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Abstract
Background: Macro-bond strength tests resulted in cohesive failures and overestimation of bond strengths. To reduce the flaws,
micro-bond strength tests were introduced. They are the most commonly used bond-strength tests.
Objective: Thus the objective of this review is to critically review the reliability of micro-bond strength tests used to evaluate
resin-tooth interface.
Data Collection: Relevant articles published between January 1994 and July 2013 were collected from Pubmed database,
Google scholar and hand searched journals of Conservative Dentistry, Endodontics and Dental materials.
Data Synthesis: Variables that influence the test outcome are categorized into substrate related factors, factors related to specimen
properties, specimen preparation and test methodology. Impact of these variables on the test outcome is critically analyzed.
Conclusion: Micro-bond tests are more reliable than macro-bond tests. However, no standard format exists for reporting the
bond strength tests which could lead to misinterpretation of the data and bonding abilities of adhesives.
Keywords: Bond strength test; micro-tensile; micro-shear; micro-push out
bond strength, are variously studied, in which the results application distance resulted in non-uniform stress
were contradictory like macro-tests. This may be because distribution along bonded interfaces.[9] Mechanical properties
of structural anisotropy; variation in enamel bonding sites of the composite affected the μTBS values due to uneven
and the type of adhesive.[28,34,35] stress distribution.[52]
ranging from 0.5 Hz to 4 Hz.[62,63,68,72-75] Number of cycles preferred for enamel specimens as they can be prepared in
ranged from 10,000 cycles to 500,000 cycles. Mechanical a less destructive, easier, and more precise way.[83]
cycling resulted in mixed type of failures and bond strength
was reduced in specimens when they were subjected to Other factors such as specimen–jig attachment, specimen-
thermal and mechanical cycling.[68,72,73] loading speed and specimen alignment also influence
the final outcome; and therefore, should be standardized
Operator skill and technique sensitivity within the test set-up.[84]
Operator’s skill in handling a material and/or using the
test apparatus may affect the measured micro-shear bond One major concern is the required number of individual
strength. Operator skills may improve with repeated teeth from which many micro-specimens can be prepared
testing and material use.[76] In contrast to this, no to be statistically sound.[85] An elegant way to handle this
statistically significant difference was observed in micro- problem is to use every tooth as its own control.[82] As also
push out bond strength values between the operators of recommended by ISO/TS No. 11405[51], another way would
different clinical experience.[77] Though adequate literature be to apply survival analysis like the Weibull model or Cox
is not available regarding its effect on micro-tensile bond proportional hazard using the force that is required for
strength, operator skill can increase the reliability of bond failure.[86]
test results.
Gripping devices
Variables of influence related to test mechanics Test specimens are attached to the load train couplers of
Specimen size mechanical testing machines by either active or passive
The micro-specimen preparation protocols are more gripping devices. A non-normal load application, either
technique-sensitive. For the micro test methods ‘trimmed’ the specimen or gripping mechanism significantly alters
and ‘non-trimmed’ micro-specimens are prepared and both the stress distribution at the bonded interface.[87] Several
have their advantages and disadvantages.[52,78] A reduction specimen gripping devices, both active and passive, have
of bond strength was observed in enamel[36], when the been developed in an attempt to apply a tensile load normal
bonding area was increased from 0.5 to 3.0 mm2. Similar to the bond line by aligning specimen’s bond line with
phenomenon was observed in specimen sizes with 1.2 and its gripping surfaces.[84,88,89] Active gripping can be either
2.0 mm in diameter where an inverse linear relationship mechanical or through a fast-setting glue. Bending forces can
between specimen size and bond strength when tested occur during load application due to: Non-parallel specimen
either in tension or shear[5] and that cross-sectional shape alignment, bond line not perpendicular to the specimen
(cylindrical or rectangular) has little effect on micro-tensile gripping surfaces, and/or, uneven gripping forces.[87,90]
bond strength.[79]
These specimen-fixation procedures require careful
Specimen geometry manipulation and special test jigs like Bencor multi-T
Stick shaped, hour glass and dumbbell-shaped specimens gripping device and Ciucchi’s jig. None of these gripping
are used for micro-tensile testing. Trimming the specimens devices guarantees proper alignment because the specimen
at the interface to hourglass-shaped specimens better is glued to a flat surface.[84] In Geraldeli’s jig and modified
concentrates stress at the interface and may result in Ciucchi’s jig, a groove parallel to the applied load was
premature failures due to interfacial defects.[80] added in to improve specimen alignment.[88]
Interfaces can be trimmed by free hand using a dental Dirck’s device was introduced as self aligning, glue-less,
handpiece[3,81] or a plexiglass table on an Isomet saw passive gripping device.[30] It is less sensitive to human
(Buehler, Lake Forest, IL, USA) and trim the specimen under error than Geraldeli’s, and produced a more uniform stress
microscopic observation, using a device like table saw.[12] distribution at the dumbbell specimen adhesive layer than
Use of a semi-automatic trimming of micro-specimens using did the Geraldeli’s device at the stick layer.[91] Poitevin
a Micro Specimen Former (University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, et al.[27,84], developed a μTBS testing device with top bottom
USA) is highly advisable to trim rectangular specimens into fixation to minimize stress concentrations.
