Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Management Research
You are in charge of promoting a new flavour of tooth paste yet to be produced in a tooth
paste manufacturing unit which sampling techniques will you use to get the required data
from a population.
2. Quality Systems Management
What are the points you will keep in mind about the concept of quality control and
inspection if you are the quality systems manager of a rubber products
manufacturing unit?
3. Business Environment
Imagine yourself as a new businessman what are the objectives of business that
you will keep in mind if you have to launch a new business.
4. Quantitative techniques for Business Analysis
Suppose you are heading a business unit in India which are the points about
statistics you will keep in mind for doing business profitably. In other words what
is the relevance of Business statistics in you venture.
5. Managerial Economics
Suppose you are the Marketing Manager of Bayer & Company Ahmedabad,
which are the techniques you will apply in forecasting demand of a product yet to
be manufactured.
Managerial Economics Suppose you are the Marketing Manager of Bayer &
Company, Ahmedabad, which are the techniques you will apply in forecasting
demand of a product yet to be manufactured. The firm must plan for the future.
Planning for the future involves forecasting. A forecast is an estimation or prediction
about situations which are most likely to occur in near or distant future. No
businessman can afford to ignore forecasting if he wants to thrive and prosper in his
business.
The firm has to forecast the future level of demand for its product under different
possible circumstances; such as prices, competition, promotional activities and
general economic activity. Similarly forecasting will be necessary with reference to
costs under changing conditions of availability of raw materials and their respective
prices, changing technology, wage rates, labour training and capital acquisition
programmes. Forecasting does play a key role in managerial decisions and hence
forecasting is emphasized in the study of managerial economics.
First is to obtain information about the intentions of the spenders through collecting
experts’ opinion or by conducting interviews with the consumers. Second is to use
past experience as the guide and using or projecting the past statistical relationships
to obtain the expected level of future demand. The first method is also considered to
be qualitative and is mostly used for short-term forecasting; whereas the second
method is quantitative and is used for long-term forecasting.
We can forecast the demand for existing product by using any one or even mix of
the above methods, but to forecast demand for new product we have to use survey
method only because the new product has no past or historical data to offer. How is
demand forecast determined? There are two approaches to determine demand
forecast – (1) the qualitative approach, (2) the quantitative approach. The
comparison of these two approaches is shown below: Description| Qualitative
Approach| Quantitative Approach| Applicability| Used when situation is vague &
little data exist (e. . , new products and technologies)| Used when situation is stable
& historical data exist(e. g. existing products, current technology)| Considerations|
Involves intuition and experience| Involves mathematical techniques| Techniques|
Jury of executive opinionSales force compositeDelphi methodConsumer market
survey| Time series modelsCausal models| Qualitative Forecasting Methods Your
company may wish to try any of the qualitative forecasting methods below if you do
not have historical data on your products’ sales.
These projections are then combined at the municipal, provincial and regional levels.
| Delphi method| A panel of experts is identified where an expert could be a
decision maker, an ordinary employee, or an industry expert. Each of them will be
asked individually for their estimate of the demand. An iterative process is
conducted until the experts have reached a consensus. | Consumer market survey|
The customers are asked about their purchasing plans and their projected buying
behavior.
A large number of respondents is needed here to be able to generalize certain
results. | Quantitative Forecasting Methods There are two forecasting models here –
(1) the time series model and (2) the causal model. A time series is a s et of evenly
spaced numerical data and is o btained by observing responses at regular time
periods. In the time series model , the forecast is based only on past values and
assumes that factors that influence the past, the present and the future sales of your
products will continue.
On the other hand, t he causal model uses a mathematical technique known as the
regression analysis that relates a dependent variable (for example, demand) to an
independent variable (for example, price, advertisement, etc. ) in the form of a linear
equation. The time series forecasting methods are described below: Time Series
Forecasting Method| Description| Naive Approach| Assumes that demand in the
next period is the same as demand in most recent period; demand pattern may not
always be that stableFor example:If July sales were 50, then Augusts sales will also be
50| Time Series Forecasting Method| Description|
The weights are based on intuition and lie between 0 and 1 for a total of 1.
