CBI cobi_1632 Dispatch: December 20, 2010 CE: WRV

Journal MSP No. No. of pages: 10 PE: Amanda

1
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3
4 Essay
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8 The Role of Botanic Gardens in the Science and
9
10
11
Practice of Ecological Restoration
12
13 KATE A. HARDWICK,1,23 PEGGY FIEDLER,2 LYNDON C. LEE,3
14 BRUCE PAVLIKl,4,21 RICHARD HOBBS,5 JAMES ARONSON,6 MARTIN BIDARTONDO,1,7
15 ERIC BLACK,8 DAVID COATES,9 MATTHEW I. DAWS,1,22 KINGSLEY DIXON,10
16 STEPHEN ELLIOTT,11 KERN EWING,12 GEORGE GANN,13 DAVID GIBBONS,14
17
JOACHIM GRATZFELD,15 MARTIN HAMILTON,1 DAVE HARDMAN,1 JIM HARRIS,16
18
19
PAT M. HOLMES,17 DAVID MABBERLEY,1 ANDREW MACKENZIE,18
20 CARLOS MAGDALENA,1 ROBERT MARRS,19 ANTHONY MILLS,20 EIMEAR NIC LUGHADHA,1
21 MARGARET RAMSAY,1 PAUL SMITH,1 NIGEL TAYLOR,1 CLARE TRIVEDI,1
22 MICHAEL WAY,1 OLIVER WHALEY,1 AND STEPHEN D. HOPPER1
23 1
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB, United Knigdom
24 2
University of California Natural Reserve System, 1111 Franklin Street, 6th Floor, Oakland, CA 94607, U.S.A.
25 3
L.C. Lee & Associates, Inc. 2442 NW Market Street, #392, Seattle, WA 98107, U.S.A.
26 4
Department of Biology, Mills College, Oakland, CA 94613, U.S.A.
27 5
School of Plant Biology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
28 6
Centre d’EcologieFonctionnelle et Evolutive (C.N.R.S. -UMR 5175), Montpellier, France & Missouri Botanical Garden, MO, U.S.A.
7
29 Imperial College London, Ascot SL5 7PY, United Knigdom
8
30 Alcoa Global Primary Products-Growth, Energy, Bauxite and Africa, 201 Isabella Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15212, U.S.A.
9
31 Science Division, Department of Environment and Conservation, Bentley Delivery Centre, Locked Bag 104, Bentley, WA, 6983,
32 Australia
10
Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, West Perth, Western Australia 6005, Australia
33 11
Forest Restoration Research Unit, Biology Department, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
34 12
Restoration Ecology Laboratory, Center for Urban Horticulture, University of Washington Botanic Gardens, Box 354115, Seattle,
35 WA 98195-4115, U.S.A.
36 13
The Institute for Regional Conservation, 22601 S.W. 152 Avenue, Miami, FL, U.S.A.
37 14
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, SG19 2DL, United Kingdom
38 15
Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, United Kingdom
39 16
Department of Natural Resources, School Of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL,
40 United Kingdom
17
41 Environmental Resource Management Department, City of Cape Town, Private Bag X5, Plumstead 7801, South Africa
18
42 Katanga Mining Ltd., 1st Floor The Place, 1 Sandton Drive, Sandton 2196, South Africa
19
43 Applied Vegetation Dynamics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB,
United Kingdom
44 20
Department of Soil Science, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa
45
46
47
48
49 Abstract: Many of the skills and resources associated with botanic gardens and arboreta, including plant
50 taxonomy, horticulture, and seed-bank management, are fundamental to ecological restoration efforts, yet
51 few of the world’s botanic gardens are involved in the science or practice of restoration. Thus, we examined
52 the potential role of botanic gardens in these emerging fields. We believe a reorientation of certain existing
53
54
55
21 Current
56 address: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB, United Kingdom
22 Current address: Energy Resources of Australia Ltd. Level 3 Energy House, 18-20 Cavenagh St, DarwinNT 0800, Australia
57 23 email k.hardwick@kew.org
58 Paper submitted March 4, 2009; revised manuscript accepted June 25, 2010.
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Conservation Biology, Volume **, No. **, ***–***
Journal compilation 
C 2010 Society for Conservation Biology. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01632.x
1 2 The Role of Botanic Gardens in Restoration
2 Q1

3 institutional strengths, such as plant-based research and knowledge transfer would enable many more botanic
4 gardens worldwide to provide effective science-based support to restoration efforts. We recommend botanic
5 gardens widen research to include ecosystems as well as species, increase involvement in practical restoration
6 projects and training practitioners, and serve as information hubs for data archiving and exchange.
