GEOMETRY IS MORE THAN PROOF

Author(s): ALAN HOFFER

Source: The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 74, No. 1 (January 1981), pp. 11-18
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27962295 .
Accessed: 13/09/2014 06:37

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to The Mathematics Teacher.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
GEOMETRY IS MORE THAN PROOF
By ALAN HOFFER
Universityof Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403
Each year we ask many of our first-year
students at the University of Oregon to list
the mathematical subjects or topics that
theylikedbest and topicstheylikedleastin
their precollege classes. Although several
subjects were "favorites," the subject that
was almost universally disliked was geome
try in high school.
Now these are intelligent people who did
well in their algebra courses, and some
went on to study advanced topics.Why the
dislike for geometry? The most common
responses were, "Had to prove theorems all
year long"; "Didn't understand what itwas
all about"; "Got through the course by
memorizing proofs." One even said, "We
did more theorems than geometry."
It is sometimes difficult for the instructor
not to emphasize proof even when students
are experiencing difficulties. However,
there are other skills of a geometric nature
that may be of equal importance to stu
dents. Some of these are discussed in the
next section, "Skills in Geometry." The
section "Levels of Mental Development in
Geometry" describes a sequence of levels
of students' thinking that is patterned after
the work of teachers in the Netherlands.
The final section, "Sample Skills and Prob
lems," provides a framework, with ex
amples, of how we may be able to connect
the skills with the levels of development.
Skills inGeometry
Here are five areas of basic skills thatwe
may wish to devote more time to in our
high school geometry courses. Some of
these skills may or may not be studied by
students on their elementary school and
junior high school levels. In either case, it
seems appropriate to provide students with
experiences in these skills at the high
school level.
This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Visual skills
Geometry is quite clearly a visual sub
ject, but all too often its visual aspects have
served primarily as a tool for proofs. There
has been some research recently con
cerning the different roles the two hemi
spheres of the brain play in learning
mathematics (Ornstein 1975; Wheatley
1977). Apparently, the left hemisphere has
more to do with logical and analytic func
tions, whereas the right hemisphere deals
more with spatial and holistic functions.
Thus, as in all good geometry courses, it is
important to provide students with ade
quate experiences to develop both sides of
the brain.
There are studies that show a connection
between low spatial performance and what
is called "math anxiety" (Dougherty 1975;
Tobias 1978). It seems that those students
who are anxious about learning mathe
matics also do not perform well on spatial
tasks.
It may be that students need to explore
more with pictures and manipulative de
vices. For example, ask your students to
look for cross sections on a solid, such as a
tetrahedron (fig. 1). Can they find a cross
section that has the shape of a rectangle? A
1. Finding cross sections
Fig.
problem ?ke this encourages students to re
view the word rectangle, to think about
properties of rectangles, and to see how
rectangles relate to other figures.
January 1981 11
Verbal skills straightedge constructions early in the
A geometry course probably stresses the course helps students understand proper
use of language more than any other ties of figures. Using grids or graph paper
mathematics course. There is an abun helps students draw neat and satisfying fig
dance of vocabulary for the students to ures in two and three dimensions. Grids
learn. There are precise definitions. There can be used to prepare for area and volume
are postulates and propositions that de concepts as well as for similarity. For ex
scribe properties of figures and relation ample, ask your students to draw pictures
of figures whose sides are proportional to a
ships between figures. The students are
asked to read a lot of material and write given figure, such as a box whose sides are
their own proofs. twice as long as the box shown in figure 2.
Some students have considerable diffi
culty when verbally describing a concept
("I understand it, but I can't say it."). Stu
dents often express ideas in imprecise ways
that differ from those of the teacher or the
text. A student might say, "A circle is a
round line," or "A perpendicular bisector
goes through the middle and is straight
up."
Precise formulations may be thrust on
students before they are ready?before
they have the opportunity to describe con
cepts themselves and recognize the lack of Fig. 2. Using grids
precision in their statements.

