ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT:

AREA AND INTEGRALS

1 Sigma Notation 2

2 Area 7

3 The Definite Integral 16

Reprinted with permission from Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Third Edition

by James Stewart ©1995 by Brooks/Cole Publishing Company,
A division of International Thomson Publishing Co.
2 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 1 SIGMA NOTATION

|||| SECTION 1 Sigma Notation

In finding areas and evaluating integrals we often encounter sums with many terms. A
convenient way of writing such sums uses the Greek letter O (capital sigma, correspond-
ing to our letter S) and is called sigma notation.

This tells us to 1 Definition If a m, a m11, . . . , a n are real numbers and m and n are integers such
end with i=n.
n that m ø n, then
This tells us
to add. µ ai
i5m
n

This tells us to oa i ­ a m 1 a m11 1 a m12 1 ? ? ? 1 a n21 1 a n

start with i=m. i­m

With function notation, Definition 1 can be written as

n

o f sid ­ f smd 1 f sm 1 1d 1 f sm 1 2d 1 ? ? ? 1 f sn 2 1d 1 f snd

i­m

Thus, the symbol Oni­m indicates a summation in which the letter i (called the index of
summation) takes on the values m, m 1 1, . . . , n. Other letters can also be used as the
index of summation.

EXAMPLE 1
4
(a) oi
i­1
2
­ 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 42 ­ 30
n
(b) o i ­ 3 1 4 1 5 1 ? ? ? 1 sn 2 1d 1 n
i­3
5
(c) o2
j­0
j
­ 2 0 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 5 ­ 63
n
1 1 1 1
(d) o
k­1 k
­ 1 1 1 1 ??? 1
2 3 n
3
i21 121 221 321 1 1 13
(e) o 2 ­ 2 1 2 1 2 ­01 1 ­
i­1 i 1 3 1 13 2 13 3 13 7 6 42
4
(f) o2­2121212­8
i­1

EXAMPLE 2 Write the sum 2 3 1 3 3 1 ? ? ? 1 n 3 in sigma notation.

SOLUTION There is no unique way of writing a sum in sigma notation. We could write

n
23 1 33 1 ? ? ? 1 n 3 ­ oi
i­2
3

n21
or 23 1 33 1 ? ? ? 1 n 3 ­ o s j 1 1d
j­1
3

n22
or 23 1 33 1 ? ? ? 1 n 3 ­ o sk 1 2d
k­0
3

The following theorem gives three simple rules for working with sigma notation.
 SECTION 1 SIGMA NOTATION ❙❙❙❙ 3

2 Theorem If c is any constant (that is, it does not depend on i ), then

n n n n n
(a) o ca
i­m
i ­c oa
i­m
i (b) o sa
i­m
i 1 bid ­ oa
i­m
i 1 ob
i­m
i

n n n
(c) o sa
i­m
i 2 bid ­ oa
i­m
i 2 ob
i­m
i

Proof To see why these rules are true, all we have to do is write both sides in expanded
form. Rule (a) is just the distributive property of real numbers:

ca m 1 ca m11 1 ? ? ? 1 ca n ­ csa m 1 a m11 1 ? ? ? 1 a n d

Rule (b) follows from the associative and commutative properties:

sa m 1 bm d 1 sa m11 1 bm11 d 1 ? ? ? 1 sa n 1 bn d
­ sam 1 am11 1 ? ? ? 1 an d 1 sbm 1 bm11 1 ? ? ? 1 bn d

Rule (c) is proved similarly.

n
EXAMPLE 3 Find o 1.
i­1
n
SOLUTION o 1 ­ 1 1 1 1 ??? 1 1 ­ n
i­1
n terms

|||| PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Let Sn be a statement involving the positive
integer n. Suppose that
1. S1 is true.
2. If Sk is true, then Sk11 is true.
Then Sn is true for all positive integers n.
EXAMPLE 4 Prove the formula for the sum of the first n positive integers:
n
nsn 1 1d
o i ­ 1 1 2 1 3 1 ??? 1 n ­
i­1 2
SOLUTION This formula can be proved by mathematical induction (see page 59) or by the
following method used by the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)
when he was ten years old.
Write the sum S twice, once in the usual order and once in reverse order:

S­11 2 1 3 1 ? ? ? 1 sn 2 1d 1 n
S ­ n 1 sn 2 1d 1 sn 2 2d 1 ? ? ? 1 2 11

Adding all columns vertically, we get

2S ­ sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d 1 ? ? ? 1 sn 1 1d 1 sn 1 1d

On the right side there are n terms, each of which is n 1 1, so

nsn 1 1d
2S ­ nsn 1 1d or S­
2

EXAMPLE 5 Prove the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n positive
integers:
n
nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
oi
i­1
2
­ 12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ? ? ? 1 n 2 ­
6
4 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 1 SIGMA NOTATION

SOLUTION 1 Let S be the desired sum. We start with the telescoping sum (or collapsing
sum):
n
Most terms cancel in pairs. o fs1 1 id
i­1
3
2 i 3 g ­ s2 3 2 13 d 1 s3 3 2 2 3 d 1 s4 3 2 3 3 d 1 ? ? ? 1 fsn 1 1d3 2 n 3 g

­ sn 1 1d3 2 13 ­ n 3 1 3n 2 1 3n

On the other hand, using Theorem 2 and Examples 3 and 4, we have

n n n n n

o fs1 1 i d
i­1
3
2 i 3g ­ o f3i
i­1
2
1 3i 1 1g ­ 3 oi
i­1
2
13 oi1o1
i­1 i­1

nsn 1 1d
­ 3S 1 3 1 n ­ 3S 1 32 n 2 1 52 n
2

Thus we have
n 3 1 3n 2 1 3n ­ 3S 1 32 n 2 1 52 n

Solving this equation for S, we obtain

3S ­ n 3 1 32 n 2 1 12 n

2n 3 1 3n 2 1 n nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
or S­ ­
6 6

|||| See pages 59 and 61 for a more thorough SOLUTION 2 Let Sn be the given formula.
discussion of mathematical induction.
1s1 1 1ds2 ? 1 1 1d
1. S1 is true because 12 ­
6
2. Assume that Sk is true; that is,

ksk 1 1ds2k 1 1d
12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ? ? ? 1 k 2 ­
6
Then

12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ? ? ? 1 sk 1 1d2 ­ s12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ? ? ? 1 k 2 d 1 sk 1 1d2

ksk 1 1ds2k 1 1d
­ 1 sk 1 1d2
6
ks2k 1 1d 1 6sk 1 1d
­ sk 1 1d
6
2k 2 1 7k 1 6
­ sk 1 1d
6
sk 1 1dsk 1 2ds2k 1 3d
­
6
sk 1 1dfsk 1 1d 1 1gf2sk 1 1d 1 1g
­
6
So Sk11 is true.

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all n.

We list the results of Examples 3, 4, and 5 together with a similar result for cubes and
fourth powers (see Exercises 37– 40) as Theorem 3. These formulas are needed for finding
areas in the next section.
 SECTION 1 SIGMA NOTATION ❙❙❙❙ 5

3 Theorem Let c be a constant and n a positive integer. Then

n n
(a) o1­n
i­1
(b) o c ­ nc
i­1

n n
nsn 1 1d nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
(c) oi­
i­1 2
(d) oi
i­1
2
­
6

(e) oi
n

i­1
3
­ F nsn 1 1d
2
G 2
(f) oi
i­1
n
4
­
nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1ds3n 2 1 3n 1 1d
30

n
EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate o is4i
i­1
2
2 3d.

SOLUTION Using Theorems 2 and 3, we have

n n n n

o is4i
i­1
2
2 3d ­ o s4i
i­1
3
2 3id ­ 4 oi
i­1
3
23 oi
i­1

­4 F nsn 1 1d
2
G
2

23
nsn 1 1d
2
nsn 1 1df2nsn 1 1d 2 3g
­
2
nsn 1 1ds2n 2 1 2n 2 3d
­
2

|||| The type of calculation in Example 7 arises

in the next section when we compute areas.
EXAMPLE 7 Find lim o
n l ` i­1
n
3
n
FS D G i
n
2

11 .