7
8 Keywords: arboreta, botanic gardens, ecological restoration, restoration ecology, seed banks
9
El Papel de los Jardines Botánicos en la Ciencia y Práctica de la Restauración Ecológica
10
11 Resumen: Muchas de las habilidades y recursos asociados con los jardines botánicos y viveros, incluyendo
12 la taxonomı́a de plantas, horticultura y manejo de banco de semillas, son fundamentales para los esfuerzos de
restauración ecológica. Por lo tanto, examinamos el papel potencial de los jardines botánicos en estos campos
13
emergentes. Consideramos que una reorientación de ciertas fortalezas institucionales existentes, como la
14
investigación botánica y la transferencia de conocimiento permitirı́an que muchos jardines botánicos en todo
15
el mundo proporcionen soporte efectivo basado en ciencia a los esfuerzos de restauración. Recomendamos
16 que los jardines botánicos amplı́en su investigación para incluir ecosistemas ası́ como especies, incrementen
17 la participación en proyectos de restauración práctica y la capacitación de practicantes, y funcionen como
18 centros de información para el almacenamiento e intercambio de datos.
19
20 Palabras Clave: bancos de semillas, ecologı́a de la restauración, jardines botánicos, restauración ecológica
21
22
23 Introduction sented by degraded ecosystems and landscapes, as evi-
24 denced by the expanding global presence of the Society
25 Restoration of degraded and imperiled ecosystems is for Ecological Restoration International, emerging litera-
26 emerging as one of the most important priorities for hu- ture (Ormerod 2003; Young et al. 2005), and increasing
27 manity in the 21st century. Many of the skills and re- private-sector activity (e.g., the Mine Closure series of
28 sources already commonly provided by botanic gardens international conferences) and government policy (e.g.,
29 and arboreta to support plant conservation are also of U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Environmental Pro-
30 fundamental importance to ecological restoration (sensu tection Agency 2008) focused specifically on restoration
31 the Society for Ecological Restoration International 2004) activities. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
32 and the science on which restoration efforts are based. A coalition, which provides a follow-up to the Millennium
33 comprehensive overview of the potential role of botanic Ecosystem Assessment and the Stern Report on the Eco-
34 gardens in this emerging field is lacking. We aimed to pro- nomics of Climate Change, cites ecological restoration
35 vide a synthesis of botanic gardens’ current involvement as a top priority for their global society (TEEB 2009).
36 in restoration and explored opportunities that may en- However, the success of restoration projects often is
37 able many more botanic gardens and arboreta worldwide constrained by factors such as small spatial and temporal
38 to build on existing institutional strengths to provide ef- scales (e.g., Wagner et al. 2008), insufficient biological in-
39 fective science-based support to ecosystem restoration formation on target species (e.g., Lloyd & Vercoe 2002),
40 projects. and lack of awareness of, or inability to address, ecologi-
41 Many of the relatively few remaining natural ecosys- cal processes and functioning (Bond & Lake 2003). More
42 tems in the world are at immediate risk of further degra- than ever before, there exists an immediate opportunity
43 dation or complete loss, especially those that are vulnera- for biological and physical scientists to help improve on-
44 ble under current climate-change scenarios (e.g., Méndez the-ground restoration outcomes. Furthermore, there is a
45 et al. 2008). There is little prospect of the outlook im- clear need for greater integration of restoration projects
46 proving because world population is likely to continue in a larger socioeconomic, political, and cultural context
47 to expand until at least 2050 (United Nations 2007) and (Aronson et al. 2010).
48 the global economic framework is one that encourages Many of the services and resources commonly pro-
49 exploitation of natural resources rather than their con- vided by botanic gardens and arboreta are central to the
50 servation or sustainable use. In view of these challenges, study and practice of ecological restoration. The Univer-
51 the latest recommendations on the Global Strategy for sity of Wisconsin Arboretum is often considered the birth-
52 Plant Conservation (GSPC) recognize that, in some cases, place of the concept of ecological restoration, thanks to
53 ecosystem restoration may be required to achieve the the pioneering work of Aldo Leopold (Jordan et al. 1987).
54 target of securing at least 15% of each of the world’s (Hereafter, we use the phrases botanic garden and gar-
55 ecological regions (Convention on Biological Diversity den to include both botanic gardens and arboreta.) Dis-
56 2010). ciplines essential to the practice of restoration ecol-
57 The science and practice of ecological restoration ogy (e.g., plant taxonomy and horticulture), supporting
58 are developing rapidly to address the challenges pre- technologies (e.g., DNA fingerprinting and geographical

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3 Table 1. Estimated percentage of botanic gardens providing facilities Despite the close match between the global need for
4 and activities relevant to ecological restoration∗ . ecological restoration and the services botanic gardens
5 offer, comparatively few gardens worldwide engage in
Estimated percentage
6 of gardens (no. of restoration ecology (Table 1). Enhancing the role of
7 Facilities and activities gardens from subset∗ ) botanic gardens in restoration efforts offers an exciting
8 opportunity for botanic gardens to increase their ser-
9 Facilities
computerized plant record system 38 (249) vice to society by helping to restore ecosystems that
10 herbarium 26 (173) have been ‘‘damaged, degraded, or destroyed’’ (SERI
11 seed bank 19 (124) 2004).