Drawing skills This activity encourages students to ana

Geometry courses provide opportunities
for students to express their ideas in pic
tures and diagrams. In later life, some stu
dents may have more need to draw a pic
ture of a geometric situation than to prove
a theorem.
skills can and probably
Drawing
There are timeswhen we
may have more need to
draw a picture of a
lyze figures, to use ratio and proportion,
and to think about similar figures.
Logical skills
Geometry is one of the school subjects
that helps students learn to analyze the
should form of an argument and to recognize valid
and invalid arguments in the context of
geometric figures and, if stressed, in prob
lems about daily Ufe.
Unfortunately, some geometry courses
may encourage memorization without un
derstanding. Some former geometry stu

geometric situation than

dents say that they "got by" geometry by

to prove a theorem. memorizing proofs of theorems. When this

be developed in geometry courses, and the
activities often help prepare students to
learn geometric relationships later in the
course. For example, using a ruler and pro
tractor to draw pictures helps to prepare
students for the ruler and angle measure
ment postulates. Doing compass
happens we defeat the popular justification
for studying geometry, "to develop your
reasoning abilities." This deficiency may,
of course, be a fault of the teaching rather
than of the courses prepared. However, the
result still occurs.
For students to develop logical skills,
many need to work informally with verbal
and and pictorial ideas before being rushed into

12 Mathematics Teacher

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
rules of logic. They should be aware of am tions about circles, ellipses, spheres, and so
biguities in language, of the uses of quan forth.We might view mathematics as the
tifiers,and so forth. These activities can be study of structure?often suggested by
fun as well as instructive. For example, physical phenomena.
consider the ambiguous grocery store sign:
"Why pay higherprices elsewhere?Shop
here."
Some students say that
Th? skillof developinga logical argu
ment in a geometric setting can focus on a they "got by" geometry
diagram with certain given information. bymemorizing proofs.
The students are asked to arrive at a con
clusion based on the given information.
Students seem to need experiences with Currently the idea of describing phe
nomena mathematically is called mathe
these kinds of activities on an informal
basis. For example, ask students if there is matical modeling. By analyzing a model,
we can often provide information about the
enough information given on the trapezoid
shown in figure 3 to find the area of original phenomena, One of the best early
THOR. Students are encouraged to study examples of a mathematical model is found
in Euclid's Elements, which may have been
the given information, to deduce additional
the result of an attempt to logically de
information about the figure, and to solve
(he problem. Activities of this sort may scribe the universe as itwas known to the
Greeks. Mathematical models are used
today in various fields such as agriculture,
biology, business, geography, and psychol
ogy.

By devoting more time to developing

modeling skills we will be able to provide
students with more practical applications
of geometry that occur, for example, in ar
chitecture, astronomy, and engineering as
Fig. 3. Deducing information well as applications of reasoning that are
used by lawyers, business people, and con
sumers.
help students to develop their logical skills
informally prior to learning how to write
out a formal proof. Levels of Mental
Development in Geometry
Appliedskills
In 1959 P. H. van Hiele, a teacher in the
Geometry means more than just "mea Netherlands, reported on studies that he
suring the earth." The Greeks used the and his wife had conducted dealing with
word mathema ( a a) to mean "that mental in geometry
development (van
which is learned." I speculate that the Hiele 1959;vanHiele 1973;Wirszup 1976).
Greeks viewed mathematics as an in-depth
They identifiedfive levels,which I have
study of physical phenomena. This outlook taken the liberty to describe.
is illustrated nicely in the Pythagorean
school, which used mathematics to explain Level 1: Recognition. The student learns
music, art, and science. For example, a some vocabulary and recognizes a shape as
cross section of a cell of a beehive has the a whole.

shape of a regular hexagon. A study of the For example, at this level a student will
structure of a beehive leads naturally to se recognize a picture of a rectangle but likely
rious questions about hexagons. Describing will not be aware of many properties of
movements of the planets leads to ques rectangles.

