Wind Power Basics

Wind turbine power output variation with steady wind speed.

The figure below shows a sketch a how the power output from a wind turbine

varies with steady wind speed.

Cut-in speed.

At very low wind speeds, there is insufficient torque exerted by the wind on the

turbine blades to make them rotate. However, as the speed increases, the wind

turbine will begin to rotate and generate electrical power. The speed at which the

turbine first starts to rotate and generate power is called the cut-in speed and is

typically between 3 and 4 metres per second.

Rated output power and rate output wind speed.

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As the wind speed rises above the cut-in speed, the level of electrical ouput power

rises rapidly as shown. However, typically somewhere between 12 and 17 metres

per second, the power output reaches the limit that the electrical generator is

capable of. This limit to the generator output is called the rated power outputand

the wind speed at which it is reached is called the rated output wind speed. At

higher wind speeds, the design of the turbine is arranged to limit the power to this

maximum level and there is no further rise in the output power. How this is done

varies from design to design but typically with large turbines, it is done by

adjusting the blade angles so as to to keep the power at the constant level.

Cut-out speed.

As the speed increases above the rate output wind speed, the forces on the turbine

structure continue to rise and, at some point, there is a risk of damage to the rotor.

As a result, a braking system is employed to bring the rotor to a standstill. This is

called the cut-out speed and is usually around 25 metres per second.

Wind turbine efficiency or power coefficient.

The available power in a stream of wind of the same cross-sectional area as the

wind turbine can easily be shown to be

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If the wind speed U is in metres per second, the density ρ is in kilograms per cubic

metre and the rotor diameter d is in metres then the available power is in watts. The

efficiency, μ, or, as it is more commonly called, the power coefficient, cp, of the

wind turbine is simply defined as the actual power delivered divided by the

available power.

The Betz limit on wind turbine efficiency.

There is a theoretical limit on the amount of power that can be extracted by a wind

turbine from an airstream. It is called the Betz limit. The limit is μ=16/27≈ 59%

The Betz limit - and the maximum efficiency for horizontal axis wind

turbines.

The simplest model of a wind turbine is the so-called actuator disc model where

the turbine is replaced by a circular disc through which the airstream flows with a
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velocity Ut and across which there is a pressure drop from P1 to P2 as shown in the

sketch. At the outset, it is important to stress that the actuator disc theory is useful

(as will be shown) in discussing overall efficiencies of turbines but it does not help

at all with how to design the turbine blades to achieve a desired performance.

The power developed by the wind turbine is

where At is the turbine disc area. Volume flow continuity gives

From momentum conservation, the force exerted on the turbine is equal to the

momentum change between the flow far upstream of the disc to the flow far

downstream of the disc. Thus

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The final basic equations are Bernoulli's equation applied upstream and

downstream of the actuator disc

where P∞ is the ambient pressure in the flow both far upstream and far downstream

of the actuator disc.

From equations (4a),(4b), (3) and (2)

whence

i.e. the velocity through the actuator disc is the mean of the upstream and

downstream velocities in the stream tube.

Finally, from equations (1), (5) and (3), the efficiency is given by

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The figure below shows the variation of efficiency (often referred to as the power

coefficient, cp) with the ratio of downstream to upstream velocity. By

differentiating equation (7), it is easy to show that the maximum efficiency oocurs

when Ud/Uu=1/3 (i.e. when Ad/Au=3). The efficiency is then η=16/27 ≈ 59%. This

is the maximum achievable efficiency of a wind turbine and is known as the Betz

limit - after Albert Betz who published this result in 1920. There are assumptions

in the above anlysis such as the neglect of radial flow at the actuator disc but these

have only a small effect on the final limiting result.

The point to note here is that as you reduce the downstream velocity in the

expectation of increasing the power extracted from the wind, the area of the

upstream stream tube that passes through the turbine reduces in size. In the limit as

the downstream velocity is reduced to zero, the area of the upstream stream tube
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that passes through the turbine is just half the turbine area and the efficiency is thus

50%.

Variable Speed Variable Frequency WECS

Classification of wind electric generation schemes

Wind electric conversion systems can be broadly classified as:

5.1. According to the size of useful electrical power output [13 ]: (i) Small size

(up to 2 kW): These may be used for remote applications, or at places requiring

relatively low power.

(ii) Medium size (2-100 kW): These turbines may be used to supply less than 100

kW rated capacity to several residences or local use.

(iii) Large size (100 kW and up): They are used to generate power for distribution

in central power grids.

5.2. According to the rotational speed of the aeroturbines [14,15]:

1. constant speed constant frequency (CSCF),

2. variable speed constant frequency (VSCF),

3. variable speed variable frequency (VSVF).