SOLUTION

lim
n

o
n l ` i­1
3
n
FS D G i
n
2

1 1 ­ lim
n l ` i­1
n

o F 3 2
n3
i 1
3
n
G
­ lim
nl`
F o oG
3
n3 i­1
n
i2 1
3
n
n

i­1
1

­ lim
nl`
F n 3 G
3 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
6
3
1 ?n
n

­ lim
nl`
F S DS D G
1 n
? ?
2 n
n11
n
2n 1 1
n
13

­ lim
nl`
F S DS D G
1
2
?1 11
1
n
21
1
n
13

­ 12 ? 1 ? 1 ? 2 1 3 ­ 4
6 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 1 SIGMA NOTATION

|||| 1 Exercises
1–10 |||| Write the sum in expanded form. 38. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using mathematical
5 6 induction.
1
1.
i­1
o si 2. o i11
i­1 39. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using a method similar to that
of Example 5, Solution 1 [start with s1 1 i d4 2 i 4 g.
6 6
3.
i­4
o3 i
4. oi
i­4
3
40. Prove formula (e) of Theorem 3 using the following method
published by Abu Bekr Mohammed ibn Alhusain Alkarchi in
4
2k 2 1 8 about A.D. 1010. The figure shows a square ABCD in which
5.
k­0
o 2k 1 1
6. ox
k­5
k
sides AB and AD have been divided into segments of lengths 1,
n n13
2, 3, . . . , n. Thus the side of the square has length nsn 1 1dy2
so the area is fnsn 1 1dy2g 2. But the area is also the sum of the
7.
i­1
oi 10
8. oj
j­n
2

areas of the n “gnomons” G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn shown in the figure.

n21 n Show that the area of Gi is i 3 and conclude that formula (e) is
9. o s21d
j­0
j
10. o f sx d Dx
i­1
i i true.
D C
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

n Gn
11–20 |||| Write the sum in sigma notation.
11. 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 ? ? ? 1 10 .. €€€€.
. €€.
.
12. s3 1 s4 1 s5 1 s6 1 s7
1
13. 2 1 23 1 34 1 45 1 ? ? ? 1 19
20
5 G∞
3 4 5 6 23
14. 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 ? ? ? 1 27 4 G¢
15. 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 1 ? ? ? 1 2n 3 G£
2 G™
16. 1 1 3 1 5 1 7 1 ? ? ? 1 s2n 2 1d 1
A1 2 3 4 5 .€.€. n B
17. 1 1 2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 32
1
41. Evaluate each telescoping sum.
18. 1 1 14 1 19 1 161 1 251 1 361
n 100

19. x 1 x 2 1 x 3 1 ? ? ? 1 x n (a) o fi
i­1
4
2 si 2 1d4 g (b) o s5
i­1
i
2 5 i21 d

20. 1 2 x 1 x 2 2 x 3 1 ? ? ? 1 s21dn x n
■

21–36
■

||||
■ ■ ■ ■

Find the value of the sum.

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

(c) o
i­3
99

S 1
i
2
1
i11
D (d)
i­1
n

o sa i 2 a i21 d

42. Prove the generalized triangle inequality

8 6
21.
i­4
o
6
s3i 2 2d 22. o
i­3

8
isi 1 2d
Zo Z
n

i­1
ai ø
n

o |a |
i­1
i

23.
j­1
o3 j11
24. o cos kp
k­0 43–46 |||| Find each limit.

25.
n­1
20

o s21d n
26.
100

o4
i­1
43. lim
n l ` i­1
o
n
1
n
SD
i
n
2

FS D G
4 4
3
27.
i­0
o s2 i
1 i 2d 28. o
i­22
2 32i
44. lim o
n
1 i
11
n l ` i­1 n n
n n
29.
i­1
o 2i
n
30. o s2 2 5i d
i­1

n
45. lim
n l ` i­1
o
n
2
n
FS D S DG
2i
n
3

15
2i
n
31. o si 2
1 3i 1 4d 32. o s3 1 2i d 2

33.
i­1

o si 1 1dsi 1 2d 34.
i­1

o isi 1 1dsi 1 2d
46. lim
n l ` i­1
o
n
3
n
FS D S DG
11
3i
n
3

22 11
3i
n
i­1 i­1 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

n n
47. Prove the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series with
35. o si
i­1
3
2 i 2 2d 36. ok
i­1
2
sk 2 2 k 1 1d
first term a and common ratio r ± 1:
n
asr n 2 1d
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

37. Prove formula (b) of Theorem 3.

o ar
i­1
i21
­ a 1 ar 1 ar 2 1 ? ? ? 1 ar n21 ­
r21
 SECTION 2 AREA ❙❙❙❙ 7

n
(b) Use the identity in part (a) and telescoping sums to prove
3 the formula
48. Evaluate o
i­1 2 i21 .
n
sin(n 1 12) x 2 sin 12 x
n
o cos ix ­
i­1 2 sin 12 x
49. Evaluate o s2i 1 2 d.
i­1
i

where x is not an integer multiple of 2p. Deduce that

50. Evaluate
m

i­1
F
o o si 1 j d
n

j­1
G o
n
cos ix ­
1 1
sin 2 nx cos 2 sn 1 1dx
1
sin 2 x
i­1
n
51. Find the number n such that o i ­ 78.
i­1
53. Use the method of Exercise 52 to prove the formula
1 1
n
sin 2 nx sin 2 sn 1 1dx
52. (a) Use the product formula for sin x cos y (see 18a in o sin ix ­
i­1 sin 12 x
Appendix D) to show that
where x is not an integer multiple of 2p.
2 sin 2 x cos ix ­ sin(i 1 2) x 2 sin(i 2 2) x
1 1 1

|||| SECTION 2 Area

We begin by attempting to solve the area problem: Find the area of the region S that lies
under the curve y ­ f sxd from a to b. This means that S, illustrated in Figure 1, is bounded
by the graph of a continuous function f [where f sxd ù 0], the vertical lines x ­ a and
x ­ b, and the x-axis.
y

y=ƒ

x=a
S x=b
FIGURE 1 x
0 a b
S=s(x,€y)€|€a¯x¯b, 0¯y¯ƒd

In trying to solve the area problem we have to ask ourselves: What is the meaning of
the word area ? This question is easy to answer for regions with straight sides. For a rect-
angle, the area is defined as the product of the length and the width. The area of a triangle
is half the base times the height. The area of a polygon is found by dividing it into
triangles (as in Figure 2) and adding the areas of the triangles.

A™ A£
w h A¡ A¢

l b

FIGURE 2 A=lw A= 21 bh A=A¡+A™+A£+A¢

However, it isn’t so easy to find the area of a region with curved sides. We all have an
intuitive idea of what the area of a region is. But part of the area problem is to make this
intuitive idea precise by giving an exact definition of area.
Recall that in defining a tangent we first approximated the slope of the tangent line by
slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit of these approximations. We pursue a sim-
8 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 2 AREA

ilar idea for areas. We first approximate the region S by polygons and then we take the limit
of the areas of these polygons. The following example illustrates the procedure.

EXAMPLE 1 Let’s try to find the area under the parabola y ­ x 2 from 0 to 1 (the parabolic
region S illustrated in Figure 3).

y
(1,€1)

y=≈

0 1 x
FIGURE 3

One method of approximating the desired area is to divide the interval f0, 1g into
subintervals of equal length and consider the rectangles whose bases are these
subintervals and whose heights are the values of the function at the right-hand endpoints
of these subintervals. Figure 4 shows the approximation of the parabolic region by four,
eight, and n rectangles

y y y
(1,€1) (1,€1) (1,€1)

0 1 1 3 1 x 0 1 1 x 0 1 x
4 2 4 8
1
n
FIGURE 4 (a) (b) (c)

Let S n be the sum of the areas of the n rectangles in Figure 4(c). Each rectangle
has width 1yn and the heights are the values of the function f sxd ­ x 2 at the points
1yn, 2yn, 3yn, . . . , nyn; that is, the heights are s1ynd2, s2ynd2, s3ynd2, . . . , snynd2. Thus

Sn ­
1
n
SD SD SD
1
n
2
1
1
n
2
n
2
1
1
n
3
n
2
1 ??? 1
1
n
SD
n
n
2

1 1 2
­ s1 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 ? ? ? 1 n 2 d
n n2
n
1
­
n3
oi
i­1
2

Using the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n integers [Formula 1.3(d)],
we can write

1 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d sn 1 1ds2n 1 1d

Sn ­ 3 ­
n 6 6n 2

For instance, the sum of the areas of the four shaded rectangles in Figure 4(a) is
5s9d
S4 ­ ­ 0.46875
6s16d
 SECTION 2 AREA ❙❙❙❙ 9

and the sum of the areas of the eight rectangles in FIgure 4(b) is
n Sn
10 0.385000 9s17d
S8 ­ ­ 0.3984375
20 0.358750 6s64d
30 0.350185
50 0.343400 The results of similar calculations are shown in the table in the margin.
100 0.338350 It looks as if S n is becoming closer to 13 as n increases. In fact
1000 0.333834
sn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
lim S n ­ lim
nl` nl` 6n 2

