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TT F-8460

RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF SPACE TRAVEZ

By E. Stuhlinger

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Translation of "Forschungsprobleme der Raumfahrt". 3.Euro-

paeischer Raumfahrt-Kongress, Stuttgart
22 -
25 May 1963

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON April 1963
 TT F-8460

RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF SPACE TRAVEL

B y E. Stuhlinger

Translation of "Forschungsprobleme der Raumfahrt". 3 . E u r o -

paeischer Raumfahrt-Kongress, Stuttgart
22 -
25 May 1963

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON A p r i l 1963
 RESEARCH PROBLZMS OF SPACE TRAVEL

Third European Space Travel Congress

S t u t t g a r t , May 22-25, 1963
/
Ernst S t u h l i n g e r l

Since i t s inception, space t r a v e l has met with t h e problem of

carrying out t e c h n i c a l developments before research had created t h e
appropriate s c i e n t i f i c foundations f o r them. This problem i s not new.
During t h e course of h i s t o r y many t e c h n i c a l p r o j e c t s were s t a r t e d and
successfully accomplished, before science could contribute an exact
knowledge of t h e i r d e t a i l s . Gunpowder, photography, and airplanes a r e
examples of such developments. Other p r o j e c t s , however, such as uranium
nuclear r e a c t o r s , have t h e i r o r i g i n i n b a s i c and exact research. Each
s t e p w a s prepared c a r e f u l l y and according t o plan by s c i e n t i s t s , before
t h e engineer s t a r t e d h i s technical p r o j e c t s .

I n space t r a v e l we f i n d examples of both methods. The problem of

p r o t e c t i n g a space object from burning a t r e - e n t r y i n t o t h e atmosphere,
was t e c h n i c a l l y solved without our comprehending the laws which govern
boundary layers, h e a t t r a n s f e r and heat conduction a t high temperatures.
Other p r o j e c t s , such as t h e development of e l e c t r i c a l propulsion systems,
go through a long phase of research and laboratory work; the f i r s t
e l e c t r i c a l rockets f o r space f l i g h t s w i l l not be constructed before w e
are familiar with t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e system i n a l l t h e i r d e t a i l s

The space t r a v e l engineer p r e f e r s t h e second method of development,

i . e . the c a r e f u l preparation of technical p r o j e c t s through research,
s i n c e t h i s represents t h e n a t u r a l , more r e l i a b l e and generally a l s o less
expensive way of development. I n s p i t e of t h i s he w i l l sometimes choose
t h e f i r s t method of development and j u s t i f y t h e higher c o s t , t h e g r e a t e r
r i s k f a c t o r and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a dead-end development, by l a c k of
time or o f t e n by giving p o l i t i c a l reasons.

Apart from t h e course taken w i t h respect t o p a r t i c u l a r development

p r o j e c t s , a l l space t r a v e l engineers agree on t h e fundamental importance
of b a s i c research. I n America there a r e p r e s e n t l y two g r e a t n a t i o n a l
groups i n t e r e s t e d i n space travel: t h e National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the A i r Force. The Assistant Secretary of the
Air Force s a i d r e c e n t l y i n a speech: "Although w e have a t t h e moment no
m i l i t a r y assignments i n space, the A i r Force spends 750 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s
y e a r l y f o r space research i n order t o prepare f o r a s t i l l unknown future".

lGeorge C . Marshall Space F l i g h t Center, National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, Huntsville, Alabama
It i s d i f f i c u l t t o say how g r e a t an amount NASA spends y e a r l y on space
research p r o j e c t s - not including development p r o j e c t s - b u t it can
probably be s a i d t h a t NASA spends more money on research than t h e A i r
Force.

The g r e a t v a r i e t y of space t r a v e l research problems can be divided

i n t o three categories:

1) Problems which must be solved before t h e completion of e x i s t i n g

development p r o j e c t s .
2) Problems whose solution w i l l improve and f u r t h e r t h e e x i s t i n g
projects.
3) Problems which belong t o t h e category of b a s i c research i n
preparation of f u t u r e p r o j e c t s .