12 micropropagation 10 (65)
13 Conservation work
14 conservation program 26 (172)
15
ex situ program 25 (166) Opportunities to Engage in Restoration
reintroduction program 16 (107)
16 Research programs
A relatively easy first step for botanic gardens to take to
17 horticulture 25 (164)
conservation biology 21 (140) engage in restoration is to make information and exper-
18
ecology 19 (125) tise they can provide more available for use by restoration
19
systematics and taxonomy 18 (122) practitioners. In effect, scientists from botanic gardens
20 ecosystem conservation 16 (109) can recast their own experience and knowledge base in
21 data management systems 15 (96)
horticulture, curation, species-based research, and educa-
22 and information technology
restoration ecology 12 (81) tional display for new purposes beyond the garden. Dis-
23
invasive species biology 11 (76) semination through outreach initiatives, joint projects,
24
conservation genetics 9 (61) and short courses puts this expertise to work. Relevance
25 land restoration 9 (61) of the traditional activities of botanic gardens to prac-
26 seed/spore biology 8 (50)
tical restoration also can be increased dramatically by
27 pollination biology 7 (44)
Education programs strategic broadening of their scope and focus (Table 2).
28
guided tours 41 (273) Additionally, with a slight reorientation of mission, gar-
29
education signs 34 (222) dens can move into new areas of operation that build on
30 public lectures 33 (215) their existing activities. Core technical disciplines can be
31 visitor center 29 (194)
focused and bolstered to deliver new or derivative ser-
32 education booklets 28 (188)
education program 27 (176) vices (Table 3). Potential areas of engagement include
33
permanent public displays 24 (158) research into natural and managerial processes involved
34
∗ in ecosystem assembly and recovery, applied research
35 Data are from Botanic Gardens Conservation International’s Gar-
den Search (2010) database. There are 2676 botanic gardens listed to generate species- and site-specific data, project tri-
36
on the database, but some of them did not provide any information als and demonstrations conducted onsite or locally, and
37 on their facilities or activities. Therefore the calculation of percentage storage and dissemination of data and technical informa-
38 of gardens providing particular resources was based on the data pro-
vided by a subset of 661 gardens that had completed the introductory tion. Building on core strengths that already exist within
39
text field—a preliminary survey having indicated that these gardens botanic gardens can help overcome the challenges of
40 had generally also provided the ancillary information on their facil- ecological restoration.
41 ities. The percentage of gardens figures give an approximate indica-
42 tion of the relative importance of different areas of activity only and
should be regarded as estimates of the overall percentage. Research in Restoration Ecology
43
44 Plant-based research has long been a standard part of
45 the work of botanic gardens, and programs range from
46 technologically advanced basic science (more common
47 information systems), practical conservation skills (e.g., in larger gardens) to highly applied scientific investiga-
48 seed banking), and relevant research expertise (e.g., in tions. As long as research methods meet rigorous sci-
49 conservation genetics, seed science, mycology, and plant entific standards and the results help establish ecosys-
50 physiology) are often all represented in botanic gardens tem structure and functioning at project sites, any level
51 (Table 1). This breadth of knowledge, combined with a of garden-based research can be of value to ecological
52 global distribution of sites, a predominant focus on wild restoration, meaning all gardens, no matter how small,
53 plants as opposed to crops, an inherent service mission, can contribute.
54 and an ability to engage the public in relevant botani- The study of single-species population ecology is a
55 cal and conservation discourse puts botanic gardens in a well-established activity within botanic gardens. It is also
56 unique and germane position to integrate, apply, and de- an important component of restoration ecologyand a vital
57 liver the best available science for the purposes of ecosys- tool in monitoring restoration success. The relevance of
58 tem restoration. such studies to ecological restoration can be increased by

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3 Table 2. Recommended institutional shifts for botanic gardens to focusing on a greater variety of native species and habi-
4 pursue ecological restoration. tats and working on larger scales. For example, garden
5 research often prioritizes threatened, endemic, or eco-
Administrative structure and congruence of mission
6 Increase contributions to ecological restoration quickly and nomically important species (e.g., in the United States,
7 easily by making small but significant changes to mission the work of the Center of Plant Conservation), which, al-
8 orientations, adopting a long-term strategy to widen the though critical, are not necessarily the most relevant areas
9 scope of basic and applied research, strengthening
of study for restoration of degraded ecosystems. Broaden-
technology transfer activities, implementing practical
10 ing research agendas of botanic gardens to include a fo-
projects, and providing sufficient funding to initiate these
11 activities. cus on understanding assemblages of species that would
12 Partnerships and global networking be most effective for restoring ecosystem composition,
13 Strengthen or develop new partnerships with other structure, and functioning (SERI 2004) requires a calcu-
14 organizations that have expertise in areas that botanic
lated extension of thinking from species and populations
gardens may lack, such as soil science and biogeochemistry,
15 to communities, ecosystems, and landscapes. Botanic
plant and animal interactions, planning, land-use law,
16 natural resource economics. gardens have been leaders for many years in the science
17 Assess global restoration needs and priorities. Coordinate and practice of single-species reintroduction, but now
18 research and knowledge transfer (e.g., through Botanic integration of reintroduction research more fully into the
19 Gardens Conservation International or Society for Ecological
broader field of restoration ecology is overdue (Lipsey &
Restoration International).