0Equation:WMA 4 = (W) (D3) + (W) (D2) + (W) (D1)WMA – Weighted moving average,
W – Weight, D – Demand, No. – Period(see illustrative example – weighted moving
average)| Exponential Smoothing| The exponential smoothing is an averaging
method that reacts more strongly to recent changes in demand by assigning a
smoothing constant to the most recent data more strongly; useful if recent changes
in data are the results of actual change (e. g. seasonal pattern) instead of just
random fluctuationsF t + 1 = a D t + (1 – a ) F tWhereF t + 1 = the forecast for the next
periodD t = actual demand in the present periodF t = the previously determined
forecast for the present period• = a weighting factor referred to as the smoothing
constant| Time Series Decomposition| The time series decomposition adjusts the
seasonality by multiplying the normal forecast by a seasonal factor. | Quantitative
Techniques for Business Analysis Suppose you are heading a business unit in India
which are the points about statistic you will keep in mind for doing business
profitable.
In other words what is the relevance of Business statistics in your venture. The basic
objective with which Business Statistics is used for making inferences that is reaching
a decision or conclusion and predictions and assumptions. In business, decision
making is a very critical phase and is used in all the fields of business. The use of
statistics makes comparisons and analysis easier which relatively quickens the
decision-making process and also makes it a little easier. But using statistics the
relationships of different variables can be studied.
Statistics makes it possible to do what-if analysis. Regression analysis is used for
studying the relationship between variables and the dependency of one upon the
other. Research shows that the use of statistical models improves the decision
making process. By using probabilities, different predictions can also be made in
business · Statistical skills enable to intelligently collect, analyze and interpret data
relevant to their decision-making. Statistical concepts and statistical thinking enable
them to: – solve problems in a diversity of contexts. add substance to decisions. –
reduce guesswork. It is always better to use the concepts which are already used so
that it is very easy to the head making the business profitable and a slight innovation
or advancement is needed in order to prevent the idea from carbon copy. The use of
statistics is a comparison and hence comparison plays a vital role. When a business
is statistically implemented the flaws are reduced because it solves the problem very
easily it helps making proper decision and reduces redundancy. The bottom line.
That’s what many business people look at to gauge the profitability of a company.
While important, the bottom line doesn’t always provide the entire picture, and using
it as the sole barometer of company performance could have serious fiscal
repercussions. Ratios: Gross Profit on Net Sales Net Profit on Net Sales Management
Rate of Return Net Profit to Tangible Net Worth Rate of Return on Common Stock
Equity Analytical Procedures: Comparative Statements Index-Number Trend Series
Common-Size Statements Analysis of Financial Statement Components Purpose of
Profitability Analysis
If your gross profit rate is continually lower than your average margin, something is
wrong! Be on the lookout for downward trends in your gross profit rate. This is a sign
of future problems for your bottom line. Note: This percentage rate can – and will –
vary greatly from business to business, even those within the same industry. Sales,
location, size of operations, and intensity of competition are all factors that can
affect the gross profit rate. Net Profit on Net Sales Earnings after Taxes = Net Profit
Rate Net Sales This ratio provides a primary appraisal of net profits related to
investment.
Once your basic expenses are covered, profits will rise disproportionately greater
than sales above the break-even point of operations. Note: Sales expenses may be
substituted out of profits for other costs to generate even more sales and profits.
Management Rate of Return This profitability ratio compares operating income to
operating assets, which are defined as the sum of tangible fixed assets and net
working capital. Operating Income = Rate of Return Fixed Assets + Net Working
Capital This rate determines whether you have made efficient use of your assets.
You can calculate for your entire company or for each of its divisions or operations,
determines whether you have made efficient use of your assets. The percentage
should be compared with a target rate of return that you have set for the business.
Net Sales to Tangible Net Worth Net Sales = Net Sales to Tangible Net Worth Ratio
Tangible Net Worth* This ratio indicates whether your investment in the business is
adequately proportionate to your sales volume. It may also uncover potential credit
or management problems, usually called overtrading and undertrading.
Earnings after Taxes = Rate of Return Tangible Net Worth III. Analytical Procedures
Procedures you can use to analyze your business’s profitability are generally broken
up into two categories: (1) those based upon financial data from two or more fiscal
periods, or (2) financial data from only the current fiscal period. To complete a
thorough review of your company’s financial standing, we recommend you utilize
both types of analytical procedures. IV. Commonly Used Analytical Procedures The
most common types of analytical procedures are: (1) comparative statements; (2)
index-number trend series; (3) common-size statements; (4) nalysis of financial
statement components; and (5) vertical analysis. V. Comparative Statements A first
look at your business’s current financial figures can be quite overwhelming and,
more often than not, a little confusing. But, if you were to compare that data to your
business’s historical performance, it becomes significantly more meaningful.