Examples of t h e f i r s t category are given i n Table I. Problems of

t h i s kind a r e almost exclusively recognized by those persons who p a r t i -
c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n development p r o j e c t s , t h a t means by engineers and by
p r o j e c t leaders of i n d u s t r i a l and governmental development centers. The
carrying out of these research tasks should be placed i n the hands of
these same men. They are intimately familiar w i t h t h e problems; they can
b e s t judge t h e value of a proposed solution; they w i l l t e s t a s o l u t i o n
most quickly and most r e l i a b l y ; and i f it proves successful, they w i l l
apply the solution most r a p i d l y t o t h e development p r o j e c t . The f i n a n -
c i n g of t h e s e research assignments should come from a fund a l l o c a t e d t o
every development p r o j e c t as a "Research Fund". Small development p r o j e c t s
should receive 5 percent of t h e development c o s t as research fund, b i g
p r o j e c t s should receive 2 or 1 percent of t h e i r development c o s t as
r e s e a r c h fund.

Examples of the second category are given i n Table 11. These

problems are s t i l l r e l a t e d t o developmental p r o j e c t s , b u t they go beyond
t h e limits of present p r o j e c t s i n t o t h e f u t u r e . They a r e e s p e c i a l l y
recognized by p r o j e c t leaders and program d i r e c t o r s i n charge of t h e
d e f i n i t i o n and c o n t r o l of present developmental p r o j e c t s . While they
a r e working on t h e d e t a i l s of a p r o j e c t , they f o r e s e e t h e coming gener-
a t i o n s of p r o j e c t s . They see the holes i n our knowledge, t h e limits of
our c a p a b i l i t i e s . These research problems a r e a l s o recognized, however,
by those s c i e n t i s t s and engineers who observe and pursue the developmental
p r o j e c t s from a c e r t a i n distance, by not taking an a c t i v e p a r t i n them.
Both groups of men are i n charge of t h e t a s k of e s t a b l i s h i n g research
programs which make f u l l use of our present technology. The formulation
of these research programs should be r e s t r i c t e d t o broad o u t l i n e s which
leave the researcher considerable freedom i n t h e choice of h i s means and
methods, even of h i s ways and objectives. I n s p i r a t i o n s and contributions
t o t h i s program w i l l come from i n d u s t r i a l and governmental development
c e n t e r s . Industry, n a t i o n a l centers and u n i S e r s i t i e s should be i n charge
of carrying out such a program. The financing should come from a "Fund
f o r Applied Research" .

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 Examples of t h e t h i r d category a r e given i n Table 111. They belong
t o b a s i c research whose primary goal i s t o broaden our knowledge of nature.
It i s obvious t h a t t h e r e s u l t s can be applied t o space t r a v e l p r o j e c t s ,
but these problems a r e not studied w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of supporting a
c e r t a i n given developmental p r o j e c t of space t r a v e l . Research work of
t h i s kind o r i g i n a t e s i n the ideas of i n d i v i d u a l researchers, not i n t h e
c o n t r o l l e d programs of development l e a d e r s . Universities, research
i n s t i t u t e s , i n d u s t r i a l research l a b o r a t o r i e s and i n some cases a l s o
research d i v i s i o n s of developmental c e n t e r s are the homes of b a s i c
research. The only help which the S t a t e can give a t f i r s t i s t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y of good t r a i n i n g and l a t e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of free and undisturbed
research. The financing of t h i s b a s i c research should be taken care of
i n p a r t by the departments of education and i n p a r t by industry as a
contribution t o t h e c u l t u r a l l i f e of a nation.

The above presentation of space t r a v e l research problems i s the

r e s u l t of experiences gathered during t h e p a s t years i n America. It
should not be d i f f i c u l t , however, t o f i n d i n t h i s p i c t u r e a place f o r those
nations who cannot c a r r y o u t such g i g a n t i c development p r o j e c t s a s cosmic
s a t e l l i t e s o r Saturn rockets.

Research assignments of t h e f i r s t category, which must mainly be

solved during the carrying o u t of a given developmental p r o j e c t , will
e s s e n t i a l l y remain i n t h e hands of t h e developmental groups. Assignments
of the second category, however, a r e not t i e d t o c e r t a i n developmental
p r o j e c t s ; they challenge t h e cooperation of other research c e n t e r s , even
of o t h e r countries. The g r e a t space t r a v e l programs, a t least those of
America, a r e so much open t o t h e public t h a t an a t t e n t i v e observer can
e a s i l y recognize t h e plans, t h e progress, and above a l l , t h e problems
whose s o l u t i o n s are i n s u f f i c i e n t or nonexistent. Table IV shows some of
these problems, which can be worked on by smaller research l a b o r a t o r i e s
with r e l a t i v e l y modest means. Fortunately, such space research problems
f i n d increasing a t t e n t i o n i n several European countries.