20 Child 2007; Seddon et al. 2007).
Develop, expand, and link existing plant and environmental
21 databases within botanic gardens and work with other Basic research is needed to improve the understanding
22 organizations to update databases with relevant data to of mechanisms controlling the establishment and per-
23 create a resource for restoration practitioners. sistence of plant populations, communities, and ecosys-
24 Where botanic gardens have expertise regionally or
tems under what may be highly altered or changing en-
globally, work with and support partners to build the
25 vironmental conditions. The combination of expertise in
partners’ capacity to undertake restoration.
26 Basic and applied research plant science and horticulture puts botanic gardens in a
27 Undertake long-term, restoration ecology research projects, strong position to investigate how the performance of
28 such as investigations of plant community assembly introduced plants is affected by their interactions with
29 pathways, the effects of climate change on restoration
other plants, such as invasive species and mycorrhizae.
outcomes and the effects of restoration on ecosystem
30 Exploring the role of animal species (through mecha-
services.
31 Broaden current focus on rare and endangered species to nisms such as pollination, dispersal, herbivory, and dis-
32 include work on entire plant communities within the turbance) and soil microorganisms in plant establish-
33 ecosystems found locally or, regionally or, for botanic ment may be unfamiliar territory for garden staff and
34 gardens with international collections, overseas.
calls for new partnerships and joint initiatives. In restora-
Identify native plant species suitable for use in restoration
35 tion ecology, the multidisciplinary approach to conserva-
projects, especially for species that exhibit structural or
36 functional traits that give them the ability to set certain tion advocated by Falk (1990) is not only advisable, but
37 ecosystem assembly and maintenance processes in motion. indispensable.
38 In applied research programs, increase the focus on Herbaria are often associated with botanic gardens
39 developing methods and standard protocols to produce
and provide a valuable link between field work and col-
restoration-ready plants for use in high-stress environments.
40 lections (Table 1). Taxonomic expertise and resources
Technology transfer
41 Recast existing knowledge into readily available resources are important for vegetation surveys of reference and
42 for restoration. Develop technology transfer services that restoration sites. Rarely appreciated and even less ex-
43 include staffed and web-based extension services and ploited is the enormous amount of information available
44 provide, for example:
in herbaria collections’ records (e.g., location, ecology,
– standardized protocols, best practice guides and decision
45 phenology, and biology of each taxon collected). These
trees (e.g., for site-survey, post-restoration monitoring, seed
46 storage, propagation, selection of genetically appropriate data are critically important in cases where a landscape is
47 material); so highly degraded that no undisturbed reference ecosys-
48 – identification guides, interactive and illustrated keys; tems remain to be studied in the field. Data on plant
49 – technical support of restoration efforts, from initial site
distribution and trends therein also provide important
surveys, through to monitoring and adaptive management;
50 information to support habitat modeling, which should
and
51 – assessments of changes in natural resource capital assets be informing the process of ecological restoration in a
52 associated with restoration projects and programs. changing climate. Information on functional traits can
53 Practical involvement be used to inform the selection of native species for de-
54 Undertake restorations on site (where practicable) or where
termining initial planting assemblages for target ecosys-
garden staff have relevant expertise, to test restoration
55 tems (Goosem & Tucker 1995; Elliott et al. 2003) and
approaches and demonstrate and document best practices.
56 Use on-site restoration to inform and engage the may also be gleaned from herbarium records. Although
57 public—engendering financial and political support for not all botanic gardens have herbaria, recognizing their
58 restoration activities. importance in ecological restoration provides another

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3 Table 3. Existing and potential services and expertise that botanic gardens could provide to support ecological restoration.