Compare your company’s current financial numbers with monthly, quarterly, or
annual data from previous fiscal years. You should notice some trends that will help
you map out the future of your business. VI.
Index-Number Trend Series If you are trying to analyze financial data that span a
long period of time, simply trying to compare financial statements can turn into quite
a cumbersome task. If you find yourself in this boat, try to create an index-number
trend series to alleviate some of your confusion. First, choose a base year to which
all other financial data will be compared. Usually, the base year is the earliest year in
the group being analyzed, or it can be another year you consider particularly
appropriate. Next, express all base year amounts as 100 percent.
Then state corresponding figures from following years as a percentage of the base
year amounts. Keep in mind that index-numbers can be computed only when
amounts are positive. Example : YearSalesIndex-Number Trend 1998100,000100 %
1999150,000150% 2000175,000175 % The index-number trend series technique is a
type of horizontal analysis that can provide you with a long range view of your firm’s
financial position, earnings, and cash flow. It is important to remember, however,
that long-range trend series are particularly sensitive to changing price levels.
For instance, between 1975 and 1985 the price level in the United States doubled. A
horizontal analysis that ignored such a significant change might suggest that your
sales or net income increased dramatically during the period when, in fact, little or
no real growth occurred. Data expressed in terms of a base year can be very useful
when comparing your company’s figures to those from government agencies and
sources within your industry or the business world in general, because they will
often use an index-number trend series as well.
When making comparisons, be sure the samples you use are in the same base
period. If they aren’t, simply change one so they match. VII. Common-Size
Statements When performing a ratio analysis of financial statements, it is often
helpful to adjust the figures to common-size numbers. To do this, change each line
item on a statement to a percentage of the total. For example, on a balance sheet,
each figure is shown as a percentage of total assets, and on an income statement,
each item is expressed as a percentage of sales.
This technique is quite useful when you are comparing your business to other
businesses or to averages from an entire industry, because differences in size are
neutralized by reducing all figures to common-size ratios. Industry statistics are
frequently published in common-size form. When comparing your company with
industry figures, make sure that the financial data for each company reflect
comparable price levels, and that it was developed using comparable accounting
methods, classification procedures, and valuation bases. Such comparisons should
be limited to companies engaged in similar business activities.
When the financial policies of two companies differ, these differences should be
recognized in the evaluation of comparative reports. For example, one company
leases its properties while the other purchases such items; one company finances its
operations using long-term borrowing while the other relies primarily on funds
supplied by stockholders and by earnings. Financial statements for two companies
under these circumstances are not wholly comparable. Example Common-Size
Income Statement YearSalesCost of GrossExpensesTaxesProfit SalesProfit
2000100%65%35%27%2%6% 1999100%68%32%27%1%4%
1998100%70%30%26%1%3% Service Marketing
Selective food marketing has answered the call and was created to represent the
way a foodservice broker should. As our industry rapidly evolves, yet condenses, the
demand for qualified & experienced representation is great. Selective food service
marketing’s philosophy is to execute our principals’ agenda with thorough operator
penetration & effective service to our distributors. A conservative prospectus of
manufactures, but go to market aggressively to succeed. What is the your vision to
represent a food manufacturing company in a way that they are proud to say that
they have selective food marketing services?
Food Marketing: Food products often involve the general marketing approaches and
techniques applied the marketing of other kinds of products and services. In food
marketing, topics such as test marketing, segmentation, positioning, branding,
targeting, consumer research, and market entry strategy, for example, are highly
relevant. In addition, food marketing involves other kinds of challenges–such as
dealing with a perishable product whose quality and availability varies as a function
of current harvest conditions.
The value chain–the extent to which sequential parties in the marketing channel add
value to the product–is particularly important. Today, processing and new
distribution options provide increasing opportunities available to food marketers to
provide the consumer with convenience. Marketing, services, and processing added
do, however, result in significantly higher costs. In the old days, for example,
consumers might have baked their own bread from locally grown flour. Today, most
households buy pre-manufactured bread, and it is estimated that the farmer
receives only some 5% of the price paid by the consumer for the wheat.
Germany, for example, birth rates are relatively low, so it can be predicted that the
demand for school lunch boxes will probably decline. Therefore, firms marketing
such products might see if they, instead, can shift their resources toward products
consumed by a growing population (e. g. , bait boxes for a growing population of
retired individuals who want to go fishing). Food marketers must consider several
issues affect the structure of a population. For example, in some rapidly growing
countries, a large percentage of the population is concentrated among younger
generations.