January 1981 13

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Level 2: Analysis. The student analyzes mastered large chunks of the prior levels.
properties of figures. The students who have difficulty in high
At this level a student may realize that school geometry (level 4) may enter the
the opposite sides and possibly even the di course with only level-1 proficiency. Their

agonals of a rectangle are congruent but elementary school and junior high school
will not notice how rectangles relate to experiences may be insufficient back

squares or right triangles. ground to enable them to work at level 4.

Level 3: Ordering. The student logically Sample Skills and Problems

orders figures and understands inter
The tables that follow give examples of
relationships between figures and the im various skills thatmight be expected of the
portance of accurate definitions. students at different levels of their develop
At this level a student will understand ment in geometry.
why every square is a rectangle but may Table 1 provides sample descriptions of
not be able to explain, for example, why skills for each of the areas mentioned in the
the diagonals of a rectangle are congruent. first section, "Skills inGeometry," in terms
The student under of the levels that are listed in the section
Level 4: Deduction.
stands the significance of deduction and the "Levels of Mental Development." These
are not the only skills, of course, just a
role of postulates* theorems, and proof.
sample. Also, some interpretation is
At this level a student will be able to use
needed. For example, the word figure
the SAS postulate to prove statements
should be interpreted as a geometric idea,
about rectangles but not understand why it
or a drawing of a geometric animal, or even
is necessary to postulate the SAS condition
a symbol.
(Byrkit 1971;Krause 1975) and how the In table 2,1 arbitrarily chose the topic of
SAS postulate connects the distance and
measures.
rectangles as a basis for problems that stu
angle
dents might be able to solve at each of the
Level 5: Rigor. The student understands various skill areas and mental levels. I do
the importance of precision in dealing with not claim that these are the best possible
foundations and interrelationships between questions, just examples. Also, some ques
structures. tions certainly draw on more than one skill
This most advanced level is rarely area.

reached by high school students. At this

Summary
level a student understands, for example,
how the parallel postul?te (Euclidean) re It ismy contention, based on numerous
lates to the existence of rectangles and that classroom observations, discussions with
other teachers and students, and (unfortu
in non-Euclidean geometry rectangles do
not exist. nately) my own experiences, that many
high school geometry courses place too
great an emphasis on students developing
the skill of writing formal proofs. When
Devoting toomuch time this occurs, precious class time is takfen
to formal proofs takes from providing students with experiences
precious time away in other, possibly more practical, skills of a
fromdeveloping other geometric nature. Also, by beginning for
geometric skills. mal proofs too early in a geometry course,
we may not account for those students who
have not yet reached a sufficiently high
The van Hieles' research indicates that level of mental development to enable
for students to function adequately at one them to function adequately at the formal
of the advanced levels, they must have level.

14 Mathematics Teacher

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 V
Rigor
limitations
capabilities
and
of limitations
capabilities
and
of
or
postulates.
of Formulates
extensions
of
known
results. tools. nonstandard
concepts Knows
when
system
a models
to
represent
mathematical
models
by related
assumptions
made assumptions
in
deductive mathematical describe
Uses physical,
to
systems. systems.
Describes
various Understands
the various the and
social,
natural
in deductive
various deductive drawing is
of abstract
systems.
figures.
using
Conceives various consistent,
and
independent,
postulates
Recognizes
unjustified phenomena.
represents Develops
figures Pictorially systems.
Understands categorical.

Deduction
IV
deduce
information.
more
definitions, required to
postulates, is
what
and how
auxiliary
use
of
from
or
given
obtained
and figure.
in
elements
a Deduces
Recognizes
when givendraw
from construct
or
a objects problems
that
relate
Uses
information
to in
given
aproblem is information
how
to Uses
rules
of
logic information.
given
consequences
from
figure theamong what
Understands
distinctions to
develop
proofs.
Is
able
to
deduce Is
able
to
deduce Is
able
to
solve
a theorems.
and figure.
specific
about find
to
do.
or information.
properties
Recognizes
objects.