­ lim
nl`
1
6
S DS D
n11
n
2n 1 1
n

­ lim
nl`
1
6
S DS D
11
1
n
21
1
n

­ 16 ? 1 ? 2 ­ 13

From Figure 4 it appears that, as n increases, S n becomes a better and better approxima-
tion to the area of the parabolic segment. Therefore we define the area A to be the limit
of the sums of the areas of the approximating rectangles, that is,

A ­ lim S n ­ 13
nl`

In applying the idea of Example 1 to the more general region S of Figure 1, we have no
need to use rectangles of equal width. We start by subdividing the interval fa, bg into n
smaller subintervals by choosing partition points x 0 , x 1, x 2 , . . . , x n so that

a ­ x 0 , x 1 , x2 , ? ? ? , x n21 , x n ­ b

Then the n subintervals are

fx 0 , x 1 g, fx 1, x 2 g, fx 2 , x 3 g, . . . , fx n21, x n g

This subdivision is called the partition of fa, bg and we denote it by P. We use the nota-
tion Dx i for the length of the ith subinterval fx i21, x i g. Thus

Dx i ­ x i 2 x i 21

This length of the longest subinterval is denoted by iPi and is called the norm of P. Thus

iPi ­ maxhDx1, Dx 2 , . . . , Dx nj

Figure 5 illustrates one possible partition of fa, bg.

Î⁄ Τ ΋ Îxi Îxn

0 a=x¸ ⁄ ¤ ‹ .€€.€€. xi-1 xi .€€.€€. xn-1 xn=b x

FIGURE 5

By drawing the lines x ­ a, x ­ x1, x ­ x 2 , . . . , x ­ b, we use the partition P to divide

the region S into strips S1, S2, . . . , S n as in Figure 6. Next we approximate these strips Si by
rectangles R i . To do this we choose a number x *i in each subinterval fx i21, x i g and construct
a rectangle R i with base Dx i and height fsx *d i as in Figure 7.
10 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 2 AREA

y y

y=ƒ Îxi

f(x*i )
S¡ S™ S£ Si Sn R¡ R™ R£ Ri Rn

0 a ⁄ ¤ ‹ .€€.€€. xi-1 xi .€€.€€. xn-1 b x 0 a ⁄ ¤ ‹ xi-1 xi xn-1 b x

x*¡ x *™ x£* x*i x n*

FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7

Each point x *i can be anywhere in its subinterval—at the right endpoint (as in Example 1)
or at the left endpoint or somewhere between the endpoints. The area of the ith rectangle
R i is
A i ­ f sx*i d Dx i

The n rectangles R1, . . . , R n form a polygonal approximation to the region S. What we

think of intuitively as the area of S is approximated by the sum of the areas of these rect-
angles, which is
n n
1 oA
i­1
i ­ o f sx *d Dx
i­1
i i ­ f sx *
1 d Dx1 1 ? ? ? 1 f sx *
n d Dx n

Figure 8 shows this approximation for partitions with n ­ 2, 4, 8, and 12.

y y y y

0 a x¡* ⁄ x™* b x 0 a ⁄ ¤ ‹ b x 0 a b x 0 a b x

(a) n=2 (b) n=4 (c) n=8 (d) n=12

FIGURE 8 Notice that this approximation appears to become better and better as the strips become
thinner and thinner, that is, as iPi l 0 . Therefore we define the area A of the region S as
the limiting value (if it exists) of the areas of the approximating polygons, that is, the limit
of the sum (1) of the areas of the approximating rectangles. In symbols:

n
2 A ­ lim
iPil 0 i­1
o f sx *d Dx i i

The preceding discussion and the diagrams in Figures 7 and 8 show that the definition
of area in (2) corresponds to our intuitive feeling of what area ought to be.
The limit in (2) may or may not exist. It can be shown that if f is continuous, then this
limit does exist; that is, the region has an area. [The precise meaning of the limit in
Definition 2 is that for every « . 0 there is a corresponding number d . 0 such that

Z A2
n

o f sx *d Dx
i­1
i i Z ,« whenever iPi , d

In other words, the area can be approximated by a sum of areas of rectangles to within an
arbitrary degree of accuracy («) by taking the norm of the partition sufficiently small.
 SECTION 2 AREA ❙❙❙❙ 11

EXAMPLE 2
(a) If the interval f0, 3g is divided into subintervals by the partition P and the set of
partition points is h0, 0.6, 1.2, 1.6, 2.5, 3j, find iPi .
(b) If f sxd ­ x 2 2 4x 1 5 and x *i is chosen to be the left endpoint of the ith sub-
interval, find the sum of the areas of the approximating rectangles.
(c) Sketch the approximating rectangles.

SOLUTION
(a) We are given that x0 ­ 0 , x1 ­ 6 , x 2 ­ 1.2 , x 3 ­ 1.6 , x 4 ­ 2 , x 5 ­ 2.5 , and
x 6 ­ 3 , so

Dx1 ­ 0.6 2 0 ­ 0.6 Dx 2 ­ 1.2 2 0.6 ­ 0.6

Dx 3 ­ 1.6 2 1.2 ­ 0.4 Dx 4 ­ 2 2 1.6 ­ 0.4

0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5

x Dx 5 ­ 2.5 2 2 ­ 0.5 Dx 6 ­ 3 2 2.5 ­ 0.5

0 0.6 1.2 1.6 2 2.5 3

FIGURE 9 (See Figure 9.) Therefore

iPi ­ maxh0.6, 0.6, 0.4, 0.4, 0.5, 0.5j ­ 6

y (b) Since x *i ­ x i21, the sum of the areas of the approximating rectangles is, by (1),
6 6

o f sx* d Dx
i­1
i i ­ o f sx
i­1
i21 d Dxi

y=≈-4x+5
­ f s0d Dx1 1 f s0.6d Dx 2 1 f s1.2d Dx 3 1 f s1.6d Dx 4 1 f s2d Dx 5
1 f s2.5d Dx 6

­ 5s0.6d 1 2.96s0.6d 1 1.64s0.4d 1 1.16s0.4d 1 1s0.5d 1 1.25s0.5d

0 0.6 1.2 2 3 x
­ 7.021
1.6 2.5
FIGURE 10 (c) The graph of f and the approximating rectangles are sketched in Figure 10.

EXAMPLE 3 Find the area under the parabola y ­ x 2 1 1 from 0 to 2.

SOLUTION Since f sxd ­ x 2 1 1 is continuous, the limit (2) that defines the area must exist
for all possible partitions P of the interval f0, 2g as long as iPi l 0 . To simplify things
let us take the partition P that divides f0, 2g into n subintervals of equal length. (This is
called a regular partition.) Then the partition points are

2 4 2i 2n
x0 ­ 0, x1 ­ , x2 ­ , . . . , xi ­ , . . . , xn ­ ­2
n n n n

2
and Dx1 ­ Dx2 ­ ??? ­ Dxi ­ ??? ­ Dxn ­
n

so the norm of P is
2
iPi ­ maxhDx ij ­
n

The point x *i can be chosen to be anywhere in the ith subinterval. For the sake of defi-
niteness, let us choose it to be the right-hand endpoint:

2i
x *i ­ x i ­
n
12 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 2 AREA

Since iPi ­ 2yn , the condition iPi l 0 is equivalent to n l ` . So the definition of

area (2) becomes

A ­ lim
n

o fsx *dDx
iPi l 0 i ­1
i i ­ lim
n

o
n l ` i ­1
f SD 2i
n
2
n

­ lim
n

o
n l ` i­1
FS D G
2i
n
2
11
2
n
­ lim
n

n l ` i­1
oF
8i 2
n3
1
2
n
G
­ lim
nl`
F 8 n 2
3 o
n i­1
2 n
i 1 o1
n i­1
G (by Theorem 1.2)

­ lim
nl`
F 8 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
n 3
?
6
2
n
G
1 ?n (by Theorem 1.3)