In countries such as Korea, China, and Taiwan, this has helped stimulate economic
growth, while in certain poorer countries, it puts pressures on society to
accommodate an increasing number of people on a fixed amount of land. Other
countries such as Japan and Germany, in contrast, experience problems with a
“graying” society, where fewer non-retired people are around to support an
increasing number of aging seniors. Because Germany actually hovers around
negative population growth, the German government has issued large financial
incentives, in the forms of subsidies, for women who have children.
In the United States, population growth occurs both through births and immigration.
Since the number of births is not growing, problems occur for firms that are
dependent on population growth (e. g. , Gerber, a manufacturer of baby food). Social
class can be used in the positioning of food products. One strategy, upward pull
marketing, involves positioning a product for mainstream consumers, but portraying
the product as being consumed by upper class consumers. For example, Haagen-
Dazs takes care in the selection of clothing, jewelry, and surroundings in its
advertisements to portray upscale living, as do the makers of Grey Poupon mustard.
Part of this is due to American affluence—in India and the Philippines, families are
estimated to spend 51% and 56% of their incomes on food, respectively, in large part
because of low average incomes. Food prices also tend to be lower in the U. S. than
they are in most industrialized countries, leaving more money for other purposes.
Americans, on the average, are estimated to spend 7-11% of their income on food,
compared to 18% in Japan where food tends to be very expensive. This is because
food prices are relatively low, compared to other products, here.
This is usually not a way to reduce costs—with delivery, costs are usually higher than
in supermarkets—but rather a way to provide convenience to time-pressed
consumers. Internationally, there are large variations: In developing countries, food
is often sold in open markets or in small stores, typically with more locally produced
and fewer branded products available. Even in many industrialized countries,
supermarkets are less common than they are in the U. S. In Japan, for example,
many people show in local neighborhood stores because it is impractical to drive to
a large supermarket.
In some European countries, many people do not own cars, and thus smaller local
shops may be visited frequently. Food is increasingly being consumed away from the
home—in restaurants, cafeterias, or at food stands. Here, a large part of the cost is
for preparation and other services such as ambiance. Consumers are often quite
willing to pay these costs, however, in return for convenience and enjoyment.
Government Food Programs: Government food programs, in addition to helping low
income households, do increase demand for food to some extent.
In fact, increasing demand for farm products was a greater motivation than helping
poor people for the formation of the U. S. food stamp program. The actual impact on
food stamps on actual consumer demand is limited, however, due to the fungibility
of money. It is estimated that one dollar in food stamps increases the demand for
food by 20 cents, but when food stamps are available to cover some food costs,
recipients are likely to divert much of the money they would otherwise have spent to
other necessities. Food Marketing Issues: The food industry faces numerous
marketing decisions.
Money can be invested in brand building (through advertising and other forms of
promotion) to increase either quantities demanded or the price consumers are
willing to pay for a product. Coca Cola, for example, spends a great deal of money
both on perfecting its formula and on promoting the brand. This allows Coke to
charge more for its product than can makers of regional and smaller brands.
Manufacturers may be able to leverage their existing brand names by developing
new product lines. For example, Heinz started out as a brand for pickles but
branched out into ketchup.
Some brand extensions may involve a risk of damage to the original brand if the
quality is not good enough. Coca Cola, for example, refused to apply the Coke name
to a diet drink back when artificial sweeteners had a significantly less attractive taste.
Coke created Tab Cola, but only when aspartame (NutraSweet) was approved for use
in soft drinks did Coca Cola come out with a Diet Coke. Manufacturers that have
invested a great deal of money in brands may have developed a certain level of
consumer brand loyalty—that is, a tendency for consumers to continue to buy a
preferred brand even when an attractive offer is made by competitors.
For loyalty to be present, it is not enough to merely observe that the consumer buys
the same brand consistently. The consumer, to be brand loyal, must be able to
actively resist promotional efforts by competitors. A brand loyal consumer will
continue to buy the preferred brand even if a competing product is improved, offers
a price promotion or premium, or receives preferred display space. Some
consumers how multi-brand loyalty. Here, a consumer switches between a few
preferred brands.
The consumer may either alternate for variety or may, as a rule of thumb, buy
whichever one of the preferred brands are on sale. This consumer, however, would
not switch to other brands on sale. Brand loyalty is, of course, a matter of degree.