Out of' many research t a s k s f o u r t y p i c a l problems w i l l be described

here i n more d e t a i l . The f i r s t concerns an improvement of our techno-
l o g i c a l know-how. The next two belong t o b a s i c physics, b u t t h e i r solution
w i l l have an immediate influence on the advance of space t r a v e l . The
f o u r t h example i s a problem of b a s i c research whose s o l u t i o n would have
a tremendous e f f e c t on physics, on space t r a v e l , and above a l l , on the
whole f i e l d of engineering. Considerable contributions t o t h e s o l u t i o n
of t h e s e problems can be furnished without r e s o r t t o c o s t l y space t r a v e l
developmental p r o j e c t s .

The f i r s t example i s an e l e c t r i c a l rocket system, a so-called i o n i c

rocket. A laboratory model i s shown i n Figure 1, a schematic drawing i n
Figure 2. Concerning the development of t h i s system two components proved
d i f f i c u l t : t h e ion source, which must f u r n i s h a current of g r e a t density

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(20 t o 30 ma per em2) and of high y i e l d (over go%), and t h e n e u t r a l i z e r ,
which must n e u t r a l i z e t h e ion current a f t e r it leaves t h e accelerator
chamber, and t h i s must be done down t o t h e small f r a c t i o n of one percent
by adding e l e c t r o n s , whereby charge d e n s i t y and current i n t e n s i t y must
disappear. The work on both problems has already exceeded years ago t h e
limits of a simple t e c h n i c a l development and has entered t h e research
f i e l d s of surface physics and plasma physics. Solutions which can be
used have been found, b u t they need f u r t h e r improvement.

The second example i s meteorite research. The frequency of occur-

rence of meteorites i n proximity of t h e e a r t h and of t h e moon, and i n t h e
i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, as a function of t h e i r mass and v e l o c i t y , i s a
problem which i n t e r e s t s a s t r o p h y s i c i s t s , a s w e l l as space t r a v e l engineers
who must give t h e i r space vehicles s u f f i c i e n t p r o t e c t i o n against meteorite
c o l l i s i o n s . The frequency of occurrence of meteorites a s a function of
t h e i r m a s s i s shown i n Figure 3. Whereas t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n curve i s r e l a -

t i v e l y well known below g and above lo-* g, t h e r e i s an uncertainty

f a c t o r of 100 t o 1000 between t h e two. Our knowledge of t h e penetration
depth of meteorites of given mass, d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y , i n t o metal l a y e r s
i s s i m i l a r l y uncertain. Theory p r e f e r s t h e hydrodynamic model of c r a t e r
formation, but an experimental confirmation of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s has
n o t y e t been possible. I n order t o study meteorite e f f e c t s it i s very

d e s i r a b l e t h a t methods be developed with which p a r t i c l e s of g t o lo-* g

mass can be accelerated i n laboratory t e s t s t o v e l o c i t i e s of 30 or kl

The t h i r d example concerns t h e s o l a r f l a r e s o r plasma eruptions of

the sun surface, which a r e accompanied by an e j e c t i o n of energetic protons
and a l s o by i n t e n s e f l a r e appearances on t h e f a c e of the sun. The f l a r e s
o r i g i n a t e i n t h e v i c i n i t y of solar spots, i . e . i n places of high magnetic
f i e l d i n t e n s i t y . Because of i t s high conductivity, t h e e j e c t e d plasma
cloud draws t h e magnetic f i e l d along and keeps it enclosed as i n a "magnetic

b o t t l e " . While t h e cloud expands a t approximately 2000 km see-1, t h e protons

s p i r ' a l with almost l i g h t v e l o c i t y around t h e magnetic f i e l d l i n e s (Figure 4).
The plasma cloud reaches t h e area of t h e e a r t h path a f t e r about 24 hours.
A t t h i s t i m e a high i n t e n s i t y proton r a d i a t i o n reaches t h e e a r t h , and fades
o u t after a few hours. On t h e e a r t h surface t h e proton r a d i a t i o n i s only
n o t i c e a b l e by secondary neutrons. The screening e f f e c t which t h e magnetic
f i e l d of t h e plasma cloud e x e r t s on energetic rays i s known as t h e Forbush
effect.