­ lim
nl`
F 4
3
?1? 11
1
n
S DS D G 21
1
n
12

­ 43 ? 1 ? 1 ? 2 1 2 ­ 143

The sum in this calculation is represented by the areas of the shaded rectangles in
Figure 11. Notice that in this case, with our choice of x *i as the right-hand endpoint and

y y y

n=10 R¡¸=5.08 n=30 R£¸Å4.8015 n=50 R∞¸=4.7472

0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x

FIGURE 11 Right sums

y y y

n=10 L¡¸=4.28 n=30 L£¸Å4.5348 n=50 L∞¸=4.5872

0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x 0 1 2 x

FIGURE 12 Left sums

 SECTION 2 AREA ❙❙❙❙ 13

since f is increasing, f sx *i d is the maximum value of f on fx i21, x ig, so the sum Rn of the
areas of the approximating rectangles is always greater than the exact area A ­ 143.
We could just as well have chosen x *i to be the left-hand endpoint, that is,
x *i ­ xi21 ­ 2si 2 1dyn. Then f sx *i d is the minimum value of f on fxi21, xig , so the sum
L n of the areas of the approximating rectangles in Figure 12 is always less than A.
The calculation with this choice is as follows:
n
A ­ lim
iPi l 0 i ­1
o fsx *dDx i i

­ lim
n

of
n l ` i­1
S D 2si 2 1d
n
2
n

o HF G J
n 2
2si 2 1d 2
­ lim 11
n l ` i­1 n n

oF G
n
8 2 2
­ lim si 2 2i 1 1d 1
n l ` i­1 n3 n

­ lim
nl`
F o o o oG
8 n 2
3
n i­1
16 n
n i­1
8 n
i 2 3 i1 3 11
n i­1
2 n
n i­1
1

­ lim
nl`
F 8 nsn 1 1ds2n 1 1d
n 3
6
16 nsn 1 1d
2 3
n 2 n
8 2
1 3n1 n
n
G
­ lim
nl`
F S DS D S D
4
3 ?1? 11
1
n
21
1
n
2
8
n
11
1
n
1
8
n2
12 G
­ 43 ? 1 ? 1 ? 2 2 0 ? 1 1 0 1 2 ­ 143

Notice that we have obtained the same answer with the different choice of x *i . In fact,
we would obtain the same answer if x *i was chosen to be the midpoint of fxi21, xig
(see Exercise 11) or indeed any other point of this interval.

EXAMPLE 4 Find the area under the cosine curve from 0 to b, where 0 ø b ø py2.

SOLUTION As in the first part of Example 3, we choose a regular partition P so that

b
iPi ­ Dx1 ­ Dx2 ­ ? ? ? ­ Dxn ­
n
and we choose x *i to be the right-hand endpoint of the ith subinterval:

ib
x *i ­ xi ­
n
Since iPi ­ byn l 0 as n l ` , the area under the cosine curve from 0 to b is

3 A ­ lim
iPi l 0 i ­1
n

o fsx *i dDxi ­ lim

n

o cos
n l ` i ­1
SD
i
b
n
b
n

­ lim
nl`
b
n i­1
n

o cos SDi
b
n
To evaluate this limit we use the formula of Exercise 52 in Section 1:
n
sin 12 nx cos 12sn 1 1dx
o cos ix ­
i­1
1
sin 2 x
14 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 2 AREA

with x ­ byn. Then Equation 3 becomes

4 A ­ lim
b
sin 12 b cos F sn 1 1db
2n
G
nl` n b
sin
2n

Now cos F sn 1 1db

2n
G S D­ cos 1 1
1
n
b
2
l cos
b
2
as n l `

since cosine is continuous. Letting t ­ byn and using Theorem 3.5.2, we have

t
b 1 t 2
lim ? ­ lim1 ­ lim1 2 ? ­2
nl` n b tl0 t tl0 t
sin sin sin
2n 2 2

Putting these limits in Equation 4, we obtain

b b
A ­ 2 sin cos ­ sin b
2 2

In particular, taking b ­ py2, we have proved that the area under the cosine curve from
0 to py2 is sinspy2d ­ 1 (see Figure 13).

y
1 y=cos€x

area=1
0 π x
2
FIGURE 13

NOTE The area calculations in Example 3 and 4 are not easy. We will see in Section
■

5.3, however, that the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives a much easier method for
computing these areas.

|||| 2 Exercises
1–8 |||| You are given a function f , an interval, partition points, and 4. f sxd ­ 2x 1 1, f0, 4g, h0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4j, x *i ­ left endpoint
a description of x *i within the ith subinterval.
5. f sxd ­ x 3 1 2, f21, 2g, h21, 20.5, 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2j,
(a) Find iPi .
x *i ­ right endpoint
(b) Find the sum of the areas of the approximating rectangles, as
given in (1). 6. f sxd ­ 1ysx 1 1d, f0, 2g, h0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2j,
(c) Sketch the graph of f and the approximating rectangles. x *1 ­ 0.25, x *2 ­ 1, x *3 ­ 1.25, x *4 ­ 2

1. f sxd ­ 16 2 x 2, f0, 4g, h0, 1, 2, 3, 4j, x *i ­ left endpoint 7. f sxd ­ 2 sin x, f0, pg, h0, py4, py2, 3py4, pj,
x *1 ­ py6, x *2 ­ py3, x *3 ­ 2py3, x *4 ­ 5py6
2. f sxd ­ 16 2 x 2, f0, 4g, h0, 1, 2, 3, 4j, x *i ­ right endpoint
8. f sxd ­ 4 cos x, f0, py2g, h0, py6, py4, py3, py2j,
3. f sxd ­ 16 2 x 2, f0, 4g, h0, 1, 2, 3, 4j, x *i ­ midpoint x *i ­ left endpoint
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
 SECTION 2 AREA ❙❙❙❙ 15

9. (a) Sketch a graph of the region that lies under the parabola
y ­ x 2 2 2x 1 2 from x ­ 0 to x ­ 3 and use it to make a
rough visual estimate of the area of the region.
(b) Find an expression for R n , the sum of the areas of the n
approximating rectangles, taking x*i in (1) to be the right
endpoint and using subintervals of equal length.
(c) Find the numerical values of the approximating areas R n
for n ­ 6, 12, and 24.
(d) Find the exact area of the region.
; 10. (a) Use a graphing device to sketch a graph of the region that
19–20 |||| If you have a programmable calculator (or a computer),
it is possible to evaluate the expression (1) for the sum of areas of
approximating rectangles, even for large values of n, using looping.
(On a TI use the Is. command, on a Casio use Isz, on an HP or in
BASIC use a FOR-NEXT loop.) Compute the sum of the areas of
approximating rectangles using equal subintervals and right end-
points for n ­ 10, 30, and 50. Then guess the value of the exact area.
19. The region under y ­ sin x from 0 to p
20. The region under y ­ 1yx 2 from 1 to 2
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

lies under the curve y ­ 4x 2 x 3 from x ­ 0 to x ­ 2 and

use it to make a rough visual estimate of the area of the
region.
(b) Find an expression for R n , the sum of the areas of the n
approximating rectangles, taking x*i in (1) to be the right
endpoint and using subintervals of equal length.
(c) Find the numerical values of the approximating areas R n
for n ­ 10, 20, and 30.
(d) Find the exact area of the region.
11. Find the area from Example 3 taking x*i to be the midpoint
of fx i21, x ig. Illustrate the approximating rectangles with a
sketch.
12. Find the area under the curve y ­ x 3 from 0 to 1 using sub-
intervals of equal length and taking x*i in (2) to be the (a) left
endpoint, (b) right endpoint, and (c) midpoint of the ith sub-
interval. In each case, sketch the approximating rectangles.
13 –18 Use (2) to find the area under the given curve from a
||||
to b. Use equal subintervals and take x*i to be the right endpoint of
the ith subinterval. Sketch the region.
13. y ­ 2x 1 1 , a ­ 0, b ­ 5
CAS 21. Some computer algebra systems have commands that will draw
approximating rectangles and evaluate the sums of their areas,
at least if x*i is a left or right endpoint. (For instance, in Maple
use leftbox, rightbox, leftsum, and rightsum.)
(a) If f sxd ­ sx, 1 ø x ø 4, find the left and right sums for
n ­ 10, 30, and 50.
(b) Illustrate by graphing the rectangles in part (a).
(c) Show that the exact area under f lies between 4.6 and 4.7.
CAS 22. (a) If f sxd ­ sinssin xd, 0 ø x ø py2, use the commands
discussed in Exercise 21 to find the left and right sums for
n ­ 10, 30, and 50.
(b) Illustrate by graphing the rectangles in part (a).
(c) Show that the exact area under f lies between 0.87
and 0.91.
23–24 |||| Determine a region whose area is equal to the given limit.
Do not evaluate the limit.
23. lim o
n