Some consumers will not switch for a moderate discount, but would switch for a
large one or will occasionally buy another brand for convenience or variety. The
“Four Ps” of Marketing. Marketers often refer to the “Four Ps,” or the marketing
portfolio, as a way to describe resources available to market a product:
Product: Firms can invest in the product by using high quality ingredients or doing
extensive research and development to improve it. Both McDonald’s and Burger
King, for example, literally spend millions of dollars to perfect their French fries! In
today’s Western markets with varying tastes and preferences, it has generally been
found that products that offer a specific benefit—e. g. , a very tart taste in jam—tend
to fare better than “me, too” products that merely imitate a competitor’s products.
Less is known about Eastern and developing countries. Price: Different strategies
may be taken with respect to price.
Generically, there are two ways to make a profit—sell a lot and make a small margin
on each unit or make a large margin on each unit and settle for lesser volumes.
Firms in most markets are better off if the market is balanced—where some firms
compete on price and others on other features (such as different taste preferences
for different segments). The same idea applies at the retail level where some
retailers compete on price (e. g. , Food-4-Less and Wal-Mart) while others (such as
Vons Pavillion) compete on service while charging higher prices. Distribution: Most
supermarkets are offered more products than they have space for.
Thus, many manufacturers will find it difficult to get their products into retail stores.
Promotion involves the different tools that firms have to get consumers to buy more
of their products, possibly at higher prices. Advertising is what we think of by default,
but promotion also includes coupons, in-store price promotions, in-store
demonstrations, or premiums (e. g. , if you buy a package of Jimmy Dean hotdogs
this week, you get a free package of Kraft mustard). The Value Chain: A central issue
in food marketing is the value chain, the process by which different parties in
between the farmer and the consumer dd value to the product. In an extreme case,
the farmer only receives about five cents for every dollar ultimately charged for
bread in the store. Part of the added cost results from other ingredients, but much
of the value is added from processing (e. g. , milling), manufacturing, distribution
(transportation, wholesaling, and retailing) and brand building. The value chain
provides an opportunity for many firms to add value to a product. This, of course,
pushes up the ultimate retail prices of foods. However, these added costs usually
result from consumer demand where consumers are willing to pay for additional
convenience.
In recent years, for example, there has been a sharp increase in the demand for
prepared foods—from supermarkets or from dine-in or take-out from restaurants. It
is important to note that the value chain comes about in large part because a
sequence of contributors allows each to specialize in what it does best or is most
comfortable—and best qualified—to be doing. Farmers, for example, tend to be
most interested in doing actual farming tasks and may be uncomfortable making
deals with processors and manufacturers. Agents may specialize in this task. The
costs of learning can be spread across many different farmers.
The farmer may then be better off paying the agent and spend his or her time on
farming instead . For the agent, having a large number of farmers as clients is
profitable. Most farms would not have a sufficient volume to justify setting up milling
operations, but large processors can take advantage of economies of scale by
servicing many farmers. Large manufacturers can invest in brand building, and
distributors can combine goods from many different suppliers to distribute and sell
efficiently. The Food Marketing Environment: The food market is affected by many
different forces—e. . , sociological (fewer children mean less demand for certain
products), government regulations, international trade conditions, science and
technology, weather and other conditions affecting harvest conditions, economic
cycles, and competitive conditions. Food Markets: Characteristics Food Marketing
Efficiency refers to providing consumers with desired levels of service at the lowest
cost possible. This does not necessarily mean to minimize costs after materials leave
the farm. Services added later in the process may be very valuable to the consumer.
Raw wheat would not be very valuable to most end consumers. The objective, then,
is to add the needed value steps as efficiently as possible. Wal-Mart is extremely
efficient in providing the retail (and effectively wholesale) part of the value chain
even though that service ultimately costs money. Few consumers would want to
drive a long distance to a bakery, and even if they did, the baker would then have to
provide the retail services. The baker would probably have to spend more money on
hiring people and maintaining the store than Wal-Mart adds to the cost by
performing these services.
Oranges tend to fare better in warmer climates. This means that many products
need to be transported over long distances. Derived demand: Farmers need farm
supplies (e. g. , fertilizer, seeds) and equipment (e. g. , tractors). Thus, when there is
an increase in market demand for a particular crop, this will tend to result in
increased demand for products supplied to farmers. Problems in Agricultural
Marketing: Farmers tend to face serious problems due to their limited control over
market conditions. In the long run, farmers can to some extent control their own
production levels, but they have no control over others.