Ordering
III

between
different
types Formulates
sentences figures,
Given
certain
other related
a of qualities
good
if
class
one
of
figures model
mathematical
Recognizes
common between is
figures. to
able
construct
the
to
given
ones.
definition.
Uses
of
Understands between
objects.
interrelationshipsfigures
TABLE
1 Skills
in
Geometry
Basic different
of
types and determine
to is
in class. the
another
contained that
represents
Recognizes properties
of Defines
words Understands
concisely. concept
of
a relationships
figures.
of showing figures
properties
interrelationships accurately
figures.

Analysis
II

part
larger
figure.
of
a Uses
given
properties
Notices
properties
of Describes
accurately construct
the
figures. used Recognizes
geometric
distinguish
to
Identifies
figure
a
as information
verbal figures
of
to
draw
or Represents
physical
paper
phenomena
on
Translates
givenpicture.
into
a U
that properties
be
can physical
objects. in
properties
various different
types. properties
of
amodel.
or
figure.
of
a into Realizes
can that
beclassified
figures
figure.
a nderstands figures.

Recognition
I
Recognizes
information
Recognizes
different
figureslabeled
figure.
aon
picture.
from
a Associates
the
name
with
given
a
describe
figures.
that
correct Interprets
sentences of labeling
Makesgiven
parts.
sketches various
positions.
offigures
of
shape
in
conservation
the
figures
accurately Identifies
geometric
physical
in
shapes
are similarities
among
Realizes
there
Understands
differences
and
figure. figures. objects.

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 yRigor

Explain
why
rectangles
Given
isa
a in
Does
exist diagonals
not
are circle,
and
only
area
that
the
of
to in
there whose
taxicab do
in it
using equal
geometry exist possible
notnpn-Euclidean
geometry. rectangle
to construct
rectanglecongruent? a
compasses
straightedge
circle?

IV
Deduction diagonals
perpendicular
product
the
the
of Draw
the
picture
of
a
paper A piece
to of
be What
of
paper is Which
these
of
is
a witha is
rectangle
to
equal
Two
the
are
same
size
and
shape.
rolled
rectangular shape isa is
And aisparallelogram
postulate?
which1,
Arectangle
definition?
Which right
angle.
sides,
Arectangle
3,with
form cylinder.
circular
a oblique
surface
right
of ancircular
make
to 2,
The
aarea
of of
twoadjacent isasquare. cylinders that
these
region
cylinders
have
in
lateral needed lengths
the
can theorem?
a common.

cylinder?

Ordering
III
Problems
Skill
the Areas
for Using
and
compasses
the
rectangle.
word inscribe
straightedge,
Can
find
the
you has Write
careful
and
a
hABC
in
rectangle
a to
2TABLE section
of
across
that brief
of
definition
Given
and
AABC
WXYZ.
the
of
a similar
shape rectangle is WXYZ.
tetrahedron
rectangle? that

Sample

II
Analysis
different
How
many List properties
as
many Construct
rectangle
a
of
one
one
and
given of
limes
of
symmetry
does
rectangle
a length
aas
of
can
you the
rectangle. side
have? diagonal.

IRecognition
Asegments
and
C
BD
figure
Which
below
is 3. are
sides
Which draw
to
rectangle
a WXYZ
side
with
4
7
lengths
and
units.
For1.
What
the
are_
rectangle
ABCDf BC?
to
2.is4-ABC?
angle Use
grids
shown
as
Which adjacent
rectangle?
a
opposite
called?
4.

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Since
do how
the
of
are
areas
figures a region
geometry,
rectangles the
actual the
of
amap
on
of rectangular
in
not
non determined? is earth
exist on
Euclidean Whatshape
earth?

Prove
disprove:
Ifor figure
the
congruent, plug
Design
that
you
a can
through
holes
three
withoutall any
the
diagonals
of
a quadrilateral completely
leaving
are isrectangle.
a
push

is
Each is a diagonals
If
the are
ofparallelogram
Each
a area be
What
of the
are rectangle
Which
true
and square
the can largest in
thata
false?
which congruent, therectangle
are a rectangle.
figure
ais
rectangle. is inscribed
triangle?
square.