n l ` i­1
p
4n
tan
ip
4n
24. lim
n l ` i­1
n

o
3
n Î 11
3i
n
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

14. y ­ x 2 1 3x 2 2 , a ­ 1, b ­ 4 25. Find the area under the curve y ­ sin x from 0 to p.
2
[Hint: Use equal subintervals and right endpoints, and use
15. y ­ 2x 2 4x 1 5 , a ­ 23, b ­ 2
Exercise 53 in Section 1.]
16. y ­ x 3 1 2x , a ­ 0, b ­ 2
26. (a) Let A n be the area of a polygon with n equal sides inscribed
17. y ­ x 1 2x 1 x ,3 2
a ­ 0, b ­ 1 in a circle with radius r. By dividing the polygon into n
congruent triangles with central angle 2pyn, show that
18. y ­ x 4 1 3x 1 2 , a ­ 0, b ­ 3 A n ­ 12 nr 2 sins2p ynd.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
(b) Show that lim n l ` A n ­ p r 2. [Hint: Use Equation 3.5.2.]
16 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

|||| SECTION 3 The Definite Integral

We saw in the preceeding section that a limit of the form

n
1 A ­ lim
iPi l 0 i ­1
o fsx *dDx i i

arises when we compute an area. It turns out that this same type of limit occurs in a wide
variety of situations even when f is not necessarily a positive function. In Chapters 5 and
8 we will see that limits of the form (1) also arise in finding lengths of curves, volumes of
solids, areas of surfaces, centers of mass, fluid pressure, and work, as well as other quan-
tities. We therefore give this type of limit a special name and notation.

2 Definition of a Definite Integral If f is a function defined on a closed interval

fa, bg , let P be a partition of fa, bg with partition points x 0 , x1 , . . . , x n, where

a ­ x0 , x1 , x2 , ? ? ? , xn ­ b

Choose points x *i in fx i21, x ig and let D x i ­ x i 2 x i21 and iPi ­ maxhD x ij . Then
the definite integral of f from a to b is
n

y
b

a
f sxd dx ­ lim o fsx *dD x
iPi l 0 i ­1
i i

if this limit exists. If the limit does exist, then f is called integrable on the
interval fa, bg.

NOTE 1 The symbol x was introduced by Leibniz and is called an integral sign. It is
■

an elongated S and was chosen because an integral is a limit of sums. In the notation
xab f sxd dx, f sxd is called the integrand and a and b are called the limits of integration;
a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit. The symbol dx has no meaning
by itself; xab f sxd dx is all one symbol. The procedure of calculating an integral is called
integration.

NOTE 2 The definite integral xab f sxd dx is a number; it does not depend on x. In fact, we
■

could use any letter in place of x without changing the value of the integral:

y f sxd dx ­ y f std dt ­ y f srd dr

b b b

a a a

NOTE 3 ■
The sum

n
3 o f sx* d Dx
i­1
i i

y that occurs in Definition 2 is called a Riemann sum after the German mathematician
Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866). The definite integral is sometimes called the Riemann
integral. If f happens to be positive, then the Riemann sum can be interpreted as a sum of
0 a b x areas of approximating rectangles [Compare (3) with (2.1).] If f takes on both positive and
negative values, as in Figure 1, then the Riemann sum is the sum of the areas of the rec-
tangles that lie above the x-axis and the negatives of the areas of the rectangles that lie
FIGURE 1 below the x-axis (the areas of the gold rectangles minus the areas of the blue rectangles).

EXAMPLE 1 Let f sxd ­ 1 1 5x and consider the partition P of the interval f22, 1g by
means of the set of partition points h22, 21.5, 21, 20.3, 0.2, 1j. In this example
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ 17

a ­ 22, b ­ 1, n ­ 5, and x0 ­ 22, x1 ­ 21.5, x2 ­ 21, x3 ­ 20.3, x4 ­ 0.2, and

x5 ­ 1. the lengths of the subintervals are

Dx1 ­ 21.5 2 s22d ­ 0.5 Dx 2 ­ 21 2 s21.5d ­ 0.5

Dx 3 ­ 20.3 2 s21d ­ 0.7 Dx 4 ­ 0.2 2 s20.3d ­ 0.5

Dx 5 ­ 1 2 0.2 ­ 0.8

Thus the norm of the partition P is

iPi ­ maxh0.5, 0.5, 0.7, 0.5, 0.8j ­ 0.8

Suppose we choose x*1 ­ 21.8, x*2 ­ 21.2, x*3 ­ 20.3, x *4 ­ 0, and x*5 ­ 0.7. Then
the corresponding Riemann sum is
5

o f sx* d Dx
i­1
i i ­ f s21.8dDx1 1 f s21.2dDx2 1 f s20.3dDx3 1 f s0dDx4 1 f s0.7dDx5

­ s28ds0.5d 1 s25ds0.5d 1 s20.5ds0.7d 1 1s0.5d 1 s4.5ds0.8d

­ 22.75

Notice that, in this example, f is not a positive function and so the Riemann sum does
not represent a sum of areas of rectangles. But it does represent the sum of the areas of
the gold rectangles (above the x-axis) minus the sum of the areas of the blue rectangles
FIGURE 2 (below the axis) in Figure 2.

| NOTE 4 An integral need not represent an area. But for positive functions, an integral
■

can be interpreted as an area. In fact, comparing Definition 2 with the definition of area
(2.2), we see the following:

For the special case where f sxd ù 0,

y
b
f sxd dx ­ the area under the graph of f from a to b
a

In general, a definite integral can be interpreted as a difference of areas:

y
b
y f sxd dx ­ A1 2 A2
a

+ + where A1 is the area of the region above the x-axis and below the graph of f and A2 is the
0 a b x area of the region below the x-axis and above the graph of f . (This seems reasonable from
_ a comparison of Figures 1 and 3.)

FIGURE 3
NOTE 5 ■
The precise meaning of the limit that defines the integral in Definition 2 is as
follows:

xab f sxd dx ­ I means that for every « . 0 there is a corresponding number d . 0 such that

| |
n
I2 o f sx* d Dx
i­1
i i ,«

for all partitions P of fa, bg with iPi , d and for all possible choices of x *i in fx i21, x ig.
18 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

|||| Bernhard Riemann received his Ph.D. under
the direction of the legendary Gauss at the Uni-
versity of Göttingen and remained there to teach.
Gauss, who was not in the habit of praising
This means that a definite integral can be approximated to within any desired degree of
accuracy by a Riemann sum.
NOTE 6In Definition 2 we are dealing with a function f defined on an interval fa, bg,
■

other mathematicians, spoke of Riemann’s “cre-

ative, active, truly mathematical mind and glori-
so we are implicitly assuming that a , b. But for some purposes it is useful to extend the
ously fertile originality.” The definition (2) definition of xab f sxd dx to the case where a . b or a ­ b as follows:
of an integral that we use is due to Riemann. He
also made major contributions to the theory of

If a . b, then y f sxd dx ­ 2y f sxd dx.

functions of a complex variable, mathematical b a
physics, number theory, and the foundations of a b
geometry. Riemann’s broad concept of space and
geometry turned out to be the right setting, 50
If a ­ b, then y f sxd dx ­ 0.
a
years later, for Einstein’s general relativity theory.
a
Riemann’s health was poor throughout his life,
and he died of tuberculosis at the age of 39.
EXAMPLE 2 Express
n
lim
iPi l 0 i ­1
o fsx *d i
3
1 x *i sin x *g
i Dxi

as an integral on the interval f0, pg.

SOLUTION Comparing the given limit with the limit in Definition 2, we see that they will
be identical if we choose
f sxd ­ x 3 1 x sin x

We are given that a ­ 0 and b ­ p. Therefore, by Definition 2, we have

n

i Dxi ­ y sx 1 x sin xd dx
p
lim o fsx *d
iPi l 0 i ­1
i
3
1 x *i sin x *g 3
0

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate the following integrals by interpreting each in terms of areas.

y y
1 3
(a) s1 2 x 2 dx (b) sx 2 1d dx
0 0

y SOLUTION
(a) Since f sxd ­ s1 2 x 2 ù 0, we can interpret this integral as the area under the curve
y= œ„„„„„
1-≈ y ­ s1 2 x 2 from 0 to 1. But, since y 2 ­ 1 2 x 2, we get x 2 1 y 2 ­ 1, which shows
1 or that the graph of f is the quarter-circle with radius 1 in Figure 4. Therefore
≈+¥=1
p
y s1 2 x
1
2
dx ­ 14 p s1d2 ­
0 4

(In Section 8.3 we will be able to prove that the area of a circle of radius r is p r 2 by
0 1 x evaluating the integral x0r sr 2 2 x 2 dx using the techniques of Chapter 8.)
(b) The graph of y ­ x 2 1 is the line with slope 1 shown in Figure 5. We compute the
FIGURE 4 integral as the difference of the areas of the two triangles:

y
3
sx 2 1d dx ­ A 1 2 A 2 ­ 12 s2 ? 2d 2 12 s1 ? 1d ­ 1.5
0

y
(3,€2)

y=x-1

A¡

0 A™ 1 3 x

_1
FIGURE 5
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ 19

The integrals in Example 3 were simple to evaluate because we were able to express
them in terms of areas of simple regions, but not all integrals are that easy. In fact, the inte-
grals of some functions don’t even exist. So the question arises: Which functions are inte-
y grable? A partial answer is given by the following theorem, which is proved in courses on
advanced calculus.