If other farmers increase their production, thus increasing supply and resulting in
decreased market prices, there is nothing that the farmer can do about it. Another
problem is that it takes time for the farmer to adjust his or her output. To increase
production of hogs, for example, it is necessary to breed more stock. This takes time,
and by the time the larger stock is available, prices may have reversed—i. e. , the
farmer decided to raise more hogs when prices went up, but by the time the stock is
ready, market prices may have declined (either because of an increasing supply from
other farmers or because of a change in consumer tastes).
Such price fluctuations may change a crop from being mildly profitable to being
causing significant losses. Decisions on Marketing Efforts: Certain food product
producers have decided to collectively promote their crops—e. g. , Florida oranges,
Washington apples, and beef growers. For a commodities product, it is generally not
worthwhile for the individual farmer to promote. Thus, promotion efforts are
typically undertaken by trade groups such as the Beef Council. If participation is
voluntary, many producers would be likely to free-ride—that is, benefit from others’
efforts without contributing themselves.
For example, it is now possible to produce firmer fruits that are less likely to be
bruised or spoil in transit. (This may happen at some cost in taste, however). Other
research may be conducted to optimize tastes and appearances for one or more
consumer segments. This research is often proprietary—sponsored by specific
manufacturers and kept secret as a competitive advantage. In order to meet the
demands of consumers and manufacturers, there is now an increased need for
growers, processors, and manufacturers to work together to create products that
meet needed standards.
If too many unit failures or instances of poor service occur, a plan must be devised to
improve the production or service process and then that plan must be put into
action. Finally, the QC process must be ongoing to ensure that remedial efforts, if
required, have produced satisfactory results and to immediately detect recurrences
or new instances of trouble. In general, the application of the concept of Quality
Control and Inspection for a rubber products manufacturing unit would consist of: 1.
Receiving Inspection – to assure the product/material received meets the required
specifications before it is manufactured. . In-process Inspection (On-going basis)- to
assure the parts 3. Finished Goods Inspection (to ensure any secondary operations
are performed to specifications and that product meets all requirements) This is the
inspection side. Keeping all of this in mind, the concept of quality is to ensure the
product is manufactured correct the first time. a. Receiving Inspection: It means as a
Quality systems manager the product or the material received from various sources
should be tested or evaluated to know whether it meets the specifications.
The QC manager has to take the full in charge and pass the “QC test” The above said
methods are critical and it should be followed strictly without which the product may
not meet the specifications of Quality control and inspection. Zero-level defect must
be assured to get 100% quality of rubber goods. Management Research You are in
charge of promoting a new flavor of tooth paste yet to be produced in a tooth paste
manufacturing unit. Which sampling techniques will you use to get the required data
from a population?
Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual
observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern,
especially for the purposes of statistical inference. Each observation measures one
or more properties (weight, location, etc. ) of an observable entity enumerated to
distinguish objects or individuals. Survey weights often need to be applied to the
data to adjust for the sample design. Results from probability theory and statistical
theory are employed to guide practice.
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its
members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the
population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn. Sampling methods are classified as either probability or non-probability. In
probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero
probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling,
systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In non-probability sampling, members
are selected from the population in some non-random manner.
When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify
every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an
Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated,
every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list
does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random
sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is
simplicity.
Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their
proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or
judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each
stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by
random sampling. Snowball sampling is a special non-probability method used when
the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost
prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on
referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects.
While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of
introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample
will represent a good cross section from the population. If I were an officer to
promote a new flavour of toothpaste yet to be produced, I would use RANDOM
SAMPLING METHOD Random sampling: Random sampling- all members of the
population have an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. You might
think this means just standing in the street and asking passers-by to answer your
questions.
However, there would be many members of the population who would not be in the
street at the time you are there; therefore, they do not stand any chance of being
part of your sample. To pick a random sample, it is necessary to take all the names
on the electoral register (A list of all the people who live in a particular area) and pick
out, for example, every fiftieth name. This particular person needs to be interviewed
to make the sample truly random. Random sampling is very expensive and time
consuming, but gives a true sample of the population.
Types of Random sample: A simple random sample is selected so that all samples of
the same size have an equal chance of being selected from the population. A self-
weighting sample, also known as an EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method)
sample, is one in which every individual, or object, in the population of interest has
an equal opportunity of being selected for the sample. Simple random samples are
self-weighting. Stratified sampling involves selecting independent samples from a
number of subpopulations, group or strata within the population.