Figure 5 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o l a r f l a r e s over t h e p a s t

seven years. It i s c l e a r l y recognizable t h a t they accompanied t h e occur-
rence of s o l a r spots, whereby the f l a r e minima coincided with t h e minima
and maxima of t h e s o l a r spots. The most intense proton eruption known t o

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date occurred i n Fabruary 1956; the second most intense i n November 1960.
The next maximum a c t i v i t y i s t o be expected around 1967-1968, a time
which unfortunately coincides w i t h t h e planned date of the f i r s t manned
moon f l i g h t . The danger of s o l a r f l a r e s f o r manned space f l i g h t s must
not be underestimated. While a dose of a few hundred rem seems permis-
s i b l e f o r men, t h e 1956 f l a r e would have meant a dose of 2000 rem f o r t h e
unprotected space t r a v e l l e r . An e f f e c t i v e r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t
r a d i a t i o n s of such i n t e n s i t y i s too.heavy for present space vehicles.
Fortunately, f l a r e s of such i n t e n s i t y a r e very r a r e , and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
of t h e i r appearance during the few days of a moon f l i g h t i s small. The
f i n d i n g of r e l a t i o n s h i p s between f l a r e s and other sun e f f e c t s which occur
a long time ahead of t h e f l a r e s would be of g r e a t e s t imgortance. The
Russian a s t r o p h y s i c i s t Severny of t h e Crimea Observatory developed a
theory according t o which f l a r e s occur always when opposite poles of two
s o l a r spot p a i r s meet i n t h e i r motion across t h e sun surface. The mag-
n e t i c f i e l d s then mutually cancel each o t h e r , and the energy which was
s t o r e d i n them causes a plasma cloud t o e r u p t .

The f o u r t h example of a research problem has been f o r a long time

t h e o b j e c t of i n t e n s i v e studies: t h e transformation of energy, and
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e transformation of h e a t i n t o e l e c t r i c i t y . The problem i s
t o f i n d energy transformers of small weight b u t high e f f i c i e n c y . Although
nuclear f i s s i o n supplies heat sources of high i n t e n s i t y , a l l energy
transformers s u f f e r from too much weight and too low e f f i c i e n c y ; t h e s e
disadvantages a r e e s p e c i a l l y undesirable i n space vehicles. A t p r e s e n t ,
development and research concentrate t h e i r e f f o r t s on r o t a t i n g systems
,
(turbo-generators) , thermo-elements thermoinic transformers s o l a r c e l l s ,
and dynamic plasma transformers. The ultimate i n energy transformation
i s t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n of matter r a d i a t i o n i n accordance w i t h t h e well-known

E i n s t e i n equation E = Mc2. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of an energy source of this

kind w i l l be shown with t h e help of a rocket system. I n each rocket
system, be it chemical, nuclear, e l e c t r i c a l , or i n a hypothetical photon
system, we can define an i n i t i a l t o t a l mass Mo, a f i n a l mass M and a
e
p r o p e l l a n t mass M (Figure 6 ) . We now divide t h e propellant mass M i n t o
P P
a p a r t Ylt$, which i s equivalent t o the t o t a l energy E contained i n t h e

propulsion j e t :

y% = E/c2

and i n t o t h e remainder ( y -l)%, which i s equal t o t h e t o t a l e j e c t e d

m a s s . This consideration which can be applied t o each rocket system

l e a d s t o t h e simple rocket equation

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 1

%I
Me
-= I*[ -
2

u = f i n a l velocity
c = l i g h t velocity

This equation i s a l s o s t r i c t l y v a l i d f o r r e l a t i v i s t i c v e l o c i t i e s and i s

e s s e n t i a l l y based on t h e work of Professor E. Saenger.

The f a c t o r y marks t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l p r o p e l l a n t mass which

i s transformed i n t o energy. I n a l l known rocket systems t h i s f a c t o r i s
extremely s m a l l ; Table V shows the y f a c t o r s f o r rockets as they can be
b u i l t today or a t l e a s t as they can t h e o r e t i c a l l y be designed today. An
"ideal" f i s s i o n or f u s i o n system i s i n a p o s i t i o n t o transform t h e t o t a l
energy f r e e d by a l o s s l e s s nuclear r e a c t i o n i n t o k i n e t i c energy of t h e
propulsion j e t .

The Table shows t h a t even hydrogen f u s i o n does not y e t represent

transformation of matter i n t o energy i n macroscopic q u a n t i t i e s . Proces-
s e s of t h i s kind a r e s t i l l completely unknown today; and the research
problem of matter energy transformation w i l l c e r t a i n l y remain t h e u n f u l -
f i l l e d wish of p h y s i c i s t s , engineers and space t r a v e l l e r s f o r a long time
t o come. I f t h i s problem were only solved i n a small measure, rocket
systems of tremendous c a p a c i t i e s could be b u i l t , as shown i n Figure 7. A
rocket with a transformation f a c t o r y = 0.3 and a mass r a t i o 1 O : l could
reach t h e n e a r e s t f i x e d star i n a f l i g h t of about 15 years duration,
provided t h a t after t h e solution of t h e energy transformation problem a l l
o t h e r t e c h n i c a l problems can a l s o be solved.