4 Theorem If f is either continuous or monotonic on fa, bg, then f is integrable

on fa, bg; that is, the definite integral xab f sxd dx exists.

0 a b x If f is discontinuous at some points in fa, bg, then xab f sxd dx might exist or it might not
exist (see Exercises 70 and 71). If f has only a finite number of discontinuities and these
FIGURE 6 are all jump discontinuities, then f is called piecewise continuous and it turns out that f
Discontinuous integrable function is integrable. (See Figure 6.)
It can be shown that if f is integrable on fa, bg, then f must be a bounded function

y
| |
on fa, bg; that is, there exists a number M such that f sxd ø M for all x in fa, bg. Geo-
metrically, this means that the graph of f lies between the horizontal lines y ­ M and
y ­ 2M. In particular, if f has an infinite discontinuity at some point in fa, bg, then f is not
bounded and is therefore not integrable. (See Exercise 70 and Figure 7.)
If f is integrable on fa, bg, then the Riemann sums (3) must approach xab f sxd dx
as iPi l 0 no matter how the partitions P are chosen and no matter how the points x *i
are chosen in fx i21, x ig. Therefore, if it is known beforehand that f is integrable on fa, bg
(for instance, if it is known that f is continuous or monotonic), then in calculating the value
of an integral we are free to choose partitions P and points x *i in any way we like as long
as iPi l 0 . For purposes of calculation, it is often convenient to take P to be a regular
0 x partition; that is, all the subintervals have the same length Dx. Then

FIGURE 7 b2a
Nonintegrable function Dx ­ Dx1 ­ Dx2 ­ ? ? ? ­ Dxn ­
n

and x0 ­ a, x1 ­ a 1 Dx, x2 ­ a 1 2Dx, . . . , x i ­ a 1 i Dx

If we choose x *i to be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval, then

b2a
x *i ­ x i ­ a 1 i Dx ­ a 1 i
n

Since iPi ­ Dx ­ sb 2 adyn , we have iPi l 0 as n l `, so Definition 2 gives

y
b

a
f sxd dx ­ lim o fsx *d Dx
iPi l 0 i ­1
i

­ lim o
n

n l ` i ­1
S
f a1i
b2a
n
D b2a
n

Since sb 2 adyn does not depend on i, Theorem 1.2 allows us to take it in front of the
sigma sign, and we have the following formula for calculating integrals.

5 Theorem If f is integrable on fa, bg, then

ya
b
f sxd dx ­ lim
nl`
b2a
n
n

of
i­1
S
a1i
b2a
n
D
20 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

y
3
EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate sx 3 2 5xd dx.
0

SOLUTION Here we have f sxd ­ x 3 2 5x, a ­ 0, and b ­ 3. Since f is continuous, we

know it is integrable and so Theorem 5 gives

y
0
3
sx 3 2 5xd dx ­ lim
nl`
3
n
n

of
i­1
SD 3i
n
­ lim
nl`
3
n
o
n

i­1
FS D S DG
3i
n
3

25
3i
n

­ lim
nl`
F o oG
81
n4
n

i­1
i3 2
45
n2
n

i­1
i

­ lim
nl`
H F G
81
n4
J nsn 1 1d
2
2
2
45 nsn 1 1d
n2 2

­ lim
nl`
F S D S DG
81
4
11
1
n
2
2
45
2
11
1
n
­ 814 2 452 ­ 2 94 ­ 22.25

This integral cannot be interpreted as an area because f takes on both positive and nega-
tive values. But it can be interpreted as the difference of areas A 1 2 A 2 , where A 1 and A 2
FIGURE 8 are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 9 illustrates the calculation by showing the positive and negative terms in the
right Riemann sum R n for n ­ 40. The values in the table show the Riemann sums
approaching the exact value of the integral, 22.25, as n l `.

n Rn
40 21.7873
100 22.0680
500 22.2139
1000 22.2320
5000 22.2464

FIGURE 9

A much simpler method for evaluating the integral in Example 4 will be given in
Section 5.4 after we have proved the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

The Midpoint Rule

We often choose the sample point x *i to be the right endpoint of the i th subinterval because
it is convenient for computing the limit. But if the purpose is to find an approximation to
an integral, it is usually better to choose x *i to be the midpoint of the interval, which we
denote by x i . Any Riemann sum is an approximation to an integral, but if we use midpoints
and a regular partition we get the following approximation:

Midpoint Rule
n

y
b

a
f sxd dx < o f sx d Dx ­ Dx f f sx d 1 ? ? ? 1 f sx dg
i­1
i 1 n

b2a
where Dx ­
n
and x i ­ 12 sx i21 1 x i d ­ midpoint of fx i21, x i g
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ 21

1
y
2
EXAMPLE 5 Use the Midpoint Rule with n ­ 5 to approximate dx.
1 x
SOLUTION The partition points are 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0, so the midpoints of the five
intervals are 1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, and 1.9. The width of the intervals is Dx ­ s2 2 1dy5 ­ 15 ,
y
so the Midpoint Rule gives
1
y= x 1
y
2
dx < Dx f f s1.1d 1 f s1.3d 1 f s1.5d 1 f s1.7d 1 f s1.9dg
1 x

­
1
5
S 1
1.1
1
1
1.3
1
1
1.5
1
1
1.7
1
1
1.9
D
< 0.691908

0 1 2 x Since f sxd ­ 1yx . 0 for 1 ø x ø 2, the integral represents an area and the approxi-
mation given by the Midpoint Rule is the sum of the areas of the rectangles shown in
FIGURE 10 Figure 10.

At the moment we don’t know how accurate the approximation in Example 5 is, but in
Section 8.7 we will learn a method for estimating the error involved in using the Midpoint
Rule. At that time we will discuss other methods for approximating definite integrals.
If we apply the Midpoint Rule to the integral in Example 4, we get the picture in Fig-
ure 11. The approximation M40 < 22.2563 is much closer to the true value 22.25 than the
right endpoint approximation, R 40 < 21.7873 shown in Figure 9.

Properties of the Definite Integral

We now develop some basic properties of integrals that will help us to evaluate integrals
in a simple manner.
FIGURE 11
M40 5 22.2563 Properties of the Integral Suppose that all of the following integrals exist. Then

y
b
1. c dx ­ csb 2 ad, where c is any constant
a

y f f sxd 1 tsxdg dx ­ y f sxd dx 1 y tsxd dx

b b b
2.
a a a

y cf sxd dx ­ c y f sxd dx,

b b
3. where c is any constant
a a

y f f sxd 2 tsxdg dx ­ y f sxd dx 2 y tsxd dx

b b b
4.
a a a

y f sxd dx ­ y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx

b b b
5.
a a a

The proof of Property 1 is requested in Exercise 15. This property says that the integral
of a constant function f sxd ­ c is the constant times the length of the interval. If c . 0 and
a , b, this is to be expected because csb 2 ad is the area of the shaded rectangle in
Figure 12.
y

y=c
c

area=c(b-a)
FIG URE 12
b
j
a
c€dx=c(b-a) 0 a b x
22 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Proof of Property 2 Since xab f f sxd 1 tsxdg dx exists, we can compute it using a regular parti-
tion and choosing x *i to be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval, that is, x *i ­ x i. Using
the fact that the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits, we have
n

y
b

a
f f sxd 1 tsxdg dx ­ lim
n l ` i­1
o f f sx d 1 tsx dg Dx
i i

­ lim
nl`
Fo n

i­1
f sx i d Dx 1
n

o tsx d Dx
i­1
i G (by Theorem 1.2)

n n
­ lim
n l ` i­1
o f sx d Dx 1 lim o tsx d Dx
i
n l ` i­1
i

­ y f sxd dx 1 y tsxd dx
b b

a a

y Property 2 says that the integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals. Property 3 can be
y=ƒ proved in a similar manner (see Exercise 65) and says that the integral of a constant times
a function is the constant times the integral of the function. In other words, a constant (but
only a constant) can be taken in front of an integral sign. Property 4 is proved by writing
f 2 t ­ f 1 s2td and using Properties 2 and 3 with c ­ 21.
Property 5 is somewhat more complicated and is proved at the end of this section, but
for the case where f sxd ù 0 and a , c , b, it can be seen from the geometric interpreta-
0 a c b x tion in Figure 13. For positive functions f , xab f sxd dx is the total area under y ­ f sxd from
a to b, which is the sum of xac f sxd dx (the area from a to c) and xcb f sxd dx (the area from c
FIG URE 13 to b).

