 88 , 0.824 = 122DD

(b) Capacity of separator

• × − ×r H ؓ  o
°= •s − •Yo ;A?ñ
18¬ 12H

143
 ? 5000 , 500
œ:;“ = = =
30 30 3

2 , 10Pf 500 
° = 3000 − 801 ,1500.22 ,0.088  tan 30 , …
o o r
†
18 , 0.12 12 3

° = 2.53 ,10Pb Do /@

On ships, there are three different modes of operation of centrifugal separators. The mode of
operation used depends on the oil characteristics and the nature of the pollution. If the oil
contains considerable amount of water, it is necessary to provide the separator with an outlet for
continuous discharge of water separated. The separators are then known as purifier.

If there is only very little water in the oil to be cleaned or no water whatsoever, a separate water
discharge is not necessary. In this case, small amount of water is collected with the separated
sludge on the periphery of separator bowl and separator is known as a clarifier.

CONDENSERS

Condensers are used to increase the efficiency of the propulsion plant. The condenser reduces
the backpressure against which the turbine works to an extremely low level. Condenser is a heat
exchanger, which removes the latent heat from the exhaust steam so that it condenses and can be
pumped back into the boiler. This condensing should be achieved with the minimum of under
cooling i.e. reduction of condensate temperature below the steam temperature. A condenser is
also arranged so that gases and vapours from the condensing steam are removed.

CONSTRUCTION

A modern surface condenser consists of a riveted steel shell, through which passes a large
number of brass, cupro-nickel or aluminum-bronze tubes. At each end of the tube is fitted a cast-
iron water end, divided from the shell by a large brass tube plate. A circulating pump draws from
the sea and delivers through the condenser tubes and thence overboard.

144
The tubes are fitted with screwed glands or ferrules where they pass through the tube plates, or at
the water inlet ends, they may be expanded and bell-mouthed to streamline the water flow at
entry, thus reducing water-friction loss and pumping power. The ferruled tube ends are sealed
with cotton-cord parking saturated with boiled oil or with patent zinc metallic packing. The
packing is inserted in a small stuffing box and secured in place by the screwed ferrule.

MAINTENANCE OF CONDENSERS

A condenser is relatively free from trouble, because it has no moving parts, but it does require
frequent inspection and maintenance. Tube failure and leakage, salt-water leaks and air leaks,
and dirty tubes are the main things, which must be guarded against.

SEWAGE TREATMENT

The discharge of untreated sewage from ship while they are in the limits of ports and coastal
areas of many of the world’s harbors is prohibited by law. If treated sewage is discharged
overboard it must comply with certain limits governing the demand of oxygen, the amount of
suspended solids and the amounts of certain coliform bacteria. Unfortunately, these limits are
not standardized and may vary from place to place.

Discharging of sewage in sea or territorial waters is banned as it can drastically affect marine
life. In case the sewage is to be discharged, first it has to be treated with the help of sewage
treatment plants. STP is mandatory on every ship, according to international legislation. The
rules say the sewage can be discharged into the sea water only after it is treated and the distance
of the ship is 4 nautical miles from the nearest land. But if the sewage is not treated, it can be
discharged 12 nautical miles away from the nearest land. Also, the discharged sewage should not
produce any visible floating solids nor should it cause any discoloration of surrounding water.

145
Fig. 4.22: Sewage treatment plant

Generally, ships prefer treating sewage before discharging to avoid sanctions. There are different
methods of treating sewage on board ships namely; Biological and Chemical methods. The
biological method is however most common because it occupies less space for holding tank.
Also, the discharge generated from the plant is eco-friendly.

WORKING OF A BIOLOGICAL SEWAGE PLANT

The basic principle of the working of a biological treatment plant is decomposition of raw
sewage. This process is done by aerating the sewage chamber with fresh air. The aerobic bacteria
survive on this fresh air and decomposes the raw sewage which can be disposed of in the sea. Air
is a very important criterion in the functioning of the biological plant because if the air is not
present, it will lead to the growth of anaerobic bacteria, which produces toxic gases that are
hazardous to health. Also, after the decomposition of the sewage with aerobic bacteria, a dark
liquid causes discoloration of water which is not acceptable for discharging. Thus, in a biological
sewage treatment plant, the main aim is to maintain the flow of fresh air.

146
Fig. 4.23:Biological sewage treatment plant

HOW CHEMICAL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT WORKS

This system minimizes the collected sewage, treats it and retains it until ut can be discharged in a
decontrolled area, usually well out of sea. Shore receiving facilities may be available in some
ports to take this retained sewage. This system must therefore collect and store sewage produced
while the ship is in a controlled area. The liquid content of the system is reduced, where
legislation permits, by discharging wash basins, bath and shower drains straight overboard. Any
liquid from water closets is treated and used as flushing water for toilets. The liquid must be
treated such that it is acceptable in terms of smell and appearance.