4
Potential service∗ or expertise
5 Area, discipline, Existing service
6 derivative function or expertise with current resources with expanded resources
7
Core technical discipline
8 Systematics plant inventory and publish life-history handbooks, standardize genetic inventory
9 identification with increased focus on (provenance) methods for
10 seedlings restoration
11 Autecology identify native plants that characterize ex situ standardize evaluation of
are suitable for use as demographic performance physiological tolerance limits
12
founder species on of life history stages develop predictions of
13 restoration sites (e.g., site-specific survivorship and
14 stress tolerant, prolific) fecundity for use in restoration
15 designs
16 Reintroduction establish or enhance plant optimize survival and develop criteria and
biology populations in natural reproduction of founding methodologies for assessing
17
habitats propagules successful population
18 establishment
19 Community ecology Compile complete species suggest functional groupings of characterize and develop plant
20 check-lists for natural plants suitable for use in community assembly pathways
21 habitats restorations (e.g., pioneers, for habitats and regions assess
nitrogen fixers, shade role of plant–animal
22
producers) identify and interactions in restoration
23 collate pollinator, disperser, success assess role of restored
24 and mycorrhizal sites as corridors or barriers for
25 requirements animal dispersal
26 Plant–soil biology identify identify plant species for elucidate mechanism of plant-soil
interactions symbiont-dependent further research characterize biology interactions essential
27
plants soil microbes in situ for successful establishment
28 and growth of founders make
29 site-specific innocula available
30 for restoration projects
31 Conservation genetics characterize known determine propagule locations assess effect of restoration on
patterns of genetic (provenance) gene flow and genetic diversity
32
variation, mating systems,
33 and population genetic
34 structure
35 Public outreach and education
36 Disseminate provide restoration-themed conduct training for other conduct training and public
restoration knowledge tours, interpretation, gardens and restoration outreach for a broad spectrum
37
volunteer services, groups of end-users and the general
38 education programs public
39 Technologies
40 Seed collection, make collections for develop seed quality and make custom, high-quality seed
41 banking and provision restoration purposes longevity databases conduct lots available for restoration
expand databases on training for other gardens projects
42
long-term germination and restoration groups
43 and storage develop methodologies for
44 bulking-up seed supplies
45 Propagule source identify source populations inventory existing ex situ protect source populations with
46 conservation with high genetic collections for diversity high genetic diversity
diversity linked to specific sources
47
Propagation publish propagation improve production develop field-sowing technologies
48 protocols on widely scheduling methods develop make custom, high-quality plant
49 accessible databases acclimation protocols for lots available for restoration
50 outplanting founders projects
51 develop protocols for
mass-production
52
Plant–soil nutrition record soil nutrient, pH, provide soil amendment provide an array of soil
53 and structural prescriptions amendments for use in
54 requirements for plants restoration outsource expertise
55 used in restoration for soil management systems
56 Continued.
57
58

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3 Table 3. (Continued).
4
Potential service∗ or expertise
5 Area, discipline, Existing service
6 derivative function or expertise with current resources with expanded resources
7
Derivative skills/disciplines
8 Restoration design survey ecological attributes assist in or carry out research use assembly pathways to guide
9 of remnant habitats to develop standard lists of construction sequencing and
10 (reference sites) to guide species for founding timing work with fauna
11 planning and evaluation assemblages for target specialists to build-in ecosystem
of specific restoration ecosystems identify network functions (e.g., in pollination
12
projects of reference sites to serve as and seed dispersal)
13 regional models for planning
14 and evaluating restoration
15 efforts
16 GIS systems standardize GIS protocol for identify and use relevant GIS apply GIS analytical methods and
accessions to living analytical methods to target modeling to assist in design and
17
collections restoration monitoring small- and
18 sites/opportunities large-scale restoration projects
19 CADD systems develop design documents to
20 support small and large-scale
21 restoration projects
Management of site operations
22
Site management verify identification of plant identify appropriate implement integrated weed
23 materials prior to provenances for plant control prescriptions and
24 installation identify and materials develop adaptive management strategies
25 characterize the behavior site-specific, integrated as demonstration projects
26 of weedy invasive species weed control prescriptions establish and manage
and adaptive management plant/propagule salvage
27
strategies develop design operations prior to site
28 templates for on-site nursery disturbance design and build
29 operations on-site nurseries to support
30 small and large scale restoration
31 projects assess condition of
plant materials and supervises
32
their installation
33 Evaluation and accountability
34 Success indicators review literature and collate create and consolidate project develop site-specific project
35 approaches to targets, standards, and targets, standards, and success
36 articulation of project success criteria generally criteria to support small and
targets, standards, and and by ecosystem type large-scale restoration projects
37
success criteria
38 Monitoring protocols review literature and collate archive monitoring data for
39 approaches to monitoring long-term evaluation
40 for compliance and to
41 support adaptive
management
42
Derivative activities
43 Assessments of natural identify products, incorporate local and initiate demonstration projects
44 capital/resources ecosystem services, and indigenous knowledge into that showcase and provide
45 values for local plants or restoration planning and ecological services and
46 community types management socio-economic values carry out
and support cost-benefit
47
analyses of carbon
48 sequestration in restoration
49 sites versus reference or
50 unrestored control sites
51 Adaptive management identify species broadly develop selection regimes for design and build projects that
for climate change tolerant of anticipated species broadly tolerant of anticipate climate change
52
changes in climate anticipated changes in
53 change climate
54 ∗ Some potential services could be provided by refocusing current institutional resources (e.g., staff, funding, facilities), whereas others would
55 require expanded resources.