EXAMPLE 6 Use the properties of integrals and the results

b2 2 a2
y y
b p y2
x dx ­ cos x dx ­ 1
a 2 0

(from Exercise 21 in this section and Example 4 in Section 2) to evaluate the following
integrals.

y y | x | dx
p y2 5
(a) sx 1 3 cos xd dx (b)
0 24

SOLUTION
(a) Usiing Properties 2 and 3 of integrals, we get

p2
y sx 1 3 cos xd dx ­ y x dx 1 3 y
p y2 p y2 p y2
cos x dx ­ 13
0 0 0 8
(b) Since

| x| ­ Hx if x ù 0
2x if x , 0

we use Property 5 to split the integral at 0:

y | x | dx ­ y | x | dx 1 y | x | dx
5 0 5

24 24 0

­ y s2xd dx 1 y x dx ­ 2y x dx 1 y x dx
0 5 0 5

24 0 24 0

1 1
­ 2 f0 2 2 s24d2 g 1 f5 2 2 0 2 g ­ 20.5
2 2

Notice that Properties 1–5 are true whether a , b, a ­ b, or a . b. The following

properties, however, are true only if a ø b.
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ 23

Order Properties of the Integral Suppose the following integrals exist and a ø b.

y
b
6. If f sxd ù 0 for a ø x ø b, then f sxd dx ù 0.
a

y f sxd dx ù y tsxd dx.

b b
7. If f sxd ù tsxd for a ø x ø b, then
a a

8. If m ø f sxd ø M for a ø x ø b, then

msb 2 ad ø y f sxd dx ø Msb 2 ad

b

9. Zy
a
b
Z
f sxd dx ø y
a
b
| f sxd | dx
y
M
If f sxd ù 0, then xab f sxd dx represents the area under the graph of f , so the geometric
y=ƒ interpretation of Property 6 is simply that areas are positive. But the property can be
proved from the definition of an integral (Exercise 66). Property 7 says that a bigger func-
tion has a bigger integral. It follows from Properties 6 and 4 because f 2 t ù 0.
m Property 8 is illustrated by Figure 14 for the case where f sxd ù 0. If f is continuous we
0 a b x could take m and M to be the absolute minimum and maximum values of f on the inter-
val fa, bg. In this case Property 8 says that the area under the graph of f is greater than the
FIGURE 14 area of the rectangle with height m and less than the area of the rectangle with height M .

Proof of Property 8 Since m ø f sxd ø M , Property 7 gives

y m dx ø y f sxd dx ø y M dx
b b b

a a a

Using Property 1 to evaluate the integrals on the left- and right-hand sides, we obtain

msb 2 ad ø y f sxd dx ø Msb 2 ad

b

The proof of Property 9 is left as Exercise 67.

y
4
EXAMPLE 7 Use Property 8 to estimate the value of sx dx.
1

SOLUTION Since f sxd ­ sx is an increasing function, its absolute minimum on f1, 4g is

y
y=œ„x m ­ f s1d ­ 1 and its absolute maximum on f1, 4g is M ­ f s4d ­ s4 ­ 2. Thus Prop-
2
erty 8 gives
1s4 2 1d ø y sx dx ø 2s4 2 1d
4

1
1
3 ø y sx dx ø 6
4
or
1

0 x
1 4
The result of Example 7 is illustrated in Figure 15. The area under y ­ sx from 1 to 4
FIGURE 15 is greater than the area of the lower rectangle and less than the area of the large rectangle.

y
4
EXAMPLE 8 Show that s1 1 x 2 dx ù 7.5.
1

SOLUTION The minimum value of f sxd ­ s1 1 x 2 on f1, 4g is m ­ f s1d ­ s2, since f is

increasing. Thus Property 8 gives

y
4
s1 1 x 2 dx ù s2 s4 2 1d ­ 3s2 < 4.24
1
24 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

This result is not good enough, so instead we use Property 7. Notice that

1 1 x 2 . x 2 ? s1 1 x 2 . sx 2 ­ x | |
| |
Since x ­ x for x . 0, we have s1 1 x 2 . x for 1 ø x ø 4. Thus, by Property 7,

y s1 1 x 2 dx ù y x dx ­ 2 s4 2 2 12 d ­ 7.5
4 1 4

1 1

[Here we have used the fact that xab x dx ­ sb 2 2 a 2 dy2 from Exercise 21.]

Proof of Property 5 We first assume that a , c , b. Since we are assuming that xab f sxd dx
exists, we can compute it as a limit of Riemann sums using only partitions P that include
c as one of the partition points. If P is such a partition, let P1 be the corresponding parti-
tion of fa, cg determined by those partition points of P that lie in fa, cg. Similarly, P2 will
denote the corresponding partition of fc, bg. Note that i P1 i ø i P i and i P2 i ø i P i. Thus,
if i P i l 0, it follows that i P1 i l 0 and i P2 i l 0. If hxi 1 ø i ø nj is the set of partition |
points for P and n ­ k 1 m, where k is the number of subintervals in fa, cg and m is the
|
number of subintervals in fc, bg, then hxi 1 ø i ø kj is the set of partition points for P1. If
we write tj ­ xk1j for the partition points to the right of c, then hti 1 ø j ø mj is the set of |
partition points for P2. Thus we have

a ­ x0 , x1 , ? ? ? , xk , xk11 , ? ? ? , xn ­ b

c , t1 , ? ? ? , tm ­ b

Choosing x *i ­ xi and letting Dtj ­ tj 2 tj21, we compute xab f sxd dx as follows:

n

y
b

a
f sxd ­ lim o f sx dDx
iPi l 0 i­1
i i

­ lim
iPi l 0
Foi­1
k
f sxidDxi 1 o
i­k11
n
f sxidDxi G
­ lim
iPi l 0
Foi­1
k
f sxidDxi 1
m

o f st dDt
j­1
j G
j

k m
­ lim
iP1 i l 0 i­1
o f sx dDx
i i 1 lim
iP2 i l 0 j­1
o f st dDt j j

­ y f sxd dx 1 y f std dt
c b

a c

Now suppose that c , a , b. By what we have already proved, we have

y f sxd ­ y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx

b a b

a c a

y f sxd ­ 2y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx

b a b
Therefore
a c a

­ y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx
c b

a c

(See Note 6.) The proofs are similar for the remaining four orderings of a, b, and c.
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ 25

|||| 3 Exercises
1–6 |||| You are given a function f , an interval, partition points Riemann sums for the function f sxd ­ s1 1 x 2 on the interval
that define a partition P, and points x *i in the ith subinterval. f1, 2g with n ­ 100. Explain why these estimates show that
(a) Find iPi . (b) Find the Riemann sum (3).
1.805 , y s1 1 x 2 dx , 1.815
2
1. f sxd ­ 7 2 2x, f1, 5g, h1, 1.6, 2.2, 3.0, 4.2, 5j, x *i ­ midpoint 1

2. f sxd ­ 3x 2 1, f22, 2g, h22, 21.2, 20.6, 0, 0.8, 1.6, 2j, Deduce that the approximation using the Midpoint Rule with
x *i ­ midpoint n ­ 10 in Exercise 11 is accurate to two decimal places.
3. f sxd ­ 2 2 x 2, f22, 2g, h22, 21.4, 21, 0, 0.8, 1.4, 2j,
15–20 |||| Use Theorem 5 to evaluate the integral.
x *i ­ right endpoint
y y
b 7
4. f sxd ­ x 1 x 2, f22, 0g, h22, 21.5, 21, 20.7, 20.4, 0j, 15. c dx 16. s6 2 2xd dx
a 22
x *i ­ left endpoint

y y
4 5
5. f sxd ­ x 3, f21, 1g, h21, 20.5, 0, 0.5, 1j, 17. sx 2 2 2d dx 18. s2 1 3x 2 x 2d dx
1 1
x *1 ­ 21, x *2 ­ 20.4, x *3 ­ 0.2, x *4 ­ 1

y y
b 1
6. f sxd ­ sin x, f2py2, pg, h2py2, 21, 0, 1, 2, pj, 19. sx 3 1 4xd dx 20. sx 3 2 5x 4d dx
0 0
x *1 ­ 21.5, x *2 ­ 20.5, x *3 ­ 0.5, x *4 ­ 1.5, x *5 ­ 3
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