5.2.1. Constant speed constant frequency In the CSCF scheme,

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the rotor is held constant by continuously adjusting the blade pitch and/or

generator characteristics. For synchronous generators, the requirement of constant

speed is very rigid and only minor fluctuations of about 1% for short durations

could be allowed [4].

As the wind fluctuates, a control mechanism becomes necessary to vary the pitch

of the rotor so that the power derived from the wind system is held fairly constant.

Such a control is necessary since wind power varies with the cube of the wind

velocity. During gusty periods, the machine is subjected to rapid changes in the

input power. The control mechanism must be sensitive enough to damp out these

transients so that the machine output does not become unstable. Such a mechanism

is expensive and adds complexity to the system. Induction generators with small

negative slip can also be considered as constant speed. An induction generator can

operate on an infinite bus bar at a slip of 1-5% above the synchronous speed.

Induction generators are simpler than synchronous generators. They are easier to

operate, control and maintain, have no synchronization problem and are

economical. The CSCF schemes that mostly employ synchronous generators [4]

tend to be more expensive because of the precise blade pitch control mechanisms

required on the wind turbine to maintain constant speed, as the synchronous

generators run at constant speed, and hence, require costly speed controls.

However, synchronous generators can supply reactive power to the system. If the
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electric power derived from wind is significant compared with the capacity of the

grid system, synchronous machines stability becomes a serious problem.

5.2.2. Variable speed constant frequency

The variable speed operation of a wind electric system yields higher output for

both low and high wind speeds. This results in higher annual energy yields per

rated installed capacity. Both horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT)

exhibit this gain under variable speed operation. The VSVF scheme mostly

employs an induction generator. In this scheme, the need for a costly blade control

mechanism is avoided. An induction generator requires reactive power, but

induction generators are low in initial cost, leading to an overall reduction of 5-

10% in total system capital cost, and are maintenance free and most reliable.

Generation schemes involving variable speed rotors are more complicated than

constant speed systems. Variable frequency power must be converted to constant

frequency power, and this can be done by using thyristors [14-17].

5.2.3. Variable speed variable frequency

Generally, resistive heating loads are less frequency sensitive. Synchronous

generators can be affected at variable speed, corresponding to the changing drive

speed [18-21]. For this purpose, self-excited induction generators (SEIG) can be

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conveniently used. This scheme is gaining importance for stand alone wind power

applications.

Since resistive heating loads are essentially frequency insensitive, the a.c generator

can be effected at a variable frequency corresponding to the changing derive speed.

For this purpose capacitor excited squirrel caze induction machines can be

conveniently used.Variable Speed variable frequency (VSVF).

Choice of generators

There are mainly the following three classes of generators [11]:

7.1. DC generators DC generators are relatively unusual in wind/micro-hydro

turbine applications because they are expensive and require regular maintenance

[22]. Nowadays, for most d.c. applications, for example, it is more common to

employ an a.c. generator to generate a.c., which is then converted to d.c. with

simple solid state rectifiers.

7.2. Synchronous generator The major advantage of synchronous generator is

that its reactive power characteristic can be controlled, and therefore such

machines can be used to supply reactive power to other items of power systems

that require reactive power. It is normal for a stand alone wind-Diesel system to

have a synchronous generator, usually connected to the Diesel engine.

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Synchronous generators, when fitted to a wind turbine, must be controlled

carefully to prevent the rotor speed accelerating through synchronous speed

especially during turbulent winds. Moreover, it requires a flexible coupling in the

drive train, or to mount the gearbox assembly on springs or dampers to absorb

turbulence [22]. Synchronous generators are costlier than induction generators,

particularly in smaller size ranges. Synchronous generators are more prone to

failures.

7.3. Induction generators An induction generator offers many advantages over a

conventional synchronous generator as a source of isolated power supply. Reduced

unit cost, ruggedness, brushless (in squirrel cage construction), reduced size,

absence of separate DC source and ease of maintenance, self-protection against

severe overloads and short circuits are the main advantages [18-21]. Further,

induction generators are loosely coupled devices, i.e. they are heavily damped and,

therefore, have the ability to absorb slight changes in rotor speed, and drive train

transients to some extent, can, therefore, be absorbed, whereas synchronous

generators are closely coupled devices and when used in wind turbines, are

subjected to turbulence and require additional damping devices, such as flexible

couplings in the drive train or mounting the gearbox assembly on springs and

dampers. Reactive power consumption and poor voltage regulation under varying

speed are the major drawbacks of the induction generators, but the development of

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static power converters has facilitated control of the output of voltage of the

induction generator, within limits.

Choice between two and three blade rotors Blades are one of the most critical

components of a wind turbine rotor. Initially, blades were made from wood.