56
57
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22 argument in support of their continued maintenance Conservation International estimates that over 104,000
23 and development. plant species are in cultivation in botanic gardens world-
24 In recent years, the added dimension of conserva- wide (perhaps one-third of known species) (BGCI 2010).
25 tion collection and archiving has brought gardens into The development of propagation protocols has included
26 the realm of conservation genetics research, seed bank- studies of germination, soil conditions, and establish-
27 ing, and reintroduction technologies (Table 1). To max- ment, and has been the stock-in-trade of many botanic gar-
28 imize the capture and persistence of variation in plant dens for centuries. Invaluable knowledge is often locked
29 species, gardens (and seed banks in particular) adapt in the heads and rote procedures of good horticultural-
30 their propagule sourcing to account for local adapta- ists, and a concerted, well-designed, collaborative effort
31 tion, hybridization, and the need to work with small may be required to bring this knowledge to publication
32 populations. Although some guidance on these issues and use.
33 is available (e.g., CPC 2009; Offord & Meagher 2009), One proviso is that protocols should be tailored to pro-
34 botanic gardens worldwide are in a strong position to duce hardy, restoration-ready plants rather than the ten-
35 build on existing available resources by using their own der or nutrient-reliant individuals more commonly used
36 research results and experience to develop globally appli- for display or sale. In the protected environments of
37 cable best-practice guidelines for propagule sourcing for botanic gardens, horticultural staff members do not have
38 restoration. to account for many of the environmental stressors (e.g.,
39 Most gardens employ technical personnel, particularly grazing, unsustainable harvest, site water balance) that
40 with nurseries and seed banks, that routinely carry out occur outside the garden walls, so standard horticultural
41 trials on a broad spectrum of wild species to address techniques may need to be modified for application in a
42 site- and species-specific practical problems in areas such restoration context. In some cases, the traditional activi-
43 as seed handling and plant propagation. Trials are often ties of a botanic garden may need scaling up to be directly
44 conducted with large numbers of replicates and multiple transferable to landscape-level restorations. For example,
45 genotypes under varied conditions for growth and repro- site preparation, weed control, and irrigation in gardens
46 duction. When such research is undertaken with robust are often implemented manually rather than mechanis-
47 scientific methods, it provides reliable baseline informa- tically, whereas agricultural- or construction-scale tech-
48 tion that is needed by those practicing, promoting, or niques and equipment will often be required in a restora-
49 teaching restoration. This research is of great intrinsic tion project.
50 value to ecological restoration and supports and comple-
51 ments the more conceptual work of restoration ecology,
52
Practical Ecosystem Restoration
population biology, and ecological genetics. The aim is
53 to get application and theory working together to ulti- Many gardens were themselves founded on or include de-
54 mately benefit the species in situ, as discussed by Pavlik graded sites, for example Kings Park and Botanic Garden
55 (1996) and Hobbs and Harris (2001). in Perth, Australia (Erickson 2009). Consequently, they
56 Even the smallest botanic garden can develop best- develop a special, local expertise and capacity to trans-
57 practice guidance and protocols for generating plant ma- form landscapes for specific purposes. Drawing from this
58 terial for restoration (e.g., Steele 2007). Botanic Gardens experience, gardens immediately can enter the realm of

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3 restoration by translating their own successes into ap-
4 proaches that can be used in off-site projects. Such expe-
5 rience and expertise are beyond the capabilities of most
6 consultancies, academies, and government agencies.
7 In addition to on-site restoration, botanic gardens can
8 build their practical experience in many aspects of the
9 restoration process through joint projects with local part-
10 ners. For example, scientists from the University of Wash-
11 ington Botanic Gardens have worked with a private-
12 sector design and technical team to restore 24 ha of a
13
riverine ecosystem at the university’s campus in Both-
14 ell, Washington. Garden staff advised the team on plant
15 propagation methods, site preparation, and how to cal-
16 culate hydraulic characteristics for the relocation of the
17 channel system and construction of microtopographic
18 features (e.g., large wood structures, floodplain depres-
19 sions, and mounds). Botanic gardens with international
20 collections and expertise may also take an active role in
21 restoration through collaboration with partners overseas.
22 For example, through its Center for Conservation and
23 Sustainable Development, the Missouri Botanical Garden
24 contributes research and training to restoration projects
25 in Peru, Ecuador, and Madagascar.
26 Both on-site and local restorations provide opportuni-
27 ties for interpretation and education. Botanic gardens are
28 known widely as places to see and understand plants and
29 plant biology, and they attract over 150 million visitors
30 globally each year (Wyse-Jackson & Sutherland 2000).