Great gains in efficiency are sometimes possible from judicious stratification. Cluster
sampling involves selecting the sample units in groups. For example, a sample of
telephone calls may be collected by first taking a collection of telephone lines and
collecting all the calls on the sampled lines. The analysis of cluster samples must take
into account the intra-cluster correlation which reflects the fact that units in the
same cluster are likely to be more similar than two units picked at random Pros and
Cons: 1. There are lot of bias in Random sampling 2.
It is feasible and simple as the sampling is done on a random basis. 3. Can make
sample units in groups. 4. Very expensive and time consuming, but gives a true
result of the population 5. While in toothpaste case, the users can given a sample
piece of toothpaste randomly to get the feedback or their opinion from the chosen
population Conclusion: Though the Random sampling has couple of de-merits it will
help to figure out the result from the chosen population. While all other also may
provide the result which may not be best comparing to the sampling method which I
have chosen (Random Sampling)
Survival – a short term objective, probably for small business just starting out, or
when a new firm enters the market or at a time of crisis. Profit maximization – try to
make the most profit possible – most like to be the aim of the owners and
shareholders. Profit satisfying – try to make enough profit to keep the owners
comfortable – probably the aim of smaller businesses whose owners do not want to
work longer hours. Sales growth – where the business tries to make as many sales as
possible. This may be because the managers believe that the survival of the business
depends on being large.
Large businesses can also benefit from economies of scale. A business may find that
some of their objectives conflict with one and other: Growth versus profit: for
example, achieving higher sales in the short term (e. g. by cutting prices) will reduce
short-term profit. Short-term versus long-term: for example, a business may decide
to accept lower cash flows in the short-term whilst it invests heavily in new products
or plant and equipment. Large investors in the Stock Exchange are often accused of
looking too much at short-term objectives and company performance rather than
investing in a business for the long-term.
Alternative Aims and Objectives Not all businesses seek profit or growth. Some
organisations have alternative objectives. Examples of other objectives: Ethical and
socially responsible objectives – organisations like the Co-op or the Body Shop have
objectives which are based on their beliefs on how one should treat the environment
and people who are less fortunate. Public sector corporations are run to not only
generate a profit but provide a service to the public. This service will need to meet
the needs of the less well off in society or help improve the ability of the economy to
function: e. . cheap and accessible transport service. Public sector organisations that
monitor or control private sector activities have objectives that are to ensure that the
business they are monitoring comply with the laws laid down. Health care and
education establishments – their objectives are to provide a service – most private
schools for instance have charitable status. Their aim is the enhancement of their
pupils through education. Charities and voluntary organisations – their aims and
objectives are led by the beliefs they stand for. Changing Objectives
A business may change its objectives over time due to the following reasons: A
business may achieve an objective and will need to move onto another one (e. g.
survival in the first year may lead to an objective of increasing profit in the second
year). The competitive environment might change, with the launch of new products
from competitors. Technology might change product designs, so sales and
production targets might need to change. Personal objectives are:- 1. Provide a
benefit. A new business stands a greater chance at success if it is responding to a
need of a consumer.
Your potential customers will buy your products or service if they see that it provides
some benefits to them. You must be able to respond to their “what is it for me”
question. As a new business owner, your main task is to understand the difference
between the features of your business and the benefits it provides. For example, if
you are in the business of selling baby gift boxes, the feature and benefits are:
Feature: Baby toys, books, CDs and videos not found in department stores Benefit:
The customer will be able to conveniently find in one location the baby gift items she
or he wants.
Remember, customers buy on the basis of the benefits, and not the features of your
products. This is what you are going to use as your main selling proposition, or what
you will highlight to convince people to buy your products and services. By
understanding the business and its benefit to consumers, entrepreneurs can
differentiate their business and create niches in the market where they can enter
and survive long enough to build 2. Determine the fit with your market. Before you
can start marketing your new business, you first need to determine your target
market.
That’s right: not everyone is your customer. Some people erroneously think that they
should sell to everybody, and that targeting will limit the scope of their pool of
potential customers. Wrong! The purpose of defining your market is to make your
life easier and increase the effectiveness of your promotional activities. You can’t
strike anywhere: you need to focus your energy and money. To identify your market,
you need to look at your market data and personality attributes of those whom you
think would most likely buy your products.
Aside from the demographics of your potential customers (age, gender, income
level, geographic location, etc. ), you also need to determine lifestyle factors. Are
there any special interest activities that they belong to? Are there any social factors
and cultural involvement that govern your customers? How do you think your
market will use your products or services? 3. Right timing is everything. Some new
businesses are way ahead of their times. You may have a brilliant idea, but if the
market is not ready for your products, the venture will fall by the wayside.