Various chemicals are added at different points for odour and colour removal and also to assist
breakdown and sterilization. A comminutor is used to physically break up the sewage and assist
the chemical breakdown process. Solid materials settle out in the tank and is stored prior to
discharge into the sullage tank, the liquid is recycled for flushing use. Test must be performed
daily to check the chemical dosage rates. This is to prevent odours developing and also to avoid
corrosion as a result of high levels of alkalinity.

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Fig. 4.24: Chemical sewage treatment plant

MARINE BLOWERS

Marine blowers are important part used to keeping a vessel dry and safe. Blow humid air or gas
fumes out to keep stagnant air from reducing air quality and comfort.

TYPES OF BLOWERS

Although radial – and axial – flow kinetic type machines are often used as blowers, reciprocating
and rotary positive displacement blowers have also been used. The term fan is generally applied
to radial – and axial flow blowers that increase the density of air passing through them by a
maximum value of 50%.

CENTRIFUGAL BLOWERS

In a centrifugal blower, incoming air is directed into the eye of a rotating open, semi open, or
closed impeller that increases the air’s velocity and static pressure. After passing through the
impeller, the air is often discharged radially through stationary diffuser or scroll-shaped volute in
which a portion of the velocity head is converted into static pressure head, and then through a

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tangential outlet port in the blower’s casing. Both single- and double-section impellers are used.
The impeller blades may be forward curved, straight-radial or backward curved and also blades
having double curvature may be used. Centrifugal blowers with backward-curved blades
operating at high speeds are generally more efficient.

AXIAL-FLOW BLOWERS

Air handled by an axial-flow blower passes through the casing in an axial direction. This may be
further classified into vane axial and tube axial blowers. The major difference between the vane
axial and tube axial blowers is that the tube axial does not have stationary guide vanes in its
design.

POSITIVE – DISPLACEMENT BLOWERS

Positive displacement rotary blowers are used in some applications. These blowers are generally
helical lobe, straight lobe, or sliding –vane type units and are similar in design to the
corresponding types of rotary compressor. The reciprocating blowers although less common are
used in some applications.

MARINE BLOWER APPLICATION

1. Forced draft used to supply combustion air to fossil-fueled boilers or steam powered
vessels
2. Diesel-Engine scavenging and supercharging. Blowers are used with many diesel engines
to supply the air necessary for combustion to the engines cylinders. When the pressure of
this air is increased above atmospheric pressure referred to as supercharging, the power
output of the engine is increased. In a two-stroke engine, the air supplied by the blower
helps to purge engine’s cylinders of exhaust gas. This is referred to as scavenging.
3. De-blasting. Instead of pumping sea water out of ballast tanks, compressed air is used.
4. Ventilation. Radial-flow centrifugal and axial-flow fans are often used to provide air for
ventilation to spaces throughout the vessel.

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DISTILATION SYSTEMS

Distillation is the production of pure water from sea water by evaporation and re-condensing.
Distilled water is produced as a result of evaporating seawater either by boiling or flash process.
This evaporation enables the reduction of the 32000ppm of dissolved solids in seawater down to
the one or two present in distilled water. The machine used is called an evaporator, although the
word distiller is also used.

BOILING PROCESS

Seawater is boiled using energy from a heating coil, and by reducing the pressure in the
evaporation shell, boiling can take place at about 60oC. The seawater from the ship services is
first circulated through the condenser and then part of the outlet is provided as feed to the
evaporation chamber (fig 7.6). Hot diesel engine jacket water or steam is passed through the
heater nest and because of the reduced pressure in the chamber, the seawater boils. The steam
produced rises and passes through a water separator or demister which prevents water droplets
passing through. In the condensing section, the steam becomes pure water, which is drawn off by
a distillate pump. The salt water feed is regulated by a flow controller and about half the feed is
evaporated. The remainder constantly overflows away and carries away the extra salty water or
brine. A combined brine and air ejector draws out the air and brine from the evaporator.

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Fig. 4.25: Boiling Process Evaporator

FLASH PROCESS

Flash evaporation is the result of a liquid containing a reasonable amount of sensible heat at a
particular pressure being admitted to a chamber at a lower pressure. The liquid immediately
changes into steam, i.e. it flashes without boiling taking place. The sensible heat content, water
pressure and chamber pressure are designed to provide a desired rate of evaporation. More than
one stage of evaporation can take place by admitting the liquid into the chambers with
progressively lower pressures.

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Fig. 4.26: Typical flash evaporator

MAINTENANCE

During the operation of evaporating plants, scales will form on the heating surfaces. The rate of
scale formation will depend upon the operating temperature, flow rate and density of the brine.
Scale formation will result in greater requirements for heating to produce the rated quantities of
distilled water or a fall-off in production for a fixed heating supply.

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