When t h e f a c t o r y reaches t h e value 1, t h e rocket system becomes

a pure photon rocket.

The l a s t Table shows a few f i e l d s of space research, presented i n

i n c r e a s i n g order of d i f f i c u l t y . A s a coworker i n t h e g r e a t and very
a c t i v e American space t r a v e l program which has l e d us i n t h e p a s t yea.rs
t o an ever-increasing number of research problems, I would l i k e t o mention,
f i n a l l y , an experience which we go through again and again: the majority
of t h e research problems w i l l not be solved by any amount of money, nor by
t h e s i z e of a rocket p r o j e c t , but only by t h e work of a persevering and
dedicated s m a l l group of researchers, who o f t e n work i n a laboratory of
modest s i z e . These groups which a r e f i l l e d with t h e desire t o increase
o u r knowledge, familiar with the problems of science and engineering,
supported by an understanding a d n i n i s t r a t i o n or a f ar-seeing i n d u s t r y
l e a d e r - and which a0 n o t e x i s t only i n Russia and America, but i n almost
every country - t h e s e groups are our most important a i d i n t h e exploration
of space.

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 TABLE I . RFSEARCH PROBLEMS OF PRESENT PROJECTS

Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of b i g space v e h i c l e s
Proofing and l u b r i c a t i o n materials f o r extreme temperatures
Burn-off s t a b i l i t y i n b i g rocket engines
Electronic devices of high s e n s i t i v i t y and long l i f e
Communications devices of g r e a t band width
Aerodynamics i n t h e hypersonic f i e l d
Wind i n t e n s i t i e s a t high a l t i t u d e s
Meteorite occurrence frequency i n proximity of e a r t h and moon
Physics of the high atmosphere
Physics of t h e moon surf ace

TABU 11. RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF THE NEXT PROJECT G m R A T I O N

E f f e c t s of long s t a y i n high vacuum

B i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of weightlessness
O p t i c a l navigation methods
Methods of computing p l a n e t o r b i t s
Production of e l e c t r i c a l energy i n space
F u e l c e l l s of a high degree of e f f i c i e n c y
Natural and a r t i f i c i a l r a d i a t i o n i n space
Nuclear r e a c t o r a t high operating temperatures
E l e c t r i c a l rocket systems

TABLE 111. PROBLEMS OF BASIC RESEARCH

Mathematical methods f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of c e l e s t i a l mechanics problems

Superconductor physics and techniques
E f f e c t s of n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l r a d i a t i o n s
Transformation of matter i n t o energy
S o l a r physics
S t r u c t u r e of moon 3rd p l a n e t surf aces
G z l a c t i c and o u t e r - g a l a c t i c r a d i a t i o n s
Relativistic effects

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 TABLE IV. RESEARCH FIELDS FOR LAEiORATORIES
Gases and s o l i d s a t extremely high temperatures
Fatigue phenomena of materials under extreme conditions
Light metals of high s t r e n g t h
Very compact e l e c t r o n i c devices
Millimeter waves for navigation and guidance methods
Laser physics and technology
Solar b a t t e r i e s of high y i e l d
Plasma physics
Reaction k i n e t i c s of d i l u t e gases
Ion sources of high i n t e n s i t y and long l i f e

TPJ3LE V. MASS-ENERGY TRANSFORMATION FACTORS OF SOME ROCKET SYSTEMS

System Factor y
Chemical (02 + J p ) 5 x 10-11
Chemical (02 + H2) 10-11

Heavy current arc 10-9

Ions or plasma 5 x 10-8

Nuclear f i s s i o n ( U with H2) 5 x 10-10

Nuclear f i s s i o n , i d e a l 10-3

Nuclear fusion, i d e a l 4 10-3

Pure photon rocket 1

TABU V I . SPACE TRAVEL RESEARCH FIELDS

Space t r a v e l medicine
Radiations, p a r t i c l e s and f i e l d s i n space
S o l a r physics
Lunar physics and p l a n e t physics
Traces of l i f e on p l a n e t s and i n space
Cosmology and cosmogony
Weather f o r e c a s t i n g on e a r t h