31 The basic elements of signage, interpretation, volunteer-
32 led tours, master-gardening programs, and informal edu-
33 cation are directed at both committed plant lovers and
34 casual visitors. Both groups can be inspired by offering
35 compelling demonstrations of implementation methods,
36 post-restoration sustainable management and use, and
37 the ecological and socioeconomic benefits of restoration,
38 and may thus provide a constituency and political support
39 for local restoration projects and possibly even carry out
40 restoration on their own land.
41 Botanic gardens could expose visitors to a wider range
42 of concepts, broadening the offer from plants to ecosys-
43 tems and landscapes and from gardening to restoration
44 (Hobbs 2007). Many gardens already are moving away
45 from the traditional layout of lawns and flower beds to
46 showcase natural habitats (e.g., Royal Botanic Garden,
47 Jordan; Oman Botanic Garden, Muscat (Maunder 2008)).
48 Displaying active restoration efforts could be the next
49 step—one already taken by the University of Washing-
50 ton Botanic Gardens in their Union Bay Natural Area,
51 where visitors can witness this former landfill site be-
52 ing restored to a diverse system of meadows, woods,
53 and wetlands.
54 Botanic gardens could build capacity and expertise
55 among visitors and the local community by offering short
56 courses and demonstrations of solutions that mitigate lo-
57 cal or regional environmental problems and providing
58 technical handbooks. The emphasis could be applied
and local, rather than theoretical and universal, as at the
Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority of Perth, Australia,
which has an active extension program to disseminate
information arising from their practical experience of
restoring bushland on the Bold Park and Kings Park sites.
This initiative includes an annual Bold Park Restoration
Research Workshop aimed at the local community, gov-
ernment departments, and universities.
Dissemination of Information
Botanic gardens tend to be long-lived. Some have oper-
ated as independent, science-based institutions for cen-
turies, such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, which
celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2009. Gardens have
earned reputations as objective and reliable sources of in-
formation and often have ties to government, academic,
and commercial sectors. Correspondingly, restoration is
a long-term endeavor that requires integration of scien-
tific, technical, administrative, regulatory, and socioeco-
nomic domains. Gardens are thus well suited to serve
as information hubs that facilitate data archiving and ex-
change to maintain essential linkages among science, ed-
ucation, public, and business communities. A good model
is provided by Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank Project,
which works with over 100 partners to facilitate ac-
cess to information and transfer of best practice in seed
conservation, including optimal germination protocols
for wild plant species. Establishing a hub provides a
botanic garden with an outlet for information gener-
ated by its own work, making information such as plant
identification keys or propagation and restoration pro-
tocols more readily available. As another example, the
Australian National Botanic Gardens provides the Grow-
ing Native Plants database, which is updated by botan-
ical interns as part of their training (Australian National
Botanic Gardens 2010). In addition to including all the
traditional components of a botanic garden, they could
expand by adding a fully operational information cen-
ter with reference tools such as GIS-based project reg-
istries and libraries of design and monitoring reports
(Pavlik 1997).
Such hubs could also serve as repositories for data that
enable application and testing of the principles and prac-
tices of adaptive management. One way this can be done
is through the approach developed by Conservation Ev-
idence, a peer-reviewed online journal dedicated to re-
porting successes and failures in conservation manage-
ment. Over time, each information center could become
a regional resource for restoration practitioners seeking
a record of past successes and failures for a given set
of ecosystems. As such, hubs could provide practical
solutions for solving restoration problems faced by in-
dustry, government, and conservation organizations. As
gardens increase research capacity in restoration ecology
by building links with other institutions, web-based tools

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Volume **, No. **, 2010
 1 Hardwick et al. 9
2

3 could be used increasingly to link and integrate research tional missions that are tangential or conflicting, funding
4 results and make them more accessible. sources that are not conservation oriented, and govern-
5 The world-wide distribution of botanic gardens is an- ing bodies that lack awareness of legitimate support from
6 other key feature that positions them as information cen- industry clients and emerging natural resource markets.
7 ters. There are over 2600 botanic gardens in 169 coun- We suggest that with minimal but crucial changes to the
8 tries throughout the world (Botanic Gardens Conserva- mission of most botanic gardens, they can build quickly
9 tion International [BGCI], GardenSearch database, as of and easily on existing strengths in efficient and meaning-
10 June 2010). Although they are concentrated in Europe ful ways. To accomplish reorientation and expansion,
11 and North America, most biomes are represented by at botanic garden leaders need to create and support a
12 least one garden that could serve as an information hub. blend of policy and management systems that encourage
13 Many of the larger western botanic gardens are also cen- integration of basic and applied science with technol-
14 ters of excellence for certain overseas ecosystems and can ogy transfer activities and implementation of practical
15 thus become part of a community to support restoration projects. This must include start-up (core) and coopera-
16 efforts in those countries. Some organizations have made tive funding from many different sources. At the Univer-
17 great progress in collating botanical information at the sity of Wisconsin Madison’s Arboretum, advances in the
18 national level, for example Australia’s Florabank and the restoration and management of restored areas has been
19 Center for Plant Conservation in the United States. Imple- facilitated by a strong institutional focus on restoration,
20 menting and running information networks at the interna- embodied in its stated mission, “. . .to conserve and re-
21 tional level would be facilitated greatly by involvement store Arboretum lands, advance restoration ecology, and
22 of an umbrella organization, such as Botanical Gardens foster the land ethic” (University of Wisconsin Madison’s