If you have a product that is so new in the market, be prepared to take on the cost of
informing the buyers. Since they are not familiar with your products, show them how
it will benefit their lives and demonstrate how they can use it. Infomercials, while
costly, are very good vehicles for very new products. 4. Be ready to support your
business. One business reality is that you need money to earn more money. You
need resources to allow you to buy equipment, supplies, procure or manufacture
products, package your products well and market it.
Will your existing capital allow you to buy all the assets that you need in your
business? How are you going to finance your inventory? If you are starting an online
business, do you have the resources to create your site and pay for its upkeep? If
your business does not show a profit within the year, do you have the money to
support yourself? When starting a new business, you need to consider three major
expenses and plan for them accordingly: your living expenses, direct costs and
overhead. Living expenses is the “salary” you must produce to support yourself and
your family.
Direct costs include supplies, materials, and others that you need to produce your
product or deliver your service. Overhead is the cost of running a business, and it
covers marketing, utilities, office furniture and equipment. Sure, you can start a
business even with little cash, but you need to be extremely creative in stretching
your money and be prepared to compromise the growth of your business. You will
have no choice except to build your business gradually. However, having money is
not enough to assure success. The dot-com woes, especially, showed that you can
burn millions and millions of dollars only o end up a failure. Digital Convergence, for
example, got $250 million of funding for investors to distribute Cue Cats barcode
readers for free yet laid-off most of their staffs after their business model showed to
be unsustainable. The key is to use whatever money you have– smartly. 5. Develop a
blueprint for success. You cannot go into a business unprepared. It is important to
have a plan. Think of going to business like going to war: you need to develop
strategies to help you overcome your enemies. Without thinking through what you
want to achieve and how to get there, you are a sitting duck waiting to be clobbered.
Starting a new business entails a thorough and objective analysis of both your
personal abilities and the business requirements. You need to have a clear strategy
for marketing and the production aspects of your business. If you are a retail store,
you need to have a plan in terms of procurement and sourcing. For all the
excitement of a new business, you need to know where and how you will get the
funds to finance your business. Do you have the available resources to make this
business a success? And a million other details. A business plan is essential.
Even if you do not want to write it all down (especially if you do not have investors),
the process of preparing a business plan allows you to think through of every aspect
of your business. It makes you think about the viability of your business and helps
you avoid costly mistakes. When starting a business, you base your projected
performance on a set of assumptions. If you have a plan, you will be able to test your
planning assumptions and create fall-back measures in the event that real life proves
to be vastly different from your initial visions.
If you think through your business well, you can discover problem areas early on and
initiate efforts to correct the problem. Remember, the business owner with a
realistic plan has the best chances for success. 6. Market, market, market. In this
world dominated by hype, you must be prepared to publicize the business or its
chance for success will be slim. Unless you are a nationally known name with built-in
clientele or your business is located in a prime location, you need to promote
customer awareness for your business. If you’re on the Web, you cannot expect to
just sit in a corner and expect people to stumble on your site.
Your marketing plan should revolve around three goals. The first is to inform
customers what you have. You can do this by letting customers know what you have
for sale, either through press releases for possible publication in print and TV media,
brochures for your customers and leaflets distributed in your neighborhood. The
second goal is to persuade potential customers to do what you want them to do –
buy from you. If you’re in e-business, you do this by writing a very good sales copy
on your site including testimonials from satisfied clients.
If you have sales representatives, they could do the persuading in your behalf. The
third function of marketing your business is to remind existing customers to come
and buy again. If you are a Web marketer, you do this by sending a regular product
updates, special offers and promos to customers’ emails. As a smart marketer, you
know that you need to hold on to your existing customer base as it is much harder
(and more expensive) to get a new customer than to sell to someone who already
knows your product and the quality of your customer service.
6. Service Marketing
Selective Food Marketing has answered the call and was created to represent
the way a foodservice broker should. As our industry rapidly evolves, yet
condenses, the demand for qualified and experienced representation is great.
Selective Food service Marketing’s philosophy is to execute our principals’
agenda with thorough operator penetration and effective service to our
distributors. A conservative prospectus of manufacturers, but go to market
aggressively to succeed. What is your vision to represent a food manufacturing
company in a way that they are proud to say that they have Selective Food
Marketing services?