specimens with a circular cross-section.[82]
Cross-head speed
Dumbbell-shaped specimens distribute the stress Cross-head speeds ranging from 0.01 mm/min to 10.00 mm/
more uniformly due to their cylindrical geometry and min were tested for their influence on micro-tensile bond
boundary conditions only if manufacturing process strength test. Unlike controversial results of macro-tests,
would be improved (like CAD-CAM® process) to reduce all the studies concluded that the influence of the cross-
imperfections into the interface. Otherwise, stick-shaped, head speed might be negligible while measuring micro-
non-trimmed specimens sectioned with diamond wire are tensile bond strengths.[27,92] Poitevin et al. recommended
a cross-head speed of 1 mm/min for more uniform stress- between micro-tensile bond strength data and the clinical
time pattern.[27] index, there existed a correlation between micro-tensile
bond strength and 6-month water storage and marginal
FRACTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS discoloration of Class V restorations. A significant, quite
reasonable correlation was nevertheless found between
Fractographic analysis includes classification of the the aged bond-strength data and the 5-year clinical data.
interfacial phases, crack initiation, direction and pattern of Hence, besides measuring the ‘immediate’ bond strength
crack propagation, energetics of the fracture (single event of adhesives to enamel and dentin, measuring the ‘aged’
or fatigue; brittle or ductile), and the phases included along bond strength should be encouraged in order to predict
the fracture plane.[93] the clinical effectiveness of adhesives.[82]
Possible failure modes [Figure 2] of fractographic analysis Bond-strength test results of specimens after 24 hours and
are: 3 months of storage in water should be comparable with
a. Cohesive in dentin, those of comparable adhesive systems with an acceptable,
b. Cohesive in resin, proven clinical record.[96] Non-invasive methods of bond
c. Adhesive (dentin–adhesive interface), evaluation like X-ray micro computed tomography (CT)
d. Adhesive (resin–adhesive interface), and acoustic emission can be considered while testing
e. Mixed (dentin–adhesive–resin with small portions of adhesives.[97]
dentin),
f. Mixed (dentin–adhesive–resin with large portions of RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING
dentin). VALIDITY OF MICRO-TESTS
Depending on the fracture path, cohesive failures and Specific recommendations are put forth for consideration
mixed failures with large portions of dentin and resin while testing the adhesive strengths.
should be excluded in results.[94] To characterize the
1. If traditional bond strength tests (shear, micro-shear,
adhesive joints several surface analysis methods are
tensile, micro-tensile) are to be used, only adhesive
available, including electron spectroscopy for chemical
failures or mixed failures with small (<10%) resin or
analysis (ESCA), secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS),
dentin involvement should be considered for the
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman
bond strength calculation. This requires thorough
spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy
microscopic evaluation (stereo and SEM) of the
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and atomic force
fractured surface.
microscopy (AFM).[95]
2. Use of Weilbul statistics should be systematically
applied to evaluate bond strength data to provide more
CLINICAL RELEVANCE information that is relevant. Studies should utilize a
minimum of 30 non-cohesive failed specimens.
In a systematic review[96], the results of bond strength tests 3. Fracture mechanics approach that includes estimation
did not correlate with laboratory tests that evaluated the of fracture toughness or the strain energy release rate
marginal seal of restorations such as micro leakage or
is encouraged.[94]
gap analysis. Though there was no significant correlation
CONCLUSION
The guidelines of ISO Technical Specification (No. 11405) 23. Kwong SM, Cheung GS, Kei LH, Itthagarun A, Smales RJ, Tay FR, et al.
Micro-tensile bond strengths to sclerotic dentin using a self etching and
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followed while assessing bonding efficacy. 24. Camargo MA, Roda MI, Marques MM, de Cara AA. Micro-tensile bond
strength to bovine sclerotic dentin: Influence of surface treatment. J Dent
2008;36:922-7.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 25. Say EC, Nakajima M, Senawongse P, Soyman M, Ozer F, Tagami J.
Bonding to sound vs. caries-affected dentin using photo- and dual cure
adhesives. Oper Dent 2005;30:90-8.
Dr. Anupreeta Anwarullah for her contribution in providing the 26. Yoshikawa T, Sano H, Burrow MF, Tagami J, Pashley DH. Effect of
image of micro-shear bond strength test. dentin depth and cavity configuration on bond strength. J Dent Res
1999;78:898-905.
27. Poitevin A, De Munck J, Van Landuyt K, Coutinho E, Peumans M,
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