Wooden blades were replaced by galvanized steel blades. Later, steel blades were

also replaced by aluminium, which is lighter and stronger. In recent years, fiber

glass as rotor blades is becoming very popular [6]. Light weight, highly flexible

turbines are usually two bladed and have a teeter hinge, coning hinges or flex

beams to allow blade motion to relieve the flap load, whereas structurally stiff and

robust turbines are usually the three blade, upwind yaw driven type. The structural

dynamic difference between two and three blades is the rotor moment of inertia.

The three bladed rotor mass movement has polar symmetry, whereas the two

bladed rotor mass movements do not have the same, so the structural dynamic

equations for the two bladed turbine system are significantly more complex and

have periodic coefficients [23]. The three bladed system governing equations have

constant coefficients making them easier to solve and most importantly making the

cause-and-effect relationship easier to understand. Often visual aesthetics, lower

noise.The design of wind energy conversion systems is a very complex task and

requires interdisciplinary skills, e.g. civil, mechanical, electrical and electronics,

geography, aerospace, environmental etc.

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A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation

field is provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The term synchronous

refers here to the fact that the rotor and magnetic field rotate with the same speed,

because the magnetic field is generated through a shaft mounted permanent magnet

mechanism and current is induced into the stationary armature

Synchronous generators are the majority source of commercial electrical energy.

They are commonly used to convert the mechanical power output of steam

turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating engines and hydro turbines into electrical

power for the grid. Some designs of Wind turbines also use this generator type.

In the majority of designs the rotating assembly in the center of the generator—the

"rotor"—contains the magnet, and the "stator" is the stationary armature that is

electrically connected to a load. As shown in the diagram, the perpendicular

component of the stator field affects the torque while the parallel component
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affects the voltage. The load supplied by the generator determines the voltage. If

the load is inductive, then the angle between the rotor and stator fields will be

greater than 90 degrees which corresponds to an increased generator voltage. This

is known as an overexcited generator. The opposite is true for a generator

supplying a capacitive load which is known as an underexcited generator. A set of

three conductors make up the armature winding in standard utility equipment,

constituting three phases of a power circuit—that correspond to the three wires we

are accustomed to see on transmission lines. The phases are wound such that they

are 120 degrees apart spatially on the stator, providing for a uniform force or

torque on the generator rotor. The uniformity of the torque arises because the

magnetic fields resulting from the induced currents in the three conductors of the

armature winding combine spatially in such a way as to resemble the magnetic

field of a single, rotating magnet. This stator magnetic field or "stator field"

appears as a steady rotating field and spins at the same frequency as the rotor when

the rotor contains a single dipole magnetic field. The two fields move in

"synchronicity" and maintain a fixed position relative to each other as they spin.[1]

They are known as synchronous generators because f, the frequency of the induced

voltage in the stator (armature conductors) conventionally measured in hertz, is

directly proportional to RPM, the rotation rate of the rotor usually given in

revolutions per minute (or angular speed). If the rotor windings are arranged in

such a way as to produce the effect of more than two magnetic poles, then each

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physical revolution of the rotor results in more magnetic poles moving past the

armature windings. Each passing of a north and south pole corresponds to a

complete "cycle" of a magnet field oscillation. Therefore, the constant of

proportionality is , where P is the number of magnetic rotor poles (almost

always an even number), and the factor of 120 comes from 60 seconds per minute

and two poles in a single magnet; .[2]

The power in the prime mover is a function of RPM and torque. where is

mechanical power in Watts, is the torque with units of , and RPM is the

rotations per minute which is multiplied by a factor of to give units of .

By increasing the torque on the prime mover, a larger electrical power output can

be generated.

In practice, the typical load is inductive in nature. The diagram above depicts such

an arrangement. is the voltage of the generator, and and are the

voltage and the current in the load respectively and is the angle between them.

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Here, we can see that the resistance, R, and the reactance, , play a role in

determining the angle . This information can be used to determine the real and

reactive power output from the generator.

In this diagram, is the terminal voltage. If we ignore the resistance as shown

above, we find that the power can be calculated:[3]

Breaking the apparent power into Real and Reactive power, we get:

In a permanent magnet generator, the magnetic field of the rotor is produced by

permanent magnets. Other types of generator use electromagnets to produce a

magnetic field in a rotor winding. The direct current in the rotor field winding is

fed through a slip-ring assembly or provided by a brushless exciter on the same

shaft.

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Permanent magnet generators (PMGs) or alternators (PMAs) do not require a DC

supply for the excitation circuit, nor do they have slip rings and contact brushes. A

key disadvantage in PMAs or PMGs is that the air gap flux is not controllable, so

the voltage of the machine cannot be easily regulated. A persistent magnetic field

imposes safety issues during assembly, field service or repair. High performance

permanent magnets, themselves, have structural and thermal issues. Torque current

MMF vectorially combines with the persistent flux of permanent magnets, which

leads to higher air-gap flux density and eventually, core saturation. In this

permanent magnet alternators the speed is directly proportional to the output

voltage of the alternator.

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