7. The graph of a function f is given. Estimate x08 f sxd dx using b2 2 a2

21. Prove that y x dx ­
b
.
four equal subintervals with (a) right endpoints, (b) left a 2
endpoints, and (c) midpoints.
b3 2 a3
22. Prove that y x 2 dx ­
b
y .
a 3
f
23–28 |||| Evaluate the integral by interpreting it in terms of areas.
1
y y
3 2
23. s1 1 2xd dx 24. s4 2 x 2 dx
0 1 x 1 22

y (1 1 s9 2 x ) dx y
0 3
25. 2 26. s2 2 xd dx
23 21

y (1 2 | x |) dx y | 3x 2 5 | dx
2 3
8. The table gives the values of a function obtained from an 27. 28.
22 0
experiment. Use them to estimate x06 f sxd dx using three equal ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

subintervals with (a) right endpoints, (b) left endpoints, and

(c) midpoints. If the function is known to be a decreasing func- 29–32 |||| Express the limit as a definite integral on the given inter-
tion, can you say whether your estimates are less than or val.
greater than the exact value of the integral? n
29. lim
iPil 0 i­1
o f2sx *d i
2
2 5x *i g Dxi, f0, 1g
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n

f s xd 9.3 9.0 8.3 6.5 2.3 27.6 210.5

30. lim
iPil 0 i­1
o sx * Dx , i i f1, 4g

9–12 Use the Midpoint Rule with the given value of n to

|||| n

approximate the integral. Round the answer to four decimal places. 31. lim
iPil 0 i­1
o cos x Dx , i i f0, pg

1
y y
5 3 n
9. x 3 dx, 10. tan xi
0
n­5
1 2x 2 7
dx, n­4 32. lim
iPil 0 i­1
o xi
Dxi, f2, 4g
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

y y
2 p y4
11. s1 1 x 2 dx, n ­ 10 12. tan x dx, n­4
1 0
33–35 |||| Express the limit as a definite integral.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

n
i4
CAS 13. If you have a CAS that evaluates midpoint approximations 33. lim
n l ` i­1
o n5
[Hint: Consider f sxd ­ x 4.]
and graphs the corresponding rectangles (use middlesum and
n
middlebox commands in Maple), check the answer to Exer- 1 1
cise 11 and illustrate with a graph. Then repeat with n ­ 20
34. lim
nl` n
o
i­1 1 1 siynd2

FS D G
and n ­ 30. n 5
2i 2
14. With a programmable calculator or computer (see the instruc- 35. lim
n l ` i­1
o 3 11
n
26
n
tions for Exercise 19 in Section 2), compute the left and right ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
26 ❙❙❙❙ SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

36. Evaluate y x 2 cos x dx.

|y |
1
f sxd sin 2x dx ø y
2p 2p
1
54.
0 0
| f sxd | dx
37. Given that y sx dx ­ , what is y st dt ?
9 38 4 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

3
4 9
55– 60 |||| Use Property 8 to estimate the value of the integral.
38. (a) Find an approximation to the integral x04 sx 2 2 3xd dx using
1
y y
2 2
a Riemann sum with right endpoints and n ­ 8. 55. dx 56. sx 3 1 1 dx
(b) Draw a diagram like Figure 1 to illustrate the approximation 1 x 0

in part (a).
(c) Evaluate x04 sx 2 2 3xd dx. y yp
0 p y3
57. sx 2 1 2xd dx 58. cos x dx
23 y4
(d) Interpret the integral in part (c) as a difference of areas and
illustrate with a diagram like Figure 3.
y yp
1 3py4
59. s1 1 x 4 dx 60. sin2x dx
21 y4
39–44 |||| Use the properties of integrals to evaluate each integral.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

You may assume from Section 2 that

61– 64
y
b |||| Use properties of integrals, together with Exercises 21
cos x dx ­ sin b
0 and 22, to prove the inequality.
and you may use the results of Exercises 21 and 22.
y
3
61. sx 4 1 1 dx ù 26y3
1

y y
21 6
39. s3 dx 40. s4 2 7xd dx
y
24 3 5
62. sx 2 2 1 dx ø 10.5
2

y y
4 1
41. s2x 2 2 3x 1 1d dx 42. s5 cos x 1 4xd dx
y
1 0 p y2
63. x sin x dx ø p 2y8
43. y
1
f sxd dx where f sxd ­ H 22x if 21 ø x , 0
0

44. y
21

4
f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx
3 1
3x 2 if 0 ø x ø 1
64.
■
|y 0
p

■
x 2 cos x dx ø p 3y3
■ ■
| ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

3 1 4
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 65. Prove Property 3 of integrals.
66. Prove Property 6 of integrals.
45–48 Write the given sum or difference as a single integral in
||||
the form xab f sxd dx . 67. Prove Property 9 of integrals.
|
[Hint: 2 f sxd ø f sxd ø f sxd .] | | |
y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx
3 6 12
45.
1 3 6 68. Suppose that f is continuous on fa, bg and f sxd . 0 for all x
in fa, bg. Prove that xab f sxd dx . 0 . [Hint: Use the Extreme
y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx
8 5
46. Value Theorem and Property 8.]
5 0
69. Which of the following functions are integrable on the
y f sxd dx 2 y f sxd dx
10 7
47. interval f0, 2g?
2 2
(a) f sxd ­ x 2 sin x
y f sxd dx 2 y f sxd dx 1 y f sxd dx
5 0 6
48. (b) f sxd ­ sec x

H
23 23 5
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ x 1 1 if 0 ø x , 1
(c) f sxd ­
2 2 x if 1 ø x ø 2

H
49–54 |||| Use the properties of integrals to verify the inequality
without evaluating the integrals. sx 1 1d22 if x ± 1
(d) f sxd ­
1 if x ­ 1
y sin 3 x dx ø y
py4 py4
49. sin 2 x dx 70. Let
0 0

50.

51.
y
y
1

4
2

6
s5 2 x dx ù y sx 1 1 dx

1
x
dx ø y
4
6 1
82x
dx
2

1
1
f std ­ x
0
H if 0 , x ø 1

if x ­ 0

(a) Show that f is not continuous on f0, 1g.

p p
ø y sin x dx ø (b) Show that f is unbounded on f0, 1g.
p y2
52.
6 p y6 3 (c) Show that x01 f sxd dx does not exist, that is, f is not inte-
grable on f0, 1g. [Hint: Show that the first term in the
y
1
53. 2 ø s1 1 x 2 dx ø 2 s2 Riemann sum, fsx *1 d D x 1, can be made arbitrarily large.]
21
 SECTION 3 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL ❙❙❙❙ A27

71. Let
; 74. (a) Draw the graph of the function f sxd ­ cossx d in the view-
2

f sxd ­ H
0 if x is rational
1 if x is irrational
ing rectangle f0, 2g by f21, 1g.
(b) If we define a new function t by tsxd ­ x0x coss t 2 d dt, then
tsxd is the area under the graph of f from 0 to x [until f sxd
Show that f is bounded but not integrable on fa, bg.
becomes negative, at which point tsxd becomes a difference
[Hint: Show that, no matter how small i P i is, some Riemann
of areas.] Use the graph of f from part (a) to estimate the
sums are 0 whereas others are equal to b 2 a.]
value of tsxd when x ­ 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, . . . up to x ­ 2.
72. Evaluate x12 x 3 dx using a partition of f1, 2g by points of a At what value of x does tsxd start to decrease?
geometric progression: x0 ­ 1, x1 ­ 21yn, x2 ­ 2 2yn, . . . , (c) Use the information from part (a) to sketch a rough graph
xi ­ 2 iyn, . . . , xn ­ 2 nyn ­ 2. Take x*i ­ xi and use the of t.
formula in Exercise 47 in Section 1 for the sum of a (d) Sketch a more accurate graph of t by using your calcu-
geometric series. lator or computer to estimate ts0.2d, ts0.4d, . . . . (Use the
integration command, if available, or the Midpoint
73. Find x12 x 22 dx. Hint: Use a regular partition but choose x*i to Rule.)
be the geometric mean of x i21 and x i (x*i ­ sx i21 x i ) and use (e) Use your graph of t from part (d) to sketch the graph of t9
the identity using the interpretation of t9sxd as the slope of a tangent
1 1 1 line. How does the graph of t9 compare with the graph
­ 2 of f ?
msm 1 1d m m11