23 Conservation International or the Society for Ecological Arboretum 2010).
24 Restoration International. Once a botanic garden enters the field of ecologi-
25 cal restoration, integration of an ecosystem science and
26 Nontraditional Activities restoration services division or close collaboration with
27 local institutions with restoration expertise (universities
28
Issues 0surrounding cost-benefit analyses and develop-
or conservation research institutes) is an appropriate
29
ment of widely applicable metrics of ecosystem func-
step. For most gardens, partnerships likely offer the best
30
tioning or restoration success could be addressed world-
way forward. On the scientific side, alliances will need
31
wide and over the long-term by botanic gardens. These
to be formed with specialists in complementary fields
32
issues include, for example, the environmental and eco-
such as animal ecology and soil science, as described
33
nomic benefits of sequestering carbon in vegetation and
above. When becoming involved in restoration projects,
34
soils through restoration. The large and rapidly grow-
input will be required from cross discipline staff quali-
35
ing international markets in natural resources (e.g., car-
fied in operational specialties, such as hydrogeology, civil
36
bon trading, biodiversity offsets, payments for ecosystem
engineering, sustainable development and land-use law,
37
services) could potentially fund large-scale restoration
drawn from a network of regional agencies. Such teams
38
over millions of hectares and represent a major opportu-
would require relatively little overhead costs to sustain
39
nity for restoration practitioners. However, the barriers
because they could assemble and disband on demand. In
40
to entry into these markets (including large transaction
time, practical involvement in restoration projects will
41
costs, data archiving over many decades, and expertise in
provide on-the-job experience for botanic garden staff,
42
ecosystem-carbon accounting) are considerable. Botanic
enabling them to strengthen and extend their own ex-
43
gardens could provide an institutional base for overcom-
pertise.
44
ing such barriers. After restoration they should also be-
Involvement in all phases of the project (from planning
45
come engaged in the development of viable protocols for
through implementation and monitoring) would enable
46
monitoring and subsequent better management of stocks
the botanic garden team to ensure best practice and fi-
47
of natural capital (i.e., natural ecosystems and native bio-
delity to the overall restoration goals. It would also fa-
48
diversity (Aronson et al. 2007) and associated flows of
cilitate an adaptive-management component, which the
49
ecosystem goods and services (Millennium Ecosystem As-
team could plan and operate through data maintenance.
50
sessment 2005)).
In this way, botanic gardens could facilitate the appli-
51 cation of scientific principles and methods to improve
52 restoration success incrementally as managers learn from
53 Realities of Restoration Policy, Science, and experience and as new scientific findings emerge.
54 Practice There is an increasing need for botanic gardens to
55 be both ambitious and creative with regard to the sci-
56 A move toward more restoration-focused activities may ence and practice of ecological restoration. Embracing
57 be constrained by internal factors, such as staff percep- restoration ecology as a sister discipline among botanic
58 tions that their talents or training are not relevant, institu- gardens’ core scientific programs will result in new and

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3 meaningful initiatives that meet service, scientific, and scapes: restoration or gardening? Australian Journal of Botany
4 sustainable mandates. Ultimately, these will maintain the 55:371–374.
5 relevance of botanic gardens and arboreta by addressing Hobbs, R. J., and J. A. Harris. 2001. Repairing the earth’s ecosystems in
the new millennium. Restoration Ecology 9:239–246.
6 the challenges posed by global change. Jordan, W. R. III, M. E. Gilpin, and J. D. Aber. 1987. Restoration ecology:
7 ecological restoration as a technique for basic research. Pages 3–21
8 in W. R. Jordan III, M. E. Gilpin, and J. D. Aber, editors. Restoration
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10 University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
This paper resulted from a workshop convened at The Lipsey, M. K., and M. F. Child. 2007. Combining the fields of rein-
11
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in June 2008 to explore troduction biology and restoration ecology. Conservation Biology
12 21:1387–1390.
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13 Lloyd, M. V., and T. K. Vercoe. 2002. Floradata: developing a national
supported financially by Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank
14 database for effective utilization of Australian native seed. Pages 3–7
Project and Rio Tinto group. The workshop brought to-
15 in S. W. Adkins, S. M. Bellairs, and L. C. Bell, editors. Proceedings of
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16
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17 Hills, Brisbane.
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18 Maunder, M. 2008. Beyond the greenhouse. Nature 455:596–597
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