2. given

perimeters,
have
equal
their
are
also
areas map
field
the
of
on
its
perimeter?
byIftwo
determined
rectangles size
smallest
paper 1:1000?
of
scale
a
field
a is
If 100 whatyou
meters
long,
is
the
rectangular aneed
draw
to
Is
the
of
area
a rectangle

equal?

shapes
If
turned
shown,
as
isthe
also
is figure
arectangle
the
on
and
rectangular
the this
see
in
you field.
a Describe athletic
new classroom
rectangle?

LOGICAL
APPLIED

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 I am teaching a high school geometry Ornstein, Robert. The Psychology of Consciousness.
New York: Viking Press, Pelican 1975.
course now where we devote the entire first Books,
Tobias, Sheila. Overcoming Math Anxiety. New York:
semester to exploring geometric concepts
W. W. Norton & Co., 1978.
informally, without requiring proofs. This van Hiele, P. M. "La Pens?e de l'enfant et la geome
enables students to study what they call trie." Bulletin de l'Association des Professeurs Math

"fun things" while preparing formore for ?matiques de l'Enseignement Public 198 (1959): 199
205.
mal aspects (level4) in the secondhalf of -.
Begrip en Inzicht. Netherlands: Muusses Per
the course. It is interesting that during the merend, 1973.
informal part of the course, a student will Wheatley, Grayson. "The Right Hemisphere's Role in

try to explain why he or she thinks that an

Problem Solving." Arithmetic Teacher 25 (Novem
ber 1977):36-39.
assertion is true. The student is really rea
Wirszup, Izaak. "Breakthroughs in the Psychology of
Learning and Teaching Geometry." Space and Ge
ometry. Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Center, August
1976.

Let the firstsemester of a

geometry course be an
informaldevelopment of
vocabulary and concepts. 1981MATHEMATICAL
CALENDAR
Save the deduction for the Cantonan Lines, Fractals, The Devil's Staircase,
The Sierpinski Sponge; striking graphics; ori
second semester. ginal cartoons, poems, quotes, humor, bio
graphies, and more. 28 pages, 9.5 by 13, $5.50
postpaid in US, $6.50 in Canada, $7.50 else
where (US funds), ROME PRESS, Dept. J,
Box 31451, Raleigh, NC, 27622.
soning through a proof without being con
fined towriting out the statements and rea
sons in a two-column format. This is, of
course, a practice that is employed by
many teachers throughout a geometry Non-Routine
course. I am simply suggesting that stu
dents need to have these informal experi
ences prior to the introduction of formal
proof. Reproducible!
As we become more aware of how stu
dents learn geometry, we can provide them
?Numberl
with more effective learning experiences. Pattern!
Possibly the most difficult task we have is pp. 1980 ISBN 0-87353-169-81
to overcome our own mind set of what ge [96
National Council of Teachers ofMathematics
1906 Association Drive, Reston VA 22091
ometry was like when we studied it in high
Please send me ._. copies ofActivitiesforthe
school. Certainly geometry is more than Maintenance of Computational Skills, #56, @
$4.50 each. Total: _._._
proof. Q.E.D. Name . ....... ._ _._
*
Membership No__._ _
Address .. _ _._
BIBLIOGRAPHY _ _
City.
Byrkit, Donald R. "Taxicab Geometry?a Non-Eu State or Province
clidean Geometry of Lattice Points." Mathematics
ZIP or Postal Code
Teacher 64 (May 1971):418-22.
Remittance enclosed inU.S. funds.
Dougherty, Knowles. "Math Anxiety: Causes and .
MasterCard (interbank# _) VISA
Cures." Working paper. Wesleyan University, 1975.
CreditCard # Expires . _
Hoffer, Alan. Geometry, A Model of the Universe. __
Signature.....
Menlo Park: Addision-Wesley Publishing Co.,
members,bookstores,or
*20% discount: individual
1979. orderfor10ormorecopiesofeach item
quantity shipped
toone address.Virginia add 4% sales tax.? w?
residents
Krause, Eugene F. Taxicab Geometry. Menlo Park:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1975.

18 Mathematics Teacher

This content downloaded from 211.28.229.160 on Sat, 13 Sep 2014 06